How is DNA information used in the cell?

Information, by itself, does nothing, although the sequence of bases in the DNA -
the "molecular blueprint" of every cell - contains an incredible amount of
information, DNA by itself cannot perform any action.

Most genes contain the information necessary

for the synthesis of a single protein.

Biologists discovered that almost all genes contain the information needed to
direct the synthesis of a single protein.
Proteins are the "molecular workers" of the cell.
DNA
DNA provides the intructions for protein synthesis through RNA intermediates.
DNA cannot directly guide protein synthesis: it needs an intermediary, a
molecule that carries the DNA information from the nucleus to the ribosomes in
the cytoplasm. This molecule is ribonucleic acid, or RNA.
DNA encodes the synthesis of many types of RNAs, three of which serve
specific functions in the of which have specific functions in protein synthesis:
messenger RNA (RNA) and protein synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA),
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and transfer RNA (transfer RNA). and transfer RNA
(tRNA).

RNA
RNA is similar to DNA but has three structural
differences: (1) it is usually single-stranded, (2) it has
the sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose in the strand,
and (3) it has the base uracil instead of the base
thymine.

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 Messenger RNA

The sequence of bases in the mRNA carries the information for the amino acid
sequence of a protein; groups of these bases, called codons, specify the amino
acids.

Messenger RNA carries the amino

acid sequence code of a protein
from DNA to ribosomes, which
synthesize the protein specified by
the mRNA base sequence.

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Ribosomal RNA

The rRNA combines with proteins to form ribosomes; the minor subunit binds to the
mRNA. The major subunit binds to tRNA and catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds
between amino acids during protein synthesis.

Ribosomes are structures that

perform translation; they are
composed of rRNA and many
different proteins.

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 Transfer RNA

Transfer RNA delivers the appropriate amino acids to the ribosome for
incorporation into a protein.
Complementary base pairing between mRNA codons and tRNA anticodons directs
the correct amino acids to be used to synthesize a protein.

The anticodon of the tRNA is

paired with a codon of the mRNA,
so that the correct amino acid is
incorporated into the protein.

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How are genes regulated?

The entire human genome contains 20,000 to 25,000 genes. Each gene is
present in almost every cell of the body, but each cell expresses only a
fraction.
Regulation of gene expression occurs at the level of transcription,
translation or protein activity.

1. Gene regulation in prokaryotes

Prokaryotic DNA is organized into packages called operons, in which

genes of related functions are deposited next to each other. An operon
consists of:

1.1. A regulatory gene

Which controls the timing or rate of transcription of other

genes

1.2. A promoter

Which RNA polymerase recognizes as the site where

transcription begins

1.3. An operator

Which regulates access by RNA polymerase to the

promoter; or

1.4. Structural genes

Which encode related enzymes or other proteins.

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2. Gene regulation in eukaryotes

The regulation of eukaryotic genes resembles in some respects the

regulation of prokaryotic genes. In both, not all genes are transcribed and
translated all the time. In addition, an important mechanism of the
regulation of the two genes is the control of the rate of transcription.

2.1. Cells can control the frequency at

which a gene is transcribed.

The rate at which genes transcribe specific genes depends on the

demand for the protein or RNA product they encode.
 2.2. The same gene serves to produce
different mRNA and protein products.

Different protein products can be made from the same gene,

depending on how the pre-mRNA is cleaved to form the mature Mrna
that will be translated into ribosomes.

2.3. Cells can control the stability and

translation of messenger RNA.

Some mRNAs are very translated into proteins many times; others
are translated very little and then are translated only a few times
and then degraded.

2.4. Proteins may need modification to

perform their functions.
Many proteins must
to perform theirbe modified to become active. For example,
functions.
enzymes that protein-digesting enzymes produced by the stomach
walls and the pancreas and the pancreas are originally synthesized
in an inactive form, which inactive form, which prevents these
enzymes from digesting the cells that produce them.
the cells that produce them.

2.5. Cells can control the rate at

which proteins are degraded.

Proteins are degraded. By preventing or promoting the degradation

of a protein, a cell can quickly adjust the amount of the protein it
contains.
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- Operon. An operon is defined as a functional genetic unit formed by a
complex group of genes capable of exerting regulation of their own
expression by means of the substrates with which the proteins encoded by
their genes interact.
- Gene. A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes
are made up of DNA. Some genes act as instructions to produce molecules
called proteins.
- Regulation. A process used to control the timing, location, and level of gene
expression.
- Genome. Set formed by the genetic material of the DNA of the
chromosomes and mitochondria.
- Operator. Another control element that is a region of DNA with a sequence
that is recognized by the regulatory protein.
- Synthesis. The process of metabolism by which biomolecules are produced
from simpler molecules.
- Transcription. Is the first process of gene expression, by which the
information contained in the DNA sequence is transferred to the protein
sequence using various RNAs as intermediaries.