Name Sadia Irshad

Roll no 08
Subject Paradigms in psychology
Assignment Behaviorism USE in interdiciplanary
fields
Submitted to Dr. Ruqia Safdar Bajwa

MPHIL Applied psychology 1st semester

Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan
Behaviorism:
Methodological behaviorism began as a reaction against the introspective psychology that
dominated the late-19th and early-20th centuries. Introspective psychologists such as Wilhelm
Wundt maintained that the study of consciousness was the primary object of psychology. Their
methodology was primarily introspective, relying heavily on first-person reports of sensations
and the constituents of immediate experiences. Behaviorists such as J. B. Watson and B. F.
Skinner rejected introspectionist’s methods as being subjective and unquantifiable. Instead, they
focused on objectively observable, quantifiable events and behavior. They argued that since it is
not possible to observe objectively or to quantify what occurs in the mind, scientific theories
should take into account only observable indicators such as stimulus-response sequences.
According to Skinner, The mentalistic problem can be avoided by going directly to the prior
physical causes while bypassing intermediate feelings or states of mind. The quickest way to do
this is to consider only those facts which can be objectively observed in the behavior of one
person in its relation to his prior environmental history. Radical behaviorists such as Skinner
also made the ontological claim that facts about mental states are reducible to facts about
behavioral dispositions.

View of Learning and motivation:

From a behaviorist perspective, the transmission of information from teacher to learner is

essentially the transmission of the response appropriate to a certain stimulus. Thus the point of
education is to present the student with the appropriate repertoire of behavioral responses to
specific stimuli and to reinforce those responses through an effective reinforcement schedule. An
effective reinforcement schedule requires consistent repetition of the material small, progressive
sequences of tasks and continuous positive reinforcement. Without positive reinforcement
learned responses will quickly become extinct. This is because learners will continue to modify
their behavior until they receive some positive reinforcement.

Behaviorists explain motivation in terms of schedules of positive and negative reinforcement.

Just as receiving food pellets each time it pecks at a button teaches a pigeon to peck the button,
pleasant experiences cause human learners to make the desired connections between specific
stimuli and the appropriate responses. For example, a student who receives verbal praise and
good grades for correct answers (positive reinforcement) is likely to learn those answers
 effectively one who receives little or no positive feedback for the same answers (negative
reinforcement) is less likely to learn them as effectively. Similarly human learners tend to avoid
responses that are associated with punishment or unpleasant consequences such as poor grades or
adverse feedback.

Implications for Teaching and education:

Behaviorist teaching methods tend to rely on so-called “skill and drill” exercises to provide the
consistent repetition necessary for effective reinforcement of response patterns. Other methods
given by skinner include question as a stimulus and answer as response, frameworks in which
questions are of gradually increasing difficulty guided practice and regular reviews of material.
Behaviorist methods also typically rely heavily on the use of positive reinforcements such as
verbal praise, good grades, and prizes. Behaviorists assess the degree of learning using methods
that measure observable behavior such as exam performance. Similarly if we use primary and
secondary laws of thorndike’s bond theory a better learning environment in our educational
system. Behaviorist teaching methods have proven most successful in areas where there is a
correct response or easily memorized material. For example, while behaviorist methods have
proven to be successful in teaching structured material such as facts and formulas, scientific
concepts, and foreign languages vocabulary, their efficacy in teaching comprehension,
composition, and analytical abilities is questionable. Some common techniques are

 Behavioral Contracts: Simple contracts can be effective in helping children focus on

behavior change.
 Consequences: They can occur immediately after a behavior and may be positive or negative,
expected or unexpected, immediate or long-term, extrinsic or intrinsic, material or symbolic a
failing grade, emotional or interpersonal or even unconscious.
 Positive reinforcement: The presentation of a stimulus that increases the probability of a
response as smiling at students after a correct response.

 Negative reinforcement: Increased probability of a response that removes or prevents an

adverse condition as perfect attendance is rewarded with a homework pass.
 Punishment: Involves presenting a strong stimulus that decreases the frequency of a particular
response for example students who fight are immediately sent to the principal.
 Extinction: Decreases the probability of a response by contingent withdrawal of a previously
reinforced stimulus for example a teacher gives partial credit for late assignments; other
teachers think this is unfair so the teacher decides to then give zeros for the late work.

Bandura's social learning theory has had important implications in the field of education.
Today, both teachers and parents recognize how important it is to model appropriate
behaviors. Other classroom strategies such as encouraging children and building self-efficacy
are also rooted in social learning theory.

