Effects of Adverse Childhood Experiences on Young Adults in context to their

Romantic Relationships

Major Project Submitted as a partial fulfilment for the Degree

of

B. A+M.A (Clinical Psychology)

Submitted By: Supervisor:

Kavya Tripathi Dr Zuby Hasan

Enrolment Number:

A015116718056

AMITY INSTITUTE OF PSYCHOLOGY AND ALLIED SCIENCES

Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida

2022

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Kavya Tripathi is a Bonafede student of B. A+M.A (Clinical Psychology)
(Enrolment no: A015116718056, 2018 – 2022 batch) of Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied
Sciences (AIPS), AUUP. The present dissertation is submitted to in partial fulfilment of the
requirement of the degree of B. A+M.A (Clinical Psychology). This dissertation is completed
under my guidance entitled “Effects of Adverse Childhood Experiences on Young Adults in
Context to Their Romantic Relationships” is an original piece of research work and no part of this
dissertation has been submitted for any other degree of any other University to the best of our
knowledge.

DATE:

(SUPERVISOR)
Dr Zuby Hasan

AMITY UNIVERSITY
UTTAR PRADESH
NOIDA

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 DECLARATION

I, KAVYA TRIPATHI (Enrolment Number: 8920799429) student of B. A+M.A (Clinical

Psychology, 2018 – 2022) Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Sciences, Amity University,
Noida has completed the dissertation entitled “Effects of Adverse Childhood Experiences on
Young Adults in Context to Their Romantic Relationships” under the guidance of Dr Zuby Hasan
which embodies my original work and is submitted towards the partial fulfilment of the
requirement of the degree.

Kavya Tripathi

B. A+M.A (Clinical Psychology)

2018 – 2022

Enrolment Number: A015116718056

AIPS, AUUP, Noida

Date:

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Many people have played an important role in the compilation of my dissertation, either directly
or indirectly.

I would like to thank all the researchers who contributed to the field and the number of people for
their assistance with this dissertation. My gratitude goes to all of those who have filled my
questionnaires within such a short period of time. Without their help my dissertation would be
incomplete.

I would also like to thank Prof. (Dr) Zuby Hasan of Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied
sciences, Amity University, Noida for giving me the opportunity to do research work in this
upcoming field. Without her encouragement and support, it would not have been possible.

I am grateful to Dr. Ranjana Bhatia for having faith and securing feedback.

Lastly, I would like to extend a heartfelt gratitude to my family, friends and respondents who have
been a constant source of support and encouragement.

Kavya Tripathi

IMA – 9

2018 – 2022, AIPS

Contents

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Abstract ............................................................................................................................. 74

Introduct ............................................................................................................................ 75

[Introduction] .................................................................................................................... 75

[Heading 2] ................................................................................................................... 76

[Heading 3]. .............................................................................................................. 76

References ......................................................................................................................... 78

Footnotes ........................................................................................................................... 79

Tables ................................................................................................................................ 80

Figures............................................................................................................................... 81

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 Effects of Adverse Childhood Experiences on a Young Adult’s Romantic Relationships
Kavya Tripathi
Amity Institute of Psychology and Allied Science

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 ABSTRACT

This study is conducted to comprehend the “Effects of Adverse Childhood Experiences on Young

Adults in context to their Romantic Relationships”. In this study we aim to understand the

correlation between adverse childhood experience and how they can have an impact well into

adulthood and manifest itself in an individual’s relationships. The childhood experiences include

a broad spectrum on negative experiences that an individual goes through in their childhood

pertaining to any sort of abuse and or neglect. The thesis is correlational, and the age range of

participants is taken as 18 – 30 years. This study also tries to emphasize on its effects on an

individual’s life, especially in terms of their romantic relationships. For the conduction of the study

