Scand J Med Sci Sports 2004: 14: 156–162
Printed in Denmark . All rights reserved
DOI: 10.1046/j.1600-0838.2003.00349.x
Muscle temperature and sprint performance during soccer
matches – beneficial effect of re-warm-up at half-time
M. Mohr, P. Krustrup, L. Nybo, J. J. Nielsen, J. Bangsbo
Department of Human Physiology, Institute of Exercise and Sport Sciences, August Krogh Institute, University of Copenhagen,
Universitetsparken 13, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
Corresponding author: Jens Bangsbo, Department of Human Physiology, Institute of Exercise and Sport Sciences, August
Krogh Institute, Universitetsparken 13, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark. Tel: 145 35 32 16 22, Fax: 145 35 32 16 57,
E-mail: jbangsbo@aki.ku.dk
Accepted for publication 23 June 2003
The relationship between quadriceps muscle temperature
(Tm) and sprint performance was evaluated during soccer
matches in 25 competitive players. In one game, Tm was
determined frequently (n 5 9). In another game, eight
players performed low-intensity activities at half-time
(re-warm-up, (RW), whereas another eight players recov-
ered passively (CON). Tm was 36.070.2 1C at rest and
increased (Po0.05) to 39.470.2 1C before the game and
remained unaltered during the first half. At half-time, Tm
decreased (Po0.05) to 37.470.2 1C, but increased
(Po0.05) to 39.270.2 1C during the second half. In CON
and RW, Tm and core temperature (Tc) were similar before
Top-class soccer players, referees and assistant
referees perform less high-intensity running in the
initial phase of the second half compared with the
first half of a match (Krustrup & Bangsbo, 2001;
Krustrup et al., 2002; Mohr et al., 2003). It is
unknown whether this is due to tactical aspects,
fatigue or lack of physical preparation for the second
half. In professional soccer, players usually warm up
for 30–40 min prior to the match, whereas no or little
physical activity is performed during half-time. This
probably leads to a major decrease in body
temperatures at half-time, and it has been suggested
to, in part, cause the lowered activity of soccer
players in the initial phase of the second half
(Bangsbo, 1994b). Rectal temperatures of soccer
players have been measured at half-time and after
matches (Smodlaka, 1978; Ekblom, 1986), but
muscle temperatures have not been determined
before and repeatedly during a soccer game. In a
study of assistant referees, it was observed that the
muscle temperature decreased by 1.5 1C at half-time
and the muscle temperature before the second half
was about 1 1C lower than prior to the first half
(Krustrup et al., 2002). The differences in muscle
temperatures between the two halves may be even
larger for soccer players, since the average work rate
156
COPYRIGHT & BLACKWELL MUNKSGAARD 2004 ·
and after the first half, but 2.170.1 and 0.970.1 1C higher
(Po0.05), respectively, in RW prior to the second half. At
the onset of the second half, the sprint performance was
reduced (Po0.05) by 2.4% in CON, but unchanged in RW.
The decrease in Tm was correlated to the decrease in
performance (r 5 0.60, Po0.05, n 5 16). This study de-
monstrates that in soccer, the decline in Tm and Tc during
half-time is associated with a lowered sprint capacity at the
onset of the second half, whereas sprint performance is
maintained when low-intensity activities preserve muscle
temperature.
and body temperatures are higher for the players
than for match officials (Ekblom, 1986; Bangsbo,
1994a; Krustrup & Bangsbo, 2001; Krustrup et al.,
2002; Mohr et al., 2003). Several studies have
demonstrated a beneficial effect of heating the
muscles prior to high-intensity exercise in humans
(Asmussen & Bje, 1945; Bergh & Ekblom, 1979;
Sargeant, 1987; Houmnad et al., 1991; Stewart &
Sleivert, 1998). It is, however, unclear whether the
sprint performance of soccer players is reduced at
half-time and whether an active re-warm-up at half-
time affects the ability to perform repeated intense
exercise at the start of the second half. Another
interesting aspect is that it has been demonstrated
that top-class soccer players have a marked decline
in the amount of high-intensity exercise in the last
15 min of the second half, indicating that they
experience fatigue towards the end of a game (Mohr
et al., 2003). However, it is yet to be examined
whether muscle and body temperature are altered
towards the end of a soccer match and whether these
are related to the ability to perform high-intensity
exercise.
