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11. Nervous Tissue and Nervous System

Channels
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11. Nervous Tissue and Nervous System

TOPIC: IONS: SODIUM AND POTASSIUM

Electrochemical Gradient
l A combination and balance of two components:
1. Electrical gradient: Ions move toward area of _________________charge.
2. Concentration gradient: Ions move from area of ________concentration to area of _______concentration.
l If opposing, whichever gradient is ________________drives net flow of ions.

EXAMPLE: Draw an arrow in each box to indicate in which direction the Electrical Gradient and the Concentration
Gradient would direct the flow of potassium ions through the K+ Channel.

PRACTICE: Suppose the extracellular fluid has a chloride (Cl-) concentration of 120mM, while the concentration of
chloride (Cl-) inside the cytosol is 60mM. Also suppose that the total net charge of the cytosol is more negative than
the extracellular fluid. Given this information, which statement is correct regarding the movement of Cl- ions?
a) The electrical and concentration gradients both favor movement into the cell.
b) The concentration gradient favors a net movement out of the cell, the electrical gradient favors movement into
the cell.
c) The electrical and concentration gradients both favor movement out of the cell.
d) The concentration gradient favors a net movement into the cell, the electrical gradient favors movement out of
the cell.

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TOPIC: IONS: SODIUM AND POTASSIUM

Standard Sodium and Potassium Concentrations
l Sodium (Na+): l Potassium (K+):
n Intracellular concentration relatively_______. n Intracellular concentration relatively ______.
n Extracellular concentration relatively high. n Extracellular concentration relatively low.

EXAMPLE: Given what you know about Na+ and K+ concentrations, draw an arrow in each box to indicate which
direction the Concentration and Electrical Gradients would direct the flow of both sodium and potassium ions.

PRACTICE: In a neuron at rest, the concentration of __________ is higher outside the cell than in the cell, whereas
the concentration of _________ is greater inside the cell than outside.
a) Sodium; potassium. b) Potassium; sodium.

PRACTICE: Which of the following statements is true regarding how the concentration gradient affects sodium ions
when a cell is at rest?
a) When a cell is at rest the concentration gradient has no effect on sodium ions.
b) The concentration gradient drives sodium ions into the cell.
c) The concentration gradient drives sodium ions out of the cell.
d) In a cell at rest the electrical gradient moves ions into the cell.

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TOPIC: IONS: SODIUM AND POTASSIUM

The Sodium Potassium Pump (Na+/K+ ATPase)
l Recall: Active transport can move ions ____________ their electrochemical gradient via ATP-consuming pumps.
l Ejects 3 _______ ions from cell and transports 2 _____ into cell.

EXAMPLE: Terry was injected with a poison that blocks the sodium potassium pump. With the sodium potassium
pump blocked, what will happen to the concentration of potassium inside the cell?
a) The concentration of potassium will increase.
b) The concentration of potassium will decrease.
c) The concentration of potassium will be unaffected.

PRACTICE: Which of the following statements about the Sodium Potassium pump is correct?
a) The sodium potassium pump operates as a mechanically gated channel.
b) The sodium potassium pump transports 3 potassium ions and ejects 3 sodium ions.
c) The sodium potassium pump always helps ions move down their natural electrochemical gradient.
d) The sodium potassium pump transports 2 potassium ions and ejects 3 sodium ions.

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TOPIC: RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

l Recall: Membrane Potential: Voltage from charge separation between interior and exterior of a cell.
l Resting Potential: Membrane potential of a cell when not stimulated. Approx. ________ mV.
n At resting potential, ____________ of the cell is more negative than exterior of the cell.
- Created by:
• Differences in ionic composition of intracellular and extracellular fluids.
• Differences in plasma membrane _________________ to ions.
• Stabilized by Na+/K+ATPase – ______________ concentration gradients for Na+ and K+.

EXAMPLE: Which of the following is the MOST accurate regarding the sodium potassium pump?
a) The sodium potassium pump creates resting potential by ejecting 3 K+ ions and transporting 2 Na+ ions into
the cell.
b) The sodium potassium pump is the main factor in creating resting potential.
c) The sodium potassium pump directly impacts resting potential by allowing more negatively charged ions into
the cell.
d) The sodium potassium pump stabilizes resting potential in a neuron.