100 samples (young adults) were assessed and were asked to participate in the study. To apprehend

and gauge the variables of the study, the following tools were used – Experiences in closed

relationships – revised (ECR – R) & Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE). The results of the

dissertation go on to show

Keywords: Trauma, romantic relationships, young adults, close relationships, neglect, abuse

attachment styles

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 INTRODUCTION

Adverse childhood experiences (ACES) are characterised as exposure to traumatic events

throughout childhood, such as emotional, verbal, sexual, physical, or mental abuse, violence
exposure, neglect, abandonment, substance misuse exposure, or other detrimental events that the
child may carry into adulthood. Trauma that happens during a person's formative years, when they
are particularly impressionable, can have a long-lasting effect on their perceptions, beliefs,
cognitive patterns, way of living, and interpersonal connections (Briere & Scott, 2015). It may aid
in the emergence of stress disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder and complex
posttraumatic stress disorder, major depression, depression with psychotic features, anxiety, panic
disorders, somatic symptom disorder, psychosis, substance use disorders, borderline personality
disorder characteristics, and complicated posttraumatic stress disorder (Briere & Scott, 2015).
Adverse childhood experiences were found to increase the risk of dissociation, which may be used
as a survival technique, and to relate to substance use, criminal activity, and criminal behaviour
(Zyromski, Dollarhide, Aras, Geiger, Oehrtman, & Clark, 2018). According to Kealy and Lee
(2018), cumulative childhood trauma exposure was linked to a higher risk of psychiatric distress
and suicidality in adults.
Childhood is a crucial period in everyone’s life. It sets the stone for the development of the child
and shapes them into adults. Events that could be stressful that happen in childhood are referred to
as "adverse childhood experiences," or "ACEs" (0-17 years). For instance:

1. being subjected to abuse, neglect, or violence

2. observing violence in the society or at home
3. experiencing a family member's suicide attempt or death

Aspects of the child's surroundings that can damage their sense of security, stability, and kinship
are also considered, such as growing up in a home where:

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 1. issues with substance abuse
2. mental illness issues
3. instability brought on by a parent's divorce or incarceration of family members

Please be aware that the instances shown above are not all the negative experiences. Numerous
additional stressful events may influence health and wellness. In youth and adulthood, ACEs are
connected to chronic health issues, mental illness, and substance use issues. Furthermore, ACEs
can be prevented.
ACEs can have long-lasting, detrimental effects on health, wellbeing, and life possibilities like
educational and employment prospects. Involvement in sex trafficking, injuries, sexually
transmitted infections, maternal and child health issues (including teen pregnancy, pregnancy
complications, and foetal death), and a variety of chronic diseases and leading causes of death,
including cancer, diabetes, heart disease, and suicide, can all be increased by these experiences.

Toxic stress can result from ACEs and associated socioeconomic determinants of health, such
living in underdeveloped or racially segregated communities, traveling frequently, and enduring
food insecurity (extended or prolonged stress). Children's immune systems, stress-response
mechanisms, and brain development can all be significantly impacted by the toxic stress caused
by ACEs. Children's learning, decision-making, and attention may be impacted by these changes.

Developing healthy and secure relationships may be challenging for kids who experience toxic
stress as children. They may also suffer with money, employment, and depression throughout their
lives, as well as having a history of precarious employment as adults. Their own children may
likewise be affected by these impacts. Due to systematic racism, the effects of poverty brought on
by a lack of educational and employment opportunities, or both, certain children may have
additional exposure to toxic stress arising from past and continuing traumas.

STRATEGIES TO PREVENT ACE’S

o Strengthen families’ financial stability

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Community organisations, like faith-based and youth-serving organisations, can advocate for laws
that aid families with financial difficulties or assist parents in juggling work and family obligations,
which lessens stress and enables parents to provide for their children's essential requirements.
Examples comprise:

• laws that encourage companies to provide paid time off for taking care of a baby or a family
member

• Policies that help families with the cost of daycare and a nutritious diet

• Providing working families with income or child tax credits

• providing a flexible and reliable work schedule

o Promote social norms that protect against violence

Encourage local organisations that work with youth, such as faith-based and youth-serving
organisations, as well as coaches and caregivers, to support nonviolent attitudes, beliefs, and
practices. Examples comprise:

• assisting parents and promoting good parenting techniques

• encouraging individuals to report violence when they observe it

• Men and boys should take part in preventative initiatives

• teaching parents and other adults that it's acceptable to seek assistance

o Help kids have a good start

Children start off on the right foot and flourish later with the support of involved parents, effective
preschool programmes, and high-quality childcare. Faith-based and youth-serving groups can both
contribute to this. Examples comprise:

• Including carers in early learning initiatives

• ensuring that childcare facilities are accredited and licenced at religious or youth-serving
organisations

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 • assisting in expanding access to programmes for affordable, high-quality childcare and
preschool

• providing training and assistance for child development and health at home

o Teach healthy relationship skills

Both kids and their caregivers can learn how to build wholesome connections and control their
emotions. Teenagers can learn about safe dating while engaging in faith-based or youth
organisations. Examples comprise:

• teaching young people how to deal with conflicts, bad feelings, and peer pressure

• providing courses that educate how to build positive, nonviolent relationships with partners
and peers

• teaching parents and caregivers effective parenting techniques

• aiding parents or other adults who are responsible for taking care of youngsters understand
how to encourage them and offer a good example for their actions

o Connect youth with caring adults and activities

Community organisations offer events for young people to gain leadership and other new skills as
well as connections with positive role models. Communities can support youth development and
success in both school and life. Examples of how organisations might introduce young people to
helpful adults and activities are as follows:

• enrolling children in mentoring programmes at school or in the community

• Getting them interested in extracurricular activities will provide them the chance to develop
their confidence and leadership abilities.

• providing a chance for training in the creative, media, athletic, scientific, or technological
fields

o Intervene to lessen immediate and long-term harms

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Community organisations can provide resources and support to lessen damages and aid in breaking
the cycle of adversity when ACEs arise. Examples comprise:

• finding out more about ACEs and the resources available for children, adolescents, and adults

• providing crisis intervention services as needed in the areas of health, law, housing, and other
areas

• providing therapy to lessen behavioural issues, fear or anxiety, and depressive symptoms.

• Adopting a family-centred approach to treating substance abuse

IMPACT OF CHILDHOOD TRAUMA ON ADULT RELATIONSHIPS

Numerous factors, including childhood trauma, may affect how you view relationships in
adulthood. Though not everyone, this might be the case for some people. Children who
experience trauma and dysfunction in their household often struggle to learn the same boundaries
and behaviours that so many others seem to take for granted.

As a child is growing and developing, they look to their caregivers as examples of how to interact
with the world around them. If those caregivers behave in dysfunctional or unhealthy ways,
chances are high that children will learn to mimic these same unhealthy behaviours, even if
unintended. “For many, the effects of abuse manifest in dysfunctional interpersonal relationships
as the result of attachment disruptions at pivotal points of childhood development.” (Kvarnstrom,
2018)

Going back to childhood and adolescence usually sheds some light on adult behaviour. The ways
in which our caregivers interact with us, as well as each other, shape our view of the world and
those around us. This will, in turn, affect three fundamental structures: our sense of self, the way
we communicate, and how we form relationships. Unless we do the work to develop more self-
awareness of our behaviours, we will usually repeat these same patterns into adulthood.

Following are 10 of the ways that childhood trauma manifests in adult relationships:

1. Fears of abandonment. Children who were neglected or abandoned by a caregiver often

struggle with fears of abandonment long into adulthood, even if they are unaware of these fears on
the surface. While the underlying fear is that the partner will eventually leave, these thoughts often

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reveal themselves in everyday situations such as getting scared when a partner goes out by
themselves or being unable to self soothe if a partner leaves the room during an argument. This
fear is also often manifested as jealousy, or in extreme cases, possessiveness.

2. Getting irritable or easily annoyed with others. When we grow up in environments where we
are frequently criticized, or witness others being criticized, we learn that this is a natural way to
express our displeasure in relationships. We learn that our imperfections and quirks are intolerable,
and project that intolerance onto our partners or others around us.

3. Needing a lot of space or time to yourself. Growing up in a chaotic or unpredictable

environment creates a lot of stress, and often leaves children’s central nervous system in a constant
state of hypervigilance. Then they become adults who need a lot of time to themselves in order to
calm these symptoms of anxiety, nervousness, and fear. Staying home, where you can control your
surroundings, feels safer and allows you to relax. In extreme cases, some adults even have traits
of or meet criteria for social anxiety or even agoraphobia.