Thus, the aims of the present study were to (i)
study the fluctuations in muscle and core tempera-
ture during a soccer match, and (ii) examine whether
 Muscle temperature and sprint performance in soccer
the sprint performance during a soccer match is
reduced and related to changes in the muscle and
core temperature. In order to address the second
aim, a group of players carried out a period of re-
warm-up at half-time.
Materials and methods
Subjects
The present study contains two separated parts (PI and PII).
The aim of PI was to determine muscle temperature frequent-
ly during a soccer game. Nine soccer players competing in
the Danish Fourth Division (27.071.5 (7SEM) years,
181.071.8 cm and 81.171.2 kg) participated in PI. The
purpose of PII was to examine whether a relationship existed
between muscle and core temperature and sprint performance
during a soccer game. Sixteen soccer players also competing in
the Danish Fourth Division took part in PII. To examine the
effect of performing a warm-up procedure before the second
half on muscle temperature and performance, the players in
PII were randomly divided into two groups that either per-
formed re-warm-up (RW, n 5 8; 26.070.5 years, 181.87
1.8 cm and 76.873.3 kg) or had little physical activities
(normal routines) at half-time (CON, n 5 8; 25.871.4 years,
183.171.9 cm and 76.271.5 kg). The players in PI and PII
were representing four playing positions (goalkeeper, n 5 1;
defenders, n 5 8; midfield players, n 5 10 and attackers, n 5 6).
All the subjects were fully informed of any risks and dis-
comforts associated with the experiment before giving their
informed consent to participate. The study was approved by
the local ethics committee according to the code of Ethics of the
World Medical Association (Declaration of Helsinki 1975).
Experimental protocol
In PI, the players took part in a friendly match. The players
carried out the same routines as in competitive matches with a
thorough warm-up period (B35 min) before the match ending
5 min before the game they had only physical activities at a
very low intensity at half-time. The quadriceps muscle tem-
perature (Tm) was measured at rest, immediately before the
game and 5, 15 and 45 min into both halves as well as 10 min
into the half-time period and 15 min after the game. To
determine Tm during the game, the player was taken out of the
game for approximately 45 s and replaced by a substitute player.
In PII, the players also took part in a friendly game. The
players in CON performed a similar preparation as described
for the players in PI, whereas the players in RW carried out an
active warm-up at half-time. The players in RW recovered
passively during the first 7 min of the interval. In the next
7 min, they carried out running and other exercises at a
moderate intensity (average heart rate B135 beats min 1 or
B70% of the peak heart rate reached during the game),
finishing B1 min before the start of the second half. In both
the groups, Tm and core temperature (Tc) were measured at
rest as well as immediately before and after each half. The
players performed a repeated sprint test (see below) before
and immediately after each half of the game. In both PI and
PII, the heart rates were recorded at 5-s intervals throughout
the game by Polar Vantage NV heart rate monitors weighing
B100 g (Polar, Kempele, Finland). The net fluid loss during
the match was determined by weighing the players with-
out clothes immediately before and after the game using
a platform scale (model 1-10, OHAUS, Pine Brook, NJ,
USA). The players were allowed to drink water during the
match and the fluid intake was measured. The total fluid loss
during the game was determined by adding the fluid intake to
the actual weight loss.
Sprint test
In PII, the players carried out a repeated sprint test. The test
consisted of three 30-m sprints separated by a 25-s active
recovery period during which the players jogged back to the
start line. The sprint times were recorded by infrared light
sensors, having a precision of 0.01 s (Time It, Eleiko Sport,
Halmstad, Sweden). All the players were familiarised with the
test about 1 week before the experimental day. The sprint test
lasted B65 s, i.e., three sprints lasting B5 s each interspersed
with two 25-s active recovery periods. Two sprint test set-ups
were used to sprint test all the players before the match. The
test prior to the second half was initiated immediately after
the warm-up (B5 min before the start of the match). In the
test at the end of the first and second halves, the first players
were taken out of the game and tested 3–4 min before the end
of the half to be able to test all the players at half-time. All the
players were tested within 60 s after their individual termina-
tion of play. At half-time, each player was tested exactly
15 min after the test performed at the end of the first half.