PRACTICE: Which of the following is the MOST important factor in generating resting membrane potential?
a) Na+ concentration gradient. c) K+ electrical gradient.
b) K+ concentration gradient. d) Na+/K+ ATPase.

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TOPIC: CHANGE IN MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

l Create two types of signals: 1) ______________ potentials 2) ______________ potentials.
l Important Terminology:

EXAMPLE: The following graph depicts membrane potential along the X axis and time along the Y axis. Fill out the
graph with the terminology: polarized, depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization.

PRACTICE: A neuron’s membrane potential goes from -90 mV to -10 mV. Which of the following terms describes this
change?
a) Hyperpolarization. c) Depolarization.
b) Polarization. d) Repolarization.

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TOPIC: PROPERTIES OF GRADED AND ACTION POTENTIALS

l Graded Potentials: Variable-strength signals that occur when ion channels open/close in response to stimulus.
l Action Potentials: Brief depolarization event propagated along the _______ of a neuron.
l Transition from graded to action potential happens at _________ segment of axon.

Graded Potential Action Potential

Type of Signal Input signal Output signal
Location on Cell Dendrites and _________ body Axon
Travel __________ distances Long distances
Type of Signal Depolarizing or hyperpolarizing Depolarizing
Signal Strength Depends on magnitude of stimulus All _____________
Initiate at threshold of approx _________
Threshold No minimum level required to initiate
‘All-or-none’ phenomenon

EXAMPLE: Action potentials are an all-or-none phenomenon, meaning that once the membrane potential reaches
approximately ________, they will always happen.
a) -70 mV. c) 0 mV.
b) -55 mV. d) +30 mV.

PRACTICE: ___________ are all identical, whereas __________ can be larger or smaller depending on the level of
stimulation.
a) Action potentials; graded potentials. c) Depolarizations; hyperpolarizations.
b) Graded potentials; action potentials. d) Repolarizations; depolarizations.

PRACTICE: Which of the following statements about graded potentials is FALSE?

a) Graded potentials act as short distance signals.
b) The magnitude of a graded potential is proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus.
c) Graded potentials occur mainly in axons.
d) Graded potentials can be depolarizing or hyperpolarizing.

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TOPIC: GRADED POTENTIALS

l Postsynaptic Potential:
n Change in membrane potential at postsynaptic terminal of chemical synapse.
n Postsynaptic potentials are _____________ potentials. Two types:
- Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSPs): Make membrane more ___________.
- Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials (IPSPs): Make membrane more ____________.
l Sequence of a Depolarizing Graded Potential:
n Step 1: Gated Na+ channels open in response to ____________.
n Step 2: Na+ ions enter the cell.
n Step 3: Inside of cell _______________.
n Step 4: Depolarization spreads in local current.
n Step 5: Current dissipates.

EXAMPLE: When voltage gated sodium channels open in response to a stimulus, what effect does it have on the
neuron?
a) Potassium will rush out of the cell. c) The influx of positive ions causes the cell to depolarize.
b) Sodium enters the cell. d) Both b and c.

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TOPIC: GRADED POTENTIALS

PRACTICE: A graded potential is strongest at the __________:
a) Initial zone of the axon.
b) Location on the membrane with the most voltage-gated potassium channels.
c) Site of stimulation.
d) Axolemma.

PRACTICE: An excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) is __________.

a) the same as a nerve impulse along an axon.
b) a result of a stimulus strong enough to produce threshold.
c) a graded depolarization produced by the arrival of a neurotransmitter.
d) an action potential complying with the all-or-none principle.

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TOPIC: GRADED POTENTIALS

Summation
l Summation: Adding ____________ postsynaptic potentials at initial segment. Two types:
n Temporal Summation: Summation of graded potentials at one synapse overlapping in _______.
n Spatial Summation: Summation of multiple graded potentials in close ____________.

EXAMPLE: Imagine fifteen neurons synapse on one postsynaptic neuron. At the trigger zone, 13 of the neurons
produce EPSPs of 2 mV each, and the other 2 produce IPSPs of 3 mV each. The threshold for the postsynaptic cell
is -55 mV. In this scenario, would an action potential be produced? The postsynaptic neuron has a resting
membrane potential of -70 mV.