4. Unequal financial and household responsibilities. Sometimes this can look like a reluctance
to rely on a partner at all due to fears of depending on another person. Other times it takes the form
of taking complete financial and/or household responsibility in a partnership, or fully taking care
of the other person to the point where you are taken advantage of. The opposite — relying too
much on them to the point where they take care of you — is also a result of unmet childhood needs.

5. Settling and staying in a relationship much longer than its expiration date. When we grow up
in unstable environments, with caregivers who struggle with drug addiction, mental illness, or even
illness or death, children often develop a sense of guilt that comes from wanting to end a
relationship before we have been able to "fix" the other person. Staying with someone who is not
a good fit for us sometimes feels safer than being alone.

6. Constant arguing or fighting in relationships or avoiding conflict at all costs. All relationships
have conflict, but children who grew up in environments where caregivers were always arguing,
or who avoided any sort of conflict whatsoever, often do not learn the skills necessary to have
productive and healthy communication. This includes healthy and productive ways to navigate and
manage conflict.

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7. Not knowing how to repair after fights. As mentioned above, when we do not learn how to
have productive and healthy management of conflict, we also to do not know how to repair a
relationship after the inevitable conflict that happens in partnerships. This can look like pretending
it didn't happen, not knowing when or how to compromise on an issue or giving the silent
treatment.

8. Serial monogamy. This is often due to fears of being hurt again, fears of being alone, or even
trying to prove that you are worthy of the love and affection that you did not receive in childhood.
With each new partner comes new hopes to confirm that you are worthy of the love and partnership
you are missing,

9. Worrying that you are settling, being fearful of committing, or avoiding relationships
altogether. This is due to caregivers who were unreliable or abandoned you, leaving you distrustful
of those who claim to care for you. If you fear that others will hurt you the way your caregivers
did, avoiding settling down can feel safer as it allows you the freedom to leave the relationship
when and if necessary.

10. Trying to change their partner. This is a trauma response that comes from the belief that we
need to do the best with what we have, or even the fear that we cannot do any better. Children are
powerless to change who their caregivers are, so they learn to try to make do with what they have.
As adults, it is common for this pattern to carry over into our partnerships, causing us to desire
changes within our partner in order to calm our own fears of relationships. If we can "fix" the
person and make them a better partner, we can somehow prove to ourselves that we are worthy
and able to have a successful relationship.

ATTACHMENT STYLES

What you think about the world—whether it's a safe place, a terrifying place, or somewhere in
between—is shaped by your early experiences.

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The way you interact with people to create or prevent closeness is where attachment theory may
come into play.

This hypothesis suggests that our relationships as adults often resemble the ones we first developed
with our primary caregivers.

There are four primary attachment styles as a result of this:

• Secure

This attachment style allows for the development of close, trustworthy relationships with others.
They have no problem giving and receiving love. They don't shy away from intimacy and are less
likely to rely solely on another person.

• Apprehensive or obsessed with anxiety

People who have this attachment type could have a severe dread of being abandoned and a
continual demand for validation. They can also think their lover doesn't show them enough
affection often.

• Dismissive avoidant

This attachment type may cause a person to fear emotional intimacy. Due to this, they might avoid
getting too close to people or develop mistrust for their partners. They consequently frequently
lack emotional availability.

• Fearful avoidant

People with this attachment style may seek the love and attention of their partners while also shying
away from emotional intimacy. Although they may need attention and love, they typically shy
away from serious romantic partnerships.

"Insecure attachments" are the last three attachment patterns. These could present difficulties in
adult relationships.

Attachment patterns are a result of early, negative experiences and are usually out of control of the
individual.

TRUST CHALLENGES

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If you've had certain early experiences in life, it's not unusual to struggle with trusting others. It
could be difficult for you to believe your spouse when they say they'll respect your wants and
limits or that they'll be there for you when you need them. Even if your lover expresses their love
for you, you could still mistrust it. Trust issues, indeed, heavily impact the most intimate of our
relationships because these are the relationships that we are the most vulnerable in. They also
impact our relationship with ourselves.