Measurements
Muscle temperature
Tm was measured in the medial part of m. vastus lateralis by a
needle thermistor (MKA08050-A, Ellab A/S, Rdovre, Den-
mark), having a precision of 0.1 1C. The temperature was
measured at a depth of B3 cm, adjusting for the thickness of
the skin using a Harpenden skinfold caliper (British Indicators
Ltd., UK). All thermistors were afterwards calibrated against
a mercury thermometer.
Core temperature
Tc was measured in the rectum at a depth of B2 cm using an
electronic clinical rectal thermometer (Philips, HF 365,
China), having a precision of 0.01 1C. The rectal thermo-
meters were afterwards calibrated against a mercury thermo-
meter.
Statistics
The changes in temperatures, sprint performance and heart
rates during the game were evaluated by a one-way analysis
of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures. A two-way
ANOVA with repeated measurements was used to compare
RW and CON. When a significant interaction was detected,
data were subsequently analysed using a Newman–Keuls post
hoc test. The differences in temperatures between playing
positions were tested using a one-way ANOVA. In addition,
Student’s unpaired t-test was used to test the differences in
aerobic loading between games as well as between RW and
CON. The correlation coefficients were determined and tested
for significance using Pearson’s product–moment test. The
significance level was set to Po0.05. Values are presented as
means7SEM.
Results
Heart rate
The mean heart rate for the players in PI and PII
was 16073 and 16272 beats min 1, respectively,
157
Mohr et al.
corresponding to 8571% and 8671% of the peak
heart rate reached during the match. The average
heart rate for the entire sample of players was higher
(Po0.05) in the first than in the second half (16471
vs. 15871 beats min 1) as well as during the first
5 and 15 min of the first- compared with the second
half (16971 vs. 15971 and 16771 vs. 16071
beats min 1, respectively; Po0.05). No differences
were found in the average heart rate between games
(PI and PII) or between CON and RW in PII.
Muscle temperature
In PI, the muscle temperature (Tm) was 36.070.2 1C
at rest and increased (Po0.05) to 39.470.2 1C after
the warm-up prior to the match. At the end of the
first half, Tm was 39.470.1 1C, and it decreased
(Po0.05) to 38.070.2 and 37.770.1 1C after 10 and
15 min of passive recovery at half-time, respectively.
Tm was 1.770.2 1C lower (Po0.05) before the
second half than prior to the first half and also, after
5 min in the second half, Tm was lower (Po0.05)
than in the first half (39.670.2 vs. 39.070.2 1C,
respectively). In contrast, no difference existed be-
tween halves after 15 min of play (39.570.1 and
39.570.1 1C). At the end of the second half, Tm was
39.270.1 1C and 15 min after the game it had
decreased (Po0.05) to 37.470.2 1C (Fig. 1).
In PII, Tm in CON was lower (Po0.05) before the
second half than prior to and at the end of the first
half (37.770.2 vs. 39.170.2 and 39.770.2 1C; Fig. 2).
In RW, Tm prior to the second half (39.270.2 1C)
was the same as before and at the end of the first half
(39.070.1 and 39.770.2 1C, respectively). Before the
second half, Tm was 1.5 1C higher (Po0.05) in RW
than in CON (39.270.2 vs. 37.770.2 1C), whereas at
the end of the match no differences existed between
RW and CON (Fig. 2).
Fig. 1. Muscle temperature of field players during a soccer
match (n 5 8). Means7SEM. #: denotes significant differ-
ence between the first and second halves (Po0.05).
158
Fig. 2. Muscle (circles) and rectal (triangles) temperatures
during a soccer match with (RW, open symbols; n 5 8) or
without (CON, closed symbols; n 5 8) re-warm-up at half-
time. Means7SEM.*: significant difference between CON
and RW; #: significant difference from before the first half
(Po0.05).
