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Chapter 12:
DNA contains two nucleotides with purine bases (double-ring)
Adenine (A) and Guanine (G) and two nucleotides with pyrimidine
bases (single-ring) Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C), Each nucleotide
consists of deoxyribose + phosphate group + nitrogen-containing base
Chargaff’s Rules: the amount of adenine (A) is equal to thymine (T),
and the amount of guanine (G) is equal to cytosine (C)
X-Ray Diffraction of DNA
• Rosalind Franklin found that if a concentrated, viscous solution
of DNA is made, it can be separated into fibers and diffract
x-rays, and her work provided evidence that DNA is a double
helix and some portion of the helix is repeated
The Watson and Crick Model
• Watson and Crick constructed a double-helix model of DNA
from Franklin’s X-ray diffraction similar to a twisted ladder
o sugar-phosphate backbones make up the sides
o Hydrogen-bonded bases make up the rungs ‘steps’
o The two DNA strands are antiparallel
• To fit the X-ray data, the two chains must run in opposite
directions and One strand runs 5′to 3′, while the other runs 3′ to
5′ (DNA strand is made in a 5′ to 3′ direction)
DNA replication: a semiconservative process of copying a DNA
molecule which is done in 3 steps:
1. Unwinding or separation of the original double helix strands by
DNA helicase enzyme
o SSB attach to separated DNA to prevent helix re-forming
2. Complementary base pairing between a new nucleotide and a
nucleotide on the template strand
o DNA primase places short primers on the strands to be
replicated and DNA Polymerase recognizes RNA and
begins DNA synthesis
 3. Joining complementary nucleotides join to form new strands
o Joining of nucleotides in the lagging strand by DNA ligase
form the new strand by DNA polymerase enzyme
Prokaryotic Replication:
• Replication moves around the circular DNA molecule to yield
tow identical circles and stops when two DNA polymerases
meet at a termination region

Eukaryotic Replication
• DNA replication begins at many origins of replication, DNA
unwinds into two strands and each old strand of DNA serves as
a template for a new strand, then replication bubbles spread bi-
directionally until they meet
• linear chromosomes poses a problem in replication:
o DNA polymerase cannot replicate the ends of
chromosomes that contain telomeres so instead, telomerase
enzymes add the telomere after chromosome replication

Accuracy of Replication
• DNA polymerase is very accurate, it can remove mismatched
nucleotides by proofreading
 The mechanism of gene expression
• DNA in genes specify information, and this information is
expressed into structure and function through protein synthesis
• DNA in gene controls the sequence of nucleotides in an RNA
molecule and RNA controls the primary structure of a protein
Ribonucleic acid (RNA): a single-stranded polymer of nucleotides
that contains the sugar ribose, and the base uracil instead of
thymine (in addition to C, G, and A)
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) :takes a message from DNA in
the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm
• Transfer RNA (tRNA): transfers amino acids to ribosomes
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) :along with ribosomal proteins,
make up ribosomes, where proteins are synthesize
The Genetic Code
• consists of codons each 3 letters codon code for an amino acid
• Properties of the Genetic Code
o Degenerate
▪ Most amino acids encoded by two or more codons
o Unambiguous
▪ Each codon code for one amino acid
o Contains start and stop signals
Synthesis of polypeptides
• Transcription
o is the process in which a gene's DNA sequence is copied to
make an mRNA molecule, where RNA polymerase
connects the loose RNA nucleotides together in the 5′ to 3′
direction after the DNA helix unwinds
o Transcription and elongation begins when RNA
polymerase binds to promoter sequence
o RNA polymerase uses one of the DNA strands (template
strand) as a template to make a complementary mRNA
• Translation
o takes place in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells
o tRNA: a single stranded ribonucleic acid that doubles
back on itself to create regions where complementary
bases are hydrogen-bonded to one another
o rRNA: Produced from a DNA template in the nucleolus
of a nucleus and packaged with proteins into large and
small ribosomal subunit
o all translation steps required enzymes
o Steps of translation:
▪ Initiation: the ribosome gets together with the mRNA
and the first tRNA so translation can begin
 initiation factors: Components necessary for
initiation needed to start translation
 Small ribosomal subunit
 mRNA transcript
 Initiator tRNA (has the UAC anticodon,
carries the amino acid methionine,
Capable of binding to the P site of
ribosome)
 Large ribosomal subunit
 Each ribosome contains three binding sites
 E for exit, P for peptide, A for amino acid
 The initiator tRNA binds to the P site, the A
site is for the next tRNA carrying the next
amino acid, the E site is to discharge tRNAs
from the ribosome
 Initiation steps

▪ Elongation: amino acids are brought to the ribosome

by tRNAs and linked together to form a chain
 Elongation factors: proteins that facilitate
complementary base pairing between tRNA
anticodon and mRNA codon at the ribosome
 Translocation: occurs with mRNA, along with
peptide-bearing tRNA, moving to the P site
Elongation steps
▪ Termination: the finished polypeptide is released to
go and do its job in the cell
 polypeptide synthesis stops at a STOP codon
(UAA, UAG, or UGA)
 release factor: protein binds to the stop codon
and cleaves the polypeptide from the last tRNA
 after cleavage ribosome releases the mRNA
and the released polypeptide begins to take on
its 3D shape
Termination steps
Summary