As a result, we may lie about who we are or our intentions, or we learned to withhold information
and our true, genuine self from others. Our identities were erased as children, and now, as adults,
we practice self-erasure by acting out our trust issues, tolerating situations or people we should
not, or being overly anxious about who we are.

The Origins of Trust Issues

When we are little, we depend entirely on our caregivers to provide safety and comfort. We rely
on them to reflect our emotional states back at us so that we learn what is good, what is bad, what
is appropriate, and what is inappropriate. Problems arise when our caregivers are unable or
unwilling to do these things. We become unable to trust that we will be okay if we explore the
world because our caregivers did not accurately reflect, comfort, or sustain us.

Consequently, as adults we are unable to trust those around us because, historically, those who
were the closest to us did not meet our needs when we needed it most. We dampen our emotions
and reactions so that we will be acceptable to people who cannot accept us. Alternatively, we
learned that we can only trust our caregivers and no one else, not even ourselves, because the world
is simply too dangerous.

In adulthood, this plays out in several ways. We feel unacceptable, so we have trust issues in
intimate relationships. We feel as though we are unable to share our ideas at work for fear of being
bullied, singled out, or shown that we are unacceptable in other ways. We are emotionally
unavailable to our partners. Or we always giving in to their needs and their wants.

Three Common Trust Issues

1. I Am Unacceptable

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You are afraid that people will reject, discard, ridicule, hurt, or use you. You learned that it is safer
to keep it all inside: your true emotions, thoughts, needs, wants, and preferences. Trusting people
may take a very long time, and you are unsure what the criteria for trusting someone even is.

Situations involving others are stressful, and your anxiety interferes with your personal life, work
life, school life and you are afraid that every relationship will end the same. You are unable or
unwilling to effectively communicate. Your relationships suffer and you know it has something to
do with you, but you don’t know what that might be because you are consumed with the fear of
being unacceptable.

2. I Trust Too Quickly

Here, you are so desperate to be accepted, that the moment anyone shows interest in you, you
inappropriately open to them, often within the first few times of meeting. You tend to overshare.
Or you expect for the other person to immediately care about you very deeply.

People who are overly protective have boundaries that are too hard, but people who trust others
too quickly may lack them altogether. It may be seen as inappropriate but you cant help yourself,
and you seem to overwhelm the good people away. Those who remain are predators who act their
own issues out on you, repeatedly retraumatizing you in the same way you were traumatized as a
child.

3. I Have to Do Everything Myself

Here, you didn’t withdraw from the world, but you can’t trust people to do things for you. You are
worried that you may be seen as controlling or overbearing but you only learned to trust yourself.
Perhaps you had to take care of other siblings, or the household, or even your parents. You may
be a fixer, someone who is attracted to broken people who you cannot fix but it doesn’t stop you
from trying. Or you may be so fiercely independent you come off cold, hard, and unapproachable.

COMMUNICATION STYLES

Trauma from your childhood may have an impact on how you interact with people as an adult.
Your communication style might reflect how you were modelled as a child.

For instance, if you had a lot of screaming matches as a child, you might act them out with your
spouse. You might think that this is how disagreements are resolved in a partnership.

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Additionally, you could find it difficult to openly convey your feelings or even to discuss the things
that are significant to you.

Some communication patterns that could be connected to how people interacted with you or others
in your early years of life include:

Passive: indirect, apologetic, or self-denying

Being emotionally dishonest and self-centred at the expense of others is a form of passive
aggression. Inappropriate in some circumstances, aggressive behaviour includes blaming,
domineering, direct, and attacking.

You may learn and refine your communication styles through time. You can also unlearn them
and pick up new communication techniques in the same way.

TRAUMA REENACTMENT

You may occasionally engage in relationships that mirror or support the lessons you acquired as a
youngster. It's known as trauma re-enactment.

You can notice yourself continuing patterns from your early years and putting yourself in
circumstances where you run the risk of suffering mental or physical harm once more.