In sports coaching

In coaching studies are showing that it is useful in discovering different ways the subject (player)
has been conditioned by the people around them. More serious cases can lead to limiting
behavior that reduces the person’s chance of success in life and work as they react rather than
move purposively and by conscious choice. The person may also be coached with using
behaviorism is different ways, avoiding destructive reinforcement is a big part because that leads
others to behave in unwanted ways which then uses stimuli that leads to positive and desirable
actions.

Operant conditioning:

Skinners theory of operant conditioning involves the correct response to a situation or task being
rewarded. This reinforces the correct response. This behaviour is shaped by the coach and the
player need not understand why they are performing like this, just that they will be rewarded if
they do it correctly. Examples in sport are situations such as football shooting practice. The
coach may direct the players to strike the ball into the right of the goal. If this is done they are
rewarded. The area is then reduced to the top half of the right side, and then maybe the top right-
hand corner only. Rewarding this behaviour strengthens the link.

Reinforcement and Praise:

When behaviorism is used according to the principles of operant conditioning, reinforcement can
have a significant impact on motivation and human behavior. Consider the successful coach who
always seems to have upbeat and motivated athletes willing to charge through a brick wall for
their coach. Unfortunately, the example of the unsuccessful coach whose athletes always seem to
be downcast, downtrodden, and unmotivated also exist. One factor that separates the successful
coach from the unsuccessful coach is the use of positive reinforcements as praise.

Praise provides information to athletes not only about performance but also about notion of self.
In other words, it tells athletes about the quality of their motor performance, but it often also tells
them about their self-worth and competence.

Punishment :This is used when the action performed is not desirable e.g a player may be sent
off for a reckless tackle, they could miss a game, be fined or lose their role in a team. This
weakens the S-R Bond meaning that this action is less likely to be repeated in the future.

Behaviorism to Increase Athlete Motivation:

It is very important for coaches to recognize individual differences. No two athletes are exactly
alike. It is important to keep these individual differences in mind when using reinforcement to
influence motivation. What is reinforcement for one athlete might not be reinforcing to another
athlete. For example, some athletes hate being pulled aside and lectured while other athletes take
it as a compliment and a sign that you care about them and their goals. Coaches should attempt to
condition their athletes to have a positive psychological response to their sport. Athletes who
have an interest and love for their sport (training and competition) will be engaged and
motivated.we can facilitate a positive response by continually pairing positive conditioned
stimuli with positive unconditioned stimuli. A significant way to create a positive response is to
facilitate success and mastery during practice, making practice and competition fun, and focus on
effort. Also with the use of external reinforcements. Sometimes external reinforcement can be
really effective for kick starting an athlete’s internal motivation. Sometimes, a seemingly small
external reward can go a long way toward motivating athletes.

Classical conditioning: It can be difficult to find examples of this concept within the sports
world. Something like a referee blowing the whistle signifying that play should stop is a good
example. The athletes know what to do without having to think about it, they are conditioned
with whistle.

Thorndike’s Laws:
Law of exercise: rehearsing (or exercising) the stimulus-response (SR) connections helps
strengthen them and reinforce the correct skill

Law of effect: If the skill is followed by a pleasant reaction, then the SR bond is further
strengthened. If the following reaction is negative, then the SR bond is weakened

Law of readiness: The athlete must be both mentally and physically capable of performing the
skill efficiently

Trial and Error Learning

We have all heard of finding a solution by trial and error. It involves testing various methods of
achieving a goal until we find one that works. This plays a large part in Operant Conditioning.
This can be a slow process. A sporting example is changing your grip in racket sports.

In bioengineering and synthetic biology

Synthetic biology enables Life Technologies to design, synthesize, test and deploy antigens and
variants with rapid results, high expression and capacity. It also enables Life Technologies to
develop immunogens engineered for efficacy and high titer and produce rapid assays for
purification of the immunogens.so novel organisms are not well known from historical models
but behavior sciences never face difficulties in studying them by doing different work in
laboratories.

Sensory motor perspectives: novel organisms can sense natural and artificial stimuli like
electric, magnetic, light wave-length, vibrations and respond to them behaviorism help us to
study these responses and also to modify them, as a 3D printer modify environment, stingless
bees respond the environment when enclosed in a narrow tube. By using different techniques like
instrumental and operant conditioning, classical conditioning as include in associative learning.
Habituation and sensitization in non-associative learning, motivational learning, avoidance,
escape, general activity conditioning.

Habituation: only single stimuli is needed for habituation for example an environmental factor.
preparing a synthetic organism to habituate in light after several trails we can use light as
unconditioned stimuli, so organism respond to lighted environment and do normal functioning
but as we transfer it in darkness it need to habituate there for normal functioning so change in
context can change normal behavior and response to environment. Similar in case of temperature
and colors.