Core temperature
In CON, Tc at rest was 37.270.1 1C, which was
lower (Po0.05) than after the warm-up before the
match (38.270.1 1C; Fig. 2). During the first half, Tc
increased (Po0.05) to 38.970.1 1C in CON, but
decreased (Po0.05) to 37.870.1 1C during the 15-
min half-time period. In RW, Tc was 37.370.0 1C at
rest and increased (Po0.05) to 38.170.1 1C after
the warm-up before the first half. Tc increased
(Po0.05) further to 39.070.2 1C during the first
half and remained unchanged during half-time (38.77
0.2 1C). At the end of the game, Tc was 38.870.1 and
38.870.2 1C in CON and RW, respectively (Fig. 2).
Sprint performance
In CON, the mean 30-m sprint time after the first
half (4.5770.03 s) was the same as before the game
(4.5470.03 s). However, the mean sprint perfor-
mance was reduced by 2.470.3% (Po0.05) before
the second half (4.6570.03 s) compared with before
the match (Fig. 3). Immediately after the match, the
sprint performance was reduced (Po0.05) by 2.07
0.4% (4.6370.04 s; Fig. 3) compared with before the
match. In RW, the mean sprint performance was
similar before the match, after the first half and
before the second half (4.4570.04, 4.5070.05 and
4.4770.04 s, respectively), whereas the mean sprint
performance was 2.370.3% lower (Po0.05) at the
end of the game (4.5570.07 s; Fig. 3). The decrease
in muscle temperature at half-time was correlated to
the reduction in sprint performance during half-time
(r 5 0.60, Po0.05, n 5 16; Fig. 4).
Positional differences
At rest and immediately before the game, Tm was
similar for defenders, midfield players and attackers
 Muscle temperature and sprint performance in soccer
Fig. 3. Sprint performance (average of three 30-m sprints)
during a soccer match with (RW, open bars; n 5 8) and
without (CON, closed bars; n 5 8) re-warm-up at half-time.
Means7SEM. #: significant difference between pre-match
values (Po0.05).
Fig. 4. Individual relationship between decrease in muscle
temperature at half-time (x-axis) and decrease in sprint
performance at half-time (y-axis). Players both in RW (open
circles) and CON (closed circles) are included. The correla-
tion coefficient for the relationship was 0.60 (n 5 16,
Po0.02, F 5 7.8).
(Fig. 5a). However, after the first half and before the
second half, Tm was 0.6 and 0.5 1C, respectively,
higher (Po0.05) for midfield players than for
defenders, whereas no difference was observed after
the second half. Tm for attackers was the same as for
players in the other two groups (Fig. 5a). Tc was not
significantly different between the three groups
during the game (Fig. 5b).
Weight loss
The net weight loss for the players in PII was
1.870.2 kg, which corresponded to 2.2% of the body
weight. No difference was observed between CON
Fig. 5. (a) Muscle temperature during a soccer game in
relation to player position (goalkeeper (n 5 1); defenders
(n 5 8); midfield players (n 5 11); attackers (n 5 5). (b)
Rectal temperature during a soccer game in relation to
player position (defenders (n 5 7); midfield players (n 5 6);
attackers (n 5 5)). Means7SEM. #: significant difference
between midfield players and defenders (Po0.05).
and RW. The fluid intake was 0.370.0 l. Thus, the
total fluid loss during the game was 2.170.1 l.
Discussion
A major finding of the present study was that both
muscle and core temperature decreased markedly
during the half-time period of a soccer match when
players recovered passively. The lower body tem-
peratures prior to the start of the second half were
associated with a significant impairment in sprint
performance. Conversely, when players performed a
period of moderate-intensity exercise prior to the
second half, the body temperatures were maintained
and the sprint performance did not deteriorate.
These findings suggest that a high muscle tempera-
ture is important for performance during repeated
sprints and that a period with physical activities (re-
warm-up) before the second half of a soccer game
enable the players to utilise their physical capacity at
the onset of the second half. At the end of a game,
159
Mohr et al.
sprint performance was reduced although body
temperatures were high, indicating that the develop-
ment of fatigue at the end of a game is not caused by
lowered body temperatures.