This is not a matter of preference. You can be searching for something familiar as a defence
mechanism. It might also be an unconscious effort to heal by going through the same difficulties.

According to Dr Nancy Irwin, a clinical psychologist in Los Angeles, "if that trauma stays
unresolved, [people] automatically seek the comfort of the known, even if it is unpleasant."

TRAUMA AND STRESSOR-RELATED DISORDERS IN CHILDREN

Trauma and stressor-related disorders are a group of emotional and behavioural problems that may
result from childhood traumatic and stressful experiences.

These traumatic and stressful experiences can include exposure to physical or emotional violence
or pain, including abuse, neglect or family conflict. Observing a parent being treated violently, for
example, can be a traumatic experience, as can being the victim of violence or abuse. Stressors
such as parental separation or divorce or even more severe stressors such as emotional or physical

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neglect can cause problems when they are prolonged or not addressed by caring adults. Even a
move or the birth of a sibling can be a stressor that can cause significant difficulties for some
children.

Trauma and stressor-related disorders include:

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Children and adolescents with PTSD have symptoms such
as persistent, frightening thoughts and memories or flashbacks of a traumatic event or events.
Other symptoms may include jumpiness, sleep problems, problems in school, avoidance of certain
places or situations, depression, headaches or stomach pains.

Acute stress disorder (ASD). The symptoms of ASD are like PTSD but occur within the first
month after exposure to trauma. Prompt treatment and appropriate social support can reduce the
risk of ASD developing into PTSD.

Adjustment disorders. Adjustment disorders are unhealthy or unhelpful reactions to stressful

events or changes in a child’s life. These reactions can be emotional, such as a depressed mood or
nervousness, or behavioural, such as misconduct or violating the rights of others.

Reactive attachment disorder (RAD). Children with RAD show limited emotional responses in
situations where those are ordinarily expected. This might show in a lack of remorse after bad
behaviour or a lack of response to positive or negative emotional triggers. Children with RAD may
not appear to want or need comfort from caregivers. They may not seem to care when toy is taken
away from them.

Disinhibited social engagement disorder (DSED). Children with DSED are unusually open to
interactions with strangers. They can be over-eager to form attachments with others, walking up
to and even hugging strangers. They may wander off with strangers without checking with their
parent or caregiver.

Unclassified and unspecified trauma disorders. Some emotional and behavioural reactions to
trauma do not fit in the diagnostic categories above. This category is used for those cases.

Starting from Widom’ pioneering study demonstrating a clear link between trauma and antisocial
behaviour, several studies have shown an interlink between traumatic experiences, such as
childhood maltreatment and criminal behaviour. There is also emerging evidence of gene–

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environment interaction effects in humans that alter the developing brain in ways that modify the
risk of antisocial outcomes, including violence. In neural, autonomic and information-processing
systems, evolutionarily selected response patterns characterise normal responding and are
constantly adapted. In psychopathology, however, these patterns deviate from the expected course.
The reasons for individual differences in these responses arise from genetic polymorphisms,
adverse environmental experiences early in life and their interactions.

Goff, Rose, Rose and Purves found in their systematic review of epidemiological studies that the
prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among sentenced prisoners is higher than in
the general population. In that study, PTSD, prior to detention, was most related to witnessing
violence, having been threatened with a weapon, or being in a situation where they thought they
or someone close to them was going to be badly hurt or die. The review of Vermeiren showed that
although psychopathology in general was more severe in life-course persistent offenders, also
adolescent-limited offenders had significant and potential harmful levels of psychopathology. In
an American study of Abram et al nearly all youth arrested and detained in the juvenile justice
system have experienced traumatic events prior to their detention often leading to PTSD and
comorbid disorders.

