Diploma

Ronald Fabrice P. Kamdem

M.Eng (cum laude) – Civil Engineering
PhD Candidate
Pr Eng ECSA Candidate

Kamdem.fabrice@mut.ac.za
 UNIT I

PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE

 CONTENT
▪ Introduction
▪ Coefficient of Permeability (𝑘)
▪ Seepage Velocity 𝑣𝑠
▪ Determination of 𝑘 Value - Constant Head Test
▪ Determination of 𝑘 Value - Falling Head Test
▪ Field Pimping Tests
▪ Flow Nets
▪ Prevention of Piping
 INTRODUCTION
✓ The voids of a soil or of most rocks are connected together and
connected together and form a continuous passageways for the
movement of water rainfall infiltration, transpiration of plants, variation of
intensity of dissolved salt, etc.

✓ When rainfall falls on the soil surface, some of the water infiltrates the
surface and percolates downward through the soil. During the flow, some
of the water is held in the voids in the aerated zone and the remainder
reaches the ground water table and the saturation zone. In the saturated
zone, flow is said to be unsaturated. Below the water table, flow is said to
be saturated to be saturated.

✓ The water within the voids of soil also known as pore water, is not in a
state of rest, but flows through the soil. Thus, the flow of water through
the soil is known as seepage. The extend of seepage depend on the
porosity of the soil and the hydrostatic static head (𝐻) inducing the flow.
Fig 1.1 shows the example of this type.
 INTRODUCTION
✓ Permeability is necessary for the calculation of seepage through earth
dams or under sheet pile walls, the calculation of seepage rate from waste
storage facilities (landfills, ponds, etc..), and the calculation of rate of
settlement of clayey soil.
✓ Geotechnical and civil engineers, hydrogeologists, and soil and
environmental scientists use this information for projects such as
structural foundations, embankments, earthen dams, flood management,
effluent infiltration, and more.
✓ N.B:
The coefficient of permeability is often referred to as hydraulic conductivity
by hydrologist and environmental scientist
 FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL PERMEABILITY

Fig 1.1
✓ The characteristic of the soil which enable water to permeate it is called
permeability.
✓ The quantity which measures the permeability of the soil is called the coefficient of
permeability “𝑲“ and it significantly varies according to the following factors:
▪ The density - the density of the soil varies according to the void ratio and the
porosity of the material. The higher the density, the lower the porosity, hence
low permeability and vice versa.
▪ Particle size distribution - Larger grain mean larger permeability and vice
versa.
▪ The soil structure – soil layers are more permeable horizontally than vertically.
▪ Soil discontinuity – fissures, cracks in clay or joints in rocks or intrusion of
different soil can increase their permeability
▪ The degree of saturation.
 DARCY’S LAW
✓ In 1856, Darcy conducted experimental studies and showed that a fluid’s
velocity of flow through porous medium is directly related to the hydraulic
gradient causing the flow:
𝑄= flow rate (𝑚3 /𝑠)
𝐿= Length of specimen (𝑚)
ℎ = ℎ1 − ℎ2 = head loss (𝑚)
𝐴 = Cross sectional area of the specimen
(𝑚2 )

Fig 1.2. Darcy Experiment of Flow of Water

through Sand
 DARCY’S LAW
Darcy’s Law

✓ It expresses the discharge velocity 𝑣:

▪ 𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖 (𝑚/𝑠)

Where:
ℎ
▪ 𝑖 = hydraulic gradient given by: 𝑖 = (unitless) and
𝐿
𝑣
▪ 𝑘= (m/s)
𝑖

Therefore, the flow rate 𝑄 is given by:

▪ 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴𝑘𝑖 (𝑚3 /𝑠)

𝑄
From which 𝑘 = (m/s)
𝐴𝑖
✓ N.B:
The coefficient of permeability (𝑘) is often referred to as hydraulic
conductivity by hydrologist and environmental scientist
 SEEPAGE VELOCITY
✓ The cross-sectional area through which water permeates, depends on the void
ratio or the porosity of the soil. Therefore, the seepage velocity 𝑣𝑠 is given by:

1+𝑒
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑣 (𝑚/𝑠),
𝑒

Where:

𝑒 = void ratio
𝑣 = discharge velocity
 DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF
PERMEABILITY (𝒌)
✓ The coefficient of permeability may be obtained either by
laboratory of field test methods of which the later is more
representative of the actual in-situ condition.
✓ The standard laboratory and in-situ tests are:
(1) Constant head permeameter test
(2) Falling head permeameter test
(3) Field Pumping test
(4) Borehole test
(5) Consolidation test

✓ The constant head test method is used for cohesionless soils

which include gravel and sandy soils and more permeable soils
(k>10-4 cm/s).