The muscle temperature was lower before the
second half than before the first half and a difference
persisted for at least 5 min into the second half
(see Fig. 1). It was also shown that the muscle
temperature was markedly lowered at half-time, in
association with a decrease in sprint performance
before the second half. In contrast, in the group that
performed a period of re-warm-up at half-time, the
muscle temperature was maintained at the level
obtained in the first half and sprint performance was
not reduced (see Figs 2 and 3). In addition, a
correlation between a reduction in muscle tempera-
ture and change in sprint performance at half-time
was found. Together these findings show that sprint
performance is related to muscle temperature. This is
in accordance with a number of studies that have
demonstrated a beneficial effect on performance by
prior warm-up (De Bruyn-Prevost & Lefebvre, 1980;
Sargeant, 1987; Sargeant & Dolan, 1987). For
example, De Bruyn-Prevost and Lefebvre (1980)
found an enhancement in maximal peak power and
time to exhaustion during intense exercise when
exercise was preceded by a low-intensity active
warm-up (30–60% of maximal oxygen uptake).
Likewise, impairment in performance due to prior
muscle cooling has been reported (Blomstrand et al.,
1984; Crowley et al., 1991). Hence, Crowley et al.
(1991) used a standard Wingate anaerobic power test
to evaluate the effect of muscle cooling and found the
decrement in performance to be in the order of 4%
per 1C. In the present study, sprint performance was
reduced by 1.2% per 1C. The difference in the
performance decrement between these two studies
may be due to a difference in the absolute muscle
temperature values. In the classical study by
Asmussen and Bje (1945), the relation between
improved sprint performance and increased muscle
temperature did not show complete linearity. For
example, sprint performance seems to increase more
with increased temperature in the 36–38 1C area than
the 39–41 1C area.
The beneficial effects of increasing the muscle and
body temperature before exercise have been sug-
gested to be several. For example, the neural
transmission rate in both the central and peripheral
nerves has been shown to be dependent on tempera-
ture (Hill, 1927). Others demonstrated that elevating
the muscle temperature increases the speed of muscle
contraction and decreases both the time to peak
tension and half relaxation time (Davies & Young,
1983; Bennett, 1984), which may be crucial during
fast and intense contractions (Edwards et al., 1972;
Ingjer & Strmme, 1979; Blomstrand et al., 1984;
160
Robergs et al., 1991; Febbraio et al., 1996; Ferguson
et al., 1999).
Sprint performance after the match was reduced
by about 2.0%, which is in accordance with obser-
vations in another study (Mohr et al., 2003). The
fatigue at the end of the game was not related to the
muscle or body temperatures, as these were as high
as immediately before the game. Thus, fatigue at the
end of the game seems to be related to other factors,
such as low muscle glycogen in individual fibres and
dehydration (Fitts, 1994). After a game of soccer,
muscle glycogen stores may reach critical values,
which has been shown to impair sprint performance
after the match (Balsom et al., 1999). The net fluid
loss was 1.8 kg or 2.2% of the body weight, which
may also have reduced the performance at the end of
the game (Craig & Cummings, 1966). Further studies
are needed to clarify these aspects.
Recently, it was observed that the performance of
soccer players during the initial part of the second
half was lower than in the first half (Mohr et al.,
2003). Thus, top-class soccer players competing at
the highest international and national level per-
formed significantly less high-intensity running and
sprinting during the first 5 min of the second
compared with the first half, whereas in the following
5 min the difference between the two halves was
negligible (Mohr et al., 2003). Lower muscle and
core temperatures may, according to the findings in
the present study, in part explain the reduction in
performance at the beginning of the second half,
since a correlation between the changes in sprint
performance and muscle temperature during half-
time was observed and the group that carried out a
period of re-warm-up did not have a reduction in
sprint performance. However, mechanisms other
than elevated muscle temperature may also have
affected the ability to perform repeated sprints at the
start of the second half. It has been demonstrated
that pulmonary and muscle oxygen uptake kinetics
are speeded up by prior exercise performed within
5–10 min of the next bout of exercise (McDonald et
al., 1997; Bangsbo et al., 2001), with only small
increases (B0.5 1C) in the muscle temperature. Thus,
the players in the group that performed re-warm-up
at the interval may have had a greater oxygen uptake
during and after the sprints, which may shorten the
time needed to recover from a sprint.