A few studies have also investigated the rates of trauma diagnosis in co-occurrence with substance
abuse demonstrating that incarcerated men with substance misuse problems and PTSD are more
likely to have higher recidivism rates and higher risk for remaining entrenched in the criminal
justice system than men without such problems. Assink et al performed a series of multilevel
meta-analyses to examine the associations of several risk domains for life-course persistent-limited
and adolescence-limited offending. They included 55 studies reporting on 1014 effects of risk
factors and classified each factor into one of 14 risk domains. Consistent and large effects were
found for the criminal history, aggressive behaviour and alcohol/drug abuse domains, whereas
more modest effects were found for the family, neurocognitive and attitude domains in both types
of offending. Surprisingly, trauma diagnosis or mental health were not explicitly included,
although strongly related to offending.

Overall, earlier studies confirming the association between trauma and adolescent-onset offending
are typically based on data collected among persons in juvenile court, prisoners or in different
kinds of youth facilities. However, because a large part of police cases are closed before they end
up in courts and result in prison convictions, such data sets possibly result in severely biased

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population-level estimates of trauma and criminal behaviour. Only Sariaslan et al have previously
used longitudinal population-based data and individual fixed effects models to show that
triggers—including exposure to violence, traumatic brain injuries, unintentional injuries, self-
harm, substance intoxication and parental bereavement—contributed to elevated relative risks of
violent crime among patients with psychotic disorders.

What the literature on trauma and violent offending is still missing are as follows: (1) large-scale
population-level data of unselected participants followed for trauma diagnosis, clinical mental
health and juvenile violent behaviour, (2) research simultaneously assessing the effects of multiple
risk-factors affecting violent behaviour and (3) research that considers confounding factors using
quasi-experimental designs. We contribute to these shortcomings by analysing the effect of trauma
on violent offending using longitudinal register-linkage population data of young Finns
(N=908 140), which combines data from hospital, outpatient service and police registers. We
provide population averaged models to take account of observed substance abuse and other mental
health diagnoses, and sibling fixed effects models to take account of all observed and unobserved
confounding factors shared by siblings.

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 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

o There are estimated 579,000 new substantiated cases of child abuse and neglect in the United
States each year using Child Protective Services, according to studies on the financial impact
of child maltreatment (Fang, Brown, Florence, & Mercy, 2012) services (CPS) data from 2008.
According to the same report, these new incidences of maltreatment, including the expenses
of immediate and future medical care, lost productivity, and child welfare. Expenditures,
including special education costs and criminal justice costs, are anticipated to accrue
throughout a lifetime cost to the economy of $124 billion.
o Studies on adverse childhood experiences have widened the definition of childhood
maltreatment to include various types of adversity that children may encounter, such as family
or home dysfunction and instability, in addition to abuse and neglect (Felitti et al., 1998). A
key piece of evidence indicating a causal association is the existence of this "strong, graded
relationship" (Dube et al., 2001, p. 3089), also known as a dose-response relationship (Felitti
et al., 1998), where each increase in ACE score predicts an increased risk for bad
consequences. Additionally, it appears that ACE exposure increases the likelihood of
unfavourable outcomes (also known as comorbidity or symptom complexity) as a result of
cumulative exposure (Cloitre et al., 2009; Mersky et al., 2013). Researchers were shocked by
the results of the initial ACE study, which included a sample of mostly White, middle-aged,
and college-educated people. About two-thirds of the sample reported exposure to at least one
ACE, and more than one in five reported exposures to three or more ACEs. Comparatively,
minority samples have revealed elevated rates, with 78% of Native American adolescents and
young adults having an ACE score of at least one and 59% of them having an ACE score of at
least two (Brockie, Dana-Sacco, Wallen, Wilcox, & Campbell, 2015) and 80% of urban
minority young adults having an ACE score of at least one and 49% having an ACE score of
at least two (Mersky et al., 2013).
o According to a recent study using information from the nationally representative 2011–12
National Survey of Children's Health (NSCH), 46% of kids in the US have at least one ACE
(Sacks, Murphey, & Moore, 2014)
o It's crucial that ACE framework research has discovered evidence that the effects of ACEs start
early and can profoundly change developmental pathways from childhood into adulthood
(Nurius, Green, Logan-Greene, & Borja, 2015).