✓the falling head test is mainly used for cohesive or less permeable
soils (k<10-4 cm/s) which include silt and clayed soils.
 DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF
PERMEABILITY (𝒌)

THE CONSTANT HEAD TEST

✓ In constant head permeameter test:

𝑄𝐿 𝑞𝐿 𝑄
𝑘= (𝑚/𝑠) or 𝑘 = (𝑚/𝑠) or 𝑘 =
𝐴ℎ 𝐴ℎ𝑡 𝐴𝑖
✓ Where:
ℎ = Head loss between two points along the length of the sample
𝐿 = Length of the pipe sample (𝑚)
𝑄 =Flow rate (𝑚3 )
𝑞 = Volume of water collected (𝑚3 ) over 𝑡 seconds
𝐴 = Cross sectional area (𝑚2 )
𝑖 = Hydraulic gradient

✓ Remember:

ℎ 𝑞
𝑖= and 𝑄 =
𝑙 𝑡

✓ The seepage velocity also referred as average velocity of flow is determined

from:

𝑞
 DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF
PERMEABILITY (𝒌)
THE FALLING HEAD TEST

✓ In falling head permeameter test:

𝑎𝐿 ℎ1 𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑘= 𝑙𝑛 or 𝑘 = 2.3 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝐴𝑡 ℎ2 𝐴𝑡 ℎ2

✓ Where:
𝐴 = Cross sectional area of the sample
𝑎 = Cross sectional area of the stand-pipe
𝐿 = Length of the sample
ℎ1 = Water level in the stand-pipe at time 𝑡1
ℎ2 = Water level in the stand-pipe at time 𝑡2
 DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF
PERMEABILITY (𝒌)

THE FIELD PUMPING TEST

✓ A stratum of sandy soil overlies a horizontal bed of impermeable material, the
surface of which also horizontal. In order to determine the in-situ permeability
of the soil, a test was driven to the bottom of the stratum (see Fig. 1.3).

Fig. 1.3 In-Situ Permeability Test

 DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF
PERMEABILITY (𝒌)

THE PUMPING OUT TEST

✓ Two observation boreholes were made at distances 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 respectively from
the test well. Water was pumped from the test well at the rate of 𝑄 (𝑚3 /𝑠)until
the water level became steady. The heights of the water in the two bore holes
were then found to be 𝑍1 (𝑚) and 𝑍2 (𝑚) above the impermeable bed. The
coefficient of permeability of the sandy soil is determined from the derived
formula below.
𝑞 𝑟2
2.3 𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑟
1
𝑘=
𝜋(𝑧22 − 𝑧12 )
 TYPICAL VALUES OF COEFFICIENT OF
PERMEABILITY (𝒌)
✓ The standard representative values for the coefficient of permeability of
particular soil are as follow:

▪ Gravel > 10−1 𝑚/𝑠

▪ Sands 10−1 𝑚/𝑠 to 10−5 𝑚/𝑠
▪ Fine sands, coarse silts 10−5 𝑚/𝑠 to 10−7 𝑚/𝑠
▪ Silts 10−7 𝑚/𝑠 to 10−9 𝑚/𝑠
▪ Clays < 10−9 𝑚/𝑠
 VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL COEFFICIENT OF
PERMEABILITY (𝒌)
✓ A soil profile is normally made up of several layers, each having its own
coefficient of vertical 𝑘𝑉 and horizontal 𝑘𝐻 permeability
✓ The equivalent horizontal permeability is given by:
1 1
𝑘𝐻 = 𝐻 σ 𝑘𝑧 = 𝐻 (𝑘1 𝑍1 + 𝑘2 𝑍2 + 𝑘3 𝑍3 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑛 𝑍𝑛 )

✓ The equivalent vertical permeability is given by:

𝐻 𝐻
𝑘𝑉 = =𝑧 𝑧2 𝑧3 𝑧𝑛
𝑍 1
+ + + ⋯ +
σ( ) 𝑘 𝑘2 𝑘3 𝑘𝑛
𝐻 1

✓A vertical permeability (𝑘𝑉 ) may indicate the flow of fluid toward the gravity;
Whereas a horizontal permeability (𝑘𝐻 ) may indicate the flow of fluid
perpendicular to the gravity.
✓ N.B:
Theoretically, the average horizon permeability 𝑘𝐻 is always greater
than the average vertical permeability 𝑘𝑉 .
 FLOW NETS
✓Flow nets are used to determine the rate at which water is lost from a reservoir
system (dam), and the magnitude of the seepage pressure which may cause the
possibility of instability of the soil.
✓ A flow of water through a soil can be represented graphically by a flow net, a
form of curvilinear net made up of a set of flow lines intersected by a set of
equipotential lines.
✓ Flow Lines: The paths which water particles follow in the course of seepage.
✓ Equipotential Lines: As the water moves along the flow lines it experiences a
continuous loss of heads. It is possible to obtain the heads causing flow and by
joining up points of equal potential which forms a second set of lines known as
equipotential lines.

Fig. 1.4 Flow nets for seepage beneath a dam

 CALCULATION OF SEEPAGE QUANTITY FROM A
FLOW NETS

✓ Flow net are used to determine the rate of loss of water from a reservoir
directly leading to the instability of the soil.