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TOPIC: GRADED POTENTIALS

PRACTICE: When a second EPSP arrives at a single synapse before the effects of the first have disappeared, what
results?
a) Temporal summation.
b) Spatial summation.
c) Hyperpolarization.
d) Inhibition of the impulse.

PRACTICE: The EPSPs from two different synapses occur at the same time and cause a larger depolarization than
either one alone can cause. This is an example of:
a) Presynaptic inhibition.
b) Postsynaptic melding.
c) Temporal summation.
d) Spatial summation.

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TOPIC: ACTION POTENTIALS

l Sequence of an Action Potential:
n Step 1: Neuron at ________.
n Step 2: Depolarization.
n Step 3: Neuron reaches___________.
n Step 4: Repolarization.
n Step 5: Hyperpolarization.
n Step 6: Return to resting potential.

EXAMPLE: Below is a graph depicting change in membrane potential during an action potential. Within this graph,
write the state of voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels during each main phase of the action potential.

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TOPIC: ACTION POTENTIALS

PRACTICE: Casey is taking a new medication that blocks potassium channels. What stage of an action potential would
be MOST affected by this drug?
a) The depolarization phase.
b) Reaching threshold.
c) The repolarization phase.

PRACTICE: When an action potential is at its peak, the electrical gradient forces potassium ____________.
a) Out of the cell.
b) Into the cell.

PRACTICE: What happens when the neuron reaches threshold (-55 mV)?
a) Voltage-gated potassium channels open and potassium rushes into cell.
b) Voltage-gated sodium channels open and sodium rushes into the cell.
c) Voltage-gated potassium channels open and sodium channels close.
d) The sodium potassium pump immediately establishes resting potential.

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TOPIC: THE REFRACTORY PERIOD

l Refractory Period: Period when cell either ________ respond to stimulus or requires _____________ stimulus.
l Two parts:

Absolute Refractory Period Relative Refractory Period

_____ additional action potentials can be Only a __________-than-normal stimulus can
Definition
evoked. evoke action potential.
• Begins: Na+ channels in resting state,
• Begins: Na+ channels open.
Ion Channels • some K+ channels open.
• Ends: Na+ channels return to resting state.
• Ends: Resting potential reestablished.

Time __________ msec. __________ msec.

• Each action potential is distinct event. • Prevent overexcitation.

Function • Ensures unidirectional propagation. • Ensures unidirectional propagation.
• Establishes maximum rate of neuronal Nring.

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TOPIC: THE REFRACTORY PERIOD

EXAMPLE: What factor determines the maximum frequency of action potentials that could be propagated by an
axon? Explain why.

PRACTICE: During the relative refractory period, a larger-than-normal depolarizing stimulus can __________.
a) cause a membrane to reject a response to further stimulation.
b) cause the membrane to hyperpolarize.
c) bring the membrane to threshold and initiate a second action potential.
d) inhibit the production of an action potential.

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TOPIC: PROPAGATION OF ACTION POTENTIALS

Types of Propagation: Continuous Conduction
l Propagation: Unidirectional spread of an action potential down plasma membrane.
n Continuous Conduction: Relatively __________ propagation along unmyelinated axon.

Types of Propagation: Saltatory Conduction

n Saltatory Conduction: _________ propagation along myelinated axon – only nodes of __________ depolarized.

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TOPIC: PROPAGATION OF ACTION POTENTIALS

EXAMPLE: During saltatory conduction, action potentials are generated __________.

a) Regardless of if threshold is reached.
b) When the entire axolemma depolarizes.
c) Along the length of the entire unmyelinated axon.
d) Only at the nodes of Ranvier of myelinated axons.

PRACTICE: In unmyelinated axons, action potentials are propagated by_________ conduction.

a) Continuous.
b) Saltatory.

PRACTICE: Dr. Roberts is testing a new drug that blocks sodium channels in the axons of a neuron. Which of the
following statements is correct?
a) The drug would prevent both the generation of graded potentials and the propagation of action potentials.
b) The drug would prevent the generation of graded potentials.
c) The drug would prevent the propagation of action potentials.
d) The drug would only have a mild effect on the neuron because potassium channels are still operational.

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