In the present study, the muscle temperature
declined approximately 2.0 1C after 15 min of passive
recovery. This is in the same magnitude as reported
previously both after continuous and intermittent
exercise (Saltin & Hermansen, 1966; Krustrup et al.,
2002; Krustrup et al., 2003). It is clear that soccer
players can benefit from re-warming-up prior to the
second half. Besides the effect on performance, this
may also reduce the probability of muscle injuries in
 Muscle temperature and sprint performance in soccer
the second half (Safran et al., 1988). Based on
the present data, it may be suggested that the players
at half-time spend 7–8 min of passive recovery
allowing the coach to provide tactical advice
and the players to recover mentally and re-hydrate.
Then for the remaining part of the half-time, the
players should perform low- to moderate-intensity
activities.
The average core temperature of about 39 1C
reached during the game in the present study is
slightly lower than that found previously after soccer
matches (Smodlaka, 1978; Ekblom, 1986). Core
temperature is another indirect measurement of
energy production during exercise. A linear relation-
ship has been reported between the rectal tempera-
ture and relative workload (Saltin & Hermansen,
1966). During continuous cycling exercise at 70%
of the maximal oxygen uptake with an ambient
temperature of 20 1C, the rectal temperature was
38.7 1C. In soccer, the core temperature increases
relatively more compared with the average intensity
due to the intermittent nature of the game. It has
also been observed that at a relative work rate of
60% the core temperature was 0.3 1C higher during
intermittent than continuous exercise (Ekblom et al.,
1971). Based on the core temperatures in the present
study, the average aerobic loading during the game
can be estimated to be B70%. This is in accordance
with the finding of an average heart rate of 85% of the
peak heart rate reached during the game, which
corresponds to 70–75% of the maximal aerobic power
(Bangsbo, 1994a).
Previous studies have shown a difference in the
physical capacity and activity pattern during
matches among different playing positions in high-
level soccer (Bangsbo et al., 1991; Bangsbo, 1994a;
Krustrup et al., 2003; Mohr et al., 2003). In the
present study, the midfield players had higher muscle
temperatures than the defenders and also tended to
have higher core temperatures at the end of the first
half (see Fig. 5). This is in agreement with studies of
high-level soccer players, showing that midfielders
cover a longer distance in total and by high-intensity
running in a game than defenders (Bangsbo et al.,
1991; Bangsbo, 1994a; Mohr et al., 2003), as body
temperatures are related to relative loading during
exercise.
In summary, the present study demonstrated that
soccer players’ muscle and core temperatures de-
creased markedly during a half-time period with
passive recovery. In addition, sprint performance
was significantly impaired immediately before the
second half. However, when a brief low- to moderate-
intensity re-warm-up was performed at half-time,
temperatures and sprinting abilities were maintained
at pre-match levels. Sprint performance was signifi-
cantly reduced at the end of the match, which was
unrelated to muscle and core temperatures.
Perspectives
In team sports, even at the highest level of
competition, players are often sitting or walking
during the half-time period. Considering the results
in the present study, this procedure is not sufficient
to prepare the players for the second half. A possible
routine is to recover passively for B7 min while
tactical information can be received. During the final
7–8 min, the players can perform activities at a
moderate intensity. The players should not perform
activities at too high an intensity at half-time,
because it lowers muscle glycogen levels and may
increase lactate levels and lower pH in the muscles at
the start of the second half. The experience with such
a procedure is not only that the players perform
better physically, but also that they have a greater
degree of ‘‘readiness’’. This may increase the prob-
ability that the team may perform well at the start
of the second half, which could affect the play
throughout the rest of the game. Moreover, a re-
warm-up at half-time may reduce the probability of
muscle injury in the second half.
Key words: body temperature, fatigue, intense inter-
mittent exercise, playing positions, recovery.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the soccer players participating in the
study. The excellent assistance from Nikolai Nordsborg,
Richard A. Ferguson, Helga Ellingsgaard, Mette Zebis and
Súsanna Holm is greatly appreciated. Furthermore, the
cooperation of the soccer clubs Albertslund I.F., Frederiks-
berg Boldklub and Frederiksberg Alliancen 2000, as well
as their coaches Steen Madsen, John Rasmussen, Jacob
Rossander and Michael Christensen, is acknowledged. Team
Denmark and The Sports Research Council (Idrættens
Forskningsråd) supported this study.

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