Sensitization: a novel, when make response to 2 UC paired stimuli, after some trails started
giving same response to both for example a genetically modified amoeba do photosynthesis in
sunlight and also in artificial light when it is learned to respond both lights similarly regardless of
difference in intensity of both lights.

Motivation in novel organisms: motivation is especially in instrumental or operant conditioning

as they are controlled by consequences, we can not examine perceptions of novel organisms we
can motivate them with signals that enhance their systems this can be done by 2 process

1: appetitive stimuli: first we force novel organism to deprive for food and then motivate them
by providing them food either by their preferred food.

2: Aversive stimuli: we motivate novels by aversive stimuli as by giving them electric shocks
DC is preferred, aversion can help to increase or decreased desired behavior.

Escape: we use this technique to get a desirable behavior in a specific time, for example a
stingless bee in laboratory in a box presented a balloon it has to burst , if balloon is not burst bee
will get a shock so it will burst the balloon in order to avoid a shock, this way we shape behavior
of bee for presentation.

Avoidance: blend of classical and operant conditioning teach the novels to respond to a specific
stimuli otherwise shock is given to it.

Punishment: when punished several organisms will learn desired behaviors as slug turning neck
in left side will be punished with electric shock when ever it turn neck in left side so he learn not
to move neck to left.

Use of social learning theory in social context:

Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction

between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences. Social learning theory can have a

number of real-world applications in our society . For example, it can be used to help researchers

understand how aggression and violence might be transmitted through observational learning. By
studying media violence, researchers can gain a better understanding of the factors that might

lead children to act out the aggressive actions they see portrayed on television and in the movies.

But social learning can also be utilized to teach people positive behaviors. Researchers can use

social learning theory to investigate and understand ways that positive role models can be used to

encourage desirable behaviors and to facilitate social change.

Modeling by children

One of the significant findings in this line of research on aggression is the influence of models on

behavioral restraint. When children are exposed to models who are not aggressive and who

inhibit their own behavior, the children also tend to inhibit their own aggressive responses and to

restrict their range of behavior in general. Thus, children can learn from others, in particular their

parents, how to regulate their behavior in socially appropriate ways. When the inappropriate

behavior of others is punished, the children observing are also vicariously punished, and likely to

experience anxiety, if not outright fear, when they consider engaging in similar inappropriate

behavior. However, when models behave aggressively and their behavior is rewarded, or even

just tolerated, the child’s own tendency to restrict aggressive impulses may be weakened. This

weakening of restraint, which can then lead to acting out aggressive impulses is known as

disinhibition.

Behavioral changes of farmers:

Farmers need continuous guidance and support from agricultural advisors to manage agricultural

risks through digital interventions. In this regard, agricultural advisors are also required to get

equipped with various techniques so that they can easily change attitude and inclination of

farming community.
Social learning perspectives: Pre service and in service trainings should be planned for learning

new farming techniques so that learning should be effective as in case of social learning

perspective like attention, retention during training and reproduction when they perform learned

tasks and if it seems good and beneficial and they will be motivated and repeat it to get more

profit.

Use of behavioral techniques In military trainings:

Establishing good Combat Behaviours is essential to prepare combatants to fight and win on the

contemporary battlefield. Combat Behaviours intuitive battlefield responses are trained under a

Combat Mindset. These behaviours are the product of deliberate practice, seen across multiple

programs in the Combatant Training Continuum. Teaching these behaviours can be optimised

through the use of a simple equation. The benefits of well drilled Combat Behaviours will be

clear in future fights.

Use of law of effect as Competent Instructors

Competent instructors are the core of all combatant training. They multiply the impact of other

facets of the equation. These instructors employ enhanced instructional techniques leveraging an

adult learning environment and focus on each learner as an individual more effective is the

training method more learning occur. This requires instructors to be conscious of the way in

which they instruct in relation to their audience, to ensure a Combat Mindset is built in all

trainees.

The Power of Habit

Repetition as law of exercise creates solid Combat Behaviours.. These Combat Behaviours must

be instilled from ab initio training. Taught correctly, Combat Behaviours can be ingrained in the
unconscious of professional soldiers.There is no room for error when employing Combat

Behaviours. A popular saying in combat shooting is, 'Perfect practice makes perfect'. Perfect

practice develops the muscle memory of the action and solidifies the neural pathways, allowing

for less conscious effort to be exerted with each repetition. Much like in an athlete an

unconscious competence is developed.