𝑁𝑓 𝑁𝑓
𝑞 = 𝑘ℎ or 𝑄 = 𝑘ℎ𝑙
𝑁𝑒 𝑁𝑒

Where:
𝑄 = Flow rate (volume/time)
𝑙 = length of the concrete structure
𝑞 = Total unit flow per unit length
𝑘 = Coefficient of permeability (length/time)
ℎ = Pressure head (height)
𝑁𝑓 = Number of flow paths
𝑁𝑒 = Number of equipotential drops
 CALCULATION OF SEEPAGE QUANTITY FROM A
FLOW NETS
Example 1
a) The proposed dam shown in Fig. 1.4 is 90m long, 9 m deep and the
coefficient of permeability of the soil is 0.0013mm/s. find the quantity of water
that will be lost per day by seepage.

Fig. 1.4 Flow nets

 SEEPAGE PRESSURE
✓ The exerted seepage pore pressure at any point in the soil under the structure
may be determined using the relevant general equation:

𝑈𝑋 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑋 (𝐾𝑁/𝑚2 )

✓ The pressure head (ℎ𝑋 ) at a point x is expressed as:

ℎ𝑋 = 𝐻𝑇 − 𝐻𝑋 (𝑚)

Where:
𝐻𝑇 is the total head (𝑚)
𝐻𝑋 is the head loss up to a point x

✓ The head loss up to a point x is found through the following equation:

𝑁𝑋
𝐻𝑥 = 𝐻
𝑁𝑒
Where:
𝑁𝑋 = Number of squares between point X and the tailwater end
𝑁𝑒 = Number of equipotential lines
H = Head loss
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT AND SEEPAGE FORCE
✓ Hydraulic Gradient
The hydraulic gradient may be defined as the head loss in seepage over a certain
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒
distance: 𝑖 = 𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Therefore the hydraulic gradient for each square of a flow net is expressed as:

ℎ1 − ℎ2
𝑖=
𝑎
Where
ℎ1 − ℎ2 = the head loss in seepage
𝑎 = distance between two equipotential lines (EPLs).
✓ Seepage Force
The seepage force exerted on the soil by seeping water is expressed as:
𝑆 = 𝑖𝛾𝑤 𝑉 (𝐾𝑁/𝑚)
Where
V is the volume of soil through which the average hydraulic gradient 𝑖 is known.
 SEEPAGE FORCES
✓ Whenever water flows through a certain volume of soil, the seepage force is exerted
(as in quick sand). In Figure 7 the excess head (ℎ𝐿 ) is used to force water through
the soil voids over a length (L).

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 = ℎ𝐿 𝛾𝑤 𝐴

✓ The upward force ℎ𝐿 𝛾𝑚 𝐴 represent the seepage force.

✓ In the case of uniform flow, it is assumed to flow

uniformly throughout the volume of the soil.
ℎ𝑙 𝛾𝑤 𝐴
𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = = i𝛾𝑤
𝐴𝐿

Fig 1.6. Force within the

soil due to upward water
flow
 SEEPAGE FORCES
✓ The downward forces = Buoyant unit weight x Volume
𝐺𝑠 −1
𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 𝛾𝑤 𝐴𝐿
1+𝑒

✓ The Critical Hydraulic Gradient

The critical hydraulic gradient takes place when
Downward force = Upward force.
or
𝐺𝑠 −1 ℎ 𝐺𝑠 −1
ℎ𝐿 𝛾𝑚 𝐴 = 𝛾𝑤 1+𝑒 𝐴𝐿 → 𝑙 = 1+𝑒

✓ The Factor of Safety

𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
F𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 = 𝑈𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠

Fig 1.7. Force within the soil due

to downward water flow
 PREVENTION OF PIPING
✓ Fig 1.8b and 1.8b shows water structures where risk of piping can occur.

Fig 1.8a. Cofferdam Fig 1.8b. Downstream end of a Dam

✓ Piping also known as “boiling” or “quicksand” is the erosion of soil due to seepage.
The upward flow of water in fine sand soil and at a high velocity which significantly
reduces its bearing capacity, therefore, resulting in its inability to support any
structures. The classic example on piping is a sheet wall in Fig 1.8a.
✓ in In order to increase the factor of safety against piping (failure) in these cases,
two methods can be adopted by:
➢ Placing filter material over the area affected.
➢ Increasing the depth of the sheet pile at the heel of the dam or installing sheet
piles at one or both ends of the concrete of a concrete dam. In either case there is
an increase in the length of flow path of water which result in dropping the excess
pressure at the critical section.
➢ Installing toe drainage to shorten the flow lines.
➢ Constructing concrete apron at the upstream and downstream of the dam to
lengthen the flow lines
 PREVENTION OF PIPING
Example 2:
To decrease the loss found in Example 1, sheet piles were driven in at toe of the
dam to a depth of 5.8m, as shown in Fig.1.5, and an impervious apron
constructed at the heel 6m wide. What will be the loss of water per day when
these measures are taken?

Solution:
a) Q = 57 mᵌ/day
Fig. 1.5 Flow nets b) Q = 32 mᵌ/day
ANY QUESTIONS??