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o Felitti et aloriginal.'s ACE study from 1998 and subsequent research have shown a link
between childhood exposure to adverse events and risk factors for adult fatal conditions like
smoking, drug use, extreme obesity, inactivity, depressive episodes, poorer mental health, risky
sexual behaviour, and suicide attempts (Dube et al., 2001, 2003; Edwards, Holden, Felitti, &
Anda, 2003; Font & Maguire-Jack, 2016; Gilbert et
o In addition to increased risk for later physical health issues like heart disease, asthma, poor
self-reported health, cancer, stroke, chronic bronchitis/emphysema, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD), diabetes, and disability, significant links have been found between
higher ACE exposure and disproportionate health services use across the lifespan (Bellis et al.,
2017). (Anda et al., 2008; Felitti et al., 1998; Gilbert et al., 2015). Even after considering
socioeconomic characteristics, these findings have been made (Bellis et al., 2017; Font &
Maguire-Jack, 2016; Ports, Ford, & Merrick, 2016).
o Although ACE research that assesses relational outcomes is uncommon, there is some proof
that early adversity and poor relational outcomes are related. For instance, exposure to ACEs
is linked to a markedly higher risk of being diagnosed with a personality disorder, experiencing
intimate partner violence (both as a victim and perpetrator by men), and having frequent
marital problems (Afifi et al., 2011; Gilbert et al., 2015; Whitfield, Anda, Dube, and Felitti,
2003).
o (Bigras, Daspe, Godbout, Briere, & Sabourin, 2016; Daignea). Other studies that are not part
of the ACE study framework have looked at smaller subsets of childhood adversity, mostly
abuse history, and discovered that childhood trauma is linked to later increased likelihood of
marital disruption, lower marital satisfaction, lower relationship adjustment, higher
psychological stress scores, lower relationship sexual satisfaction, and increased intimate
partner violence Additionally, there is some evidence from ACE research that adversity in
childhood greatly raises the chance of adult posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms
(Brockie et al., 2015; Cabrera, Hoge, Bliese, Castro, & Messer, 2007; Rebbe et al., 2017).
Numerous studies have demonstrated a significant correlation between the presence and
severity of PTSD symptoms in romantic relationships and increased relationship conflict,
physical and psychological aggression, higher divorce rates, intimacy issues, relationship
dissatisfaction, and poorer family adjustment (Fredman et al., 2010; Kessler, Walters, &
Forthofer, 1998; Lambert, Engh, Hasbun, & Holzer, 2012; A. B. Miller et al., 2013; Monson)

Page | 23
o The body of academic evidence is mounting showing hardship experienced as a youngster may
also have long-lasting effects on relationships. These effects may also be indirect, such as when
childhood trauma increases adult PTSD vulnerability and symptoms, which in turn ruins
partner relationships (Cabrera et al., 2007; Yehuda et al., 2010).
o The processes by which experiencing trauma may lead to family system vulnerabilities that
increase the risk of recreating trauma in the following generation have been extensively
theorised (Abrams, 1999; Balcom, 1996; Coulter, 2011; Murphy et al., 2014; Siegel, 2013).
This is known as intergenerational transmission of trauma. The impact of experiencing or
witnessing childhood violence on developing into an adult victim or perpetrator of intimate
partner violence has been found to have small to moderate effect sizes, which offers some
support for an intergenerational transmission of violence (Smith-Marek et al., 2015; Stith et
al., 2000).
o Yehuda, Halligan, and Grossman (2001) discovered that parental PTSD in Holocaust survivors
increased the likelihood of their children experiencing emotional abuse and neglect, and that
self-reported childhood trauma in this group was linked to higher cortisol levels (a measure of
stress) and severity of PTSD as adults.
o The claim that childhood adversity significantly affects adult mental, behavioural, and physical
outcomes has received significant support from ACE studies, but there is little study on
possible relational implications. Additionally, no ACE studies have been conducted to examine
the marital dyad. Studies of specific childhood traumas as well as studies on trauma in general
have found significant effects on relationships, but these studies typically only looked at data
at the individual level without using dyadic data or considering the interdependence of
relationship outcome variables (Cook & Kenny, 2005).
o Additionally, in order to better inform research on outcomes, past studies have sought to group
individuals by ACE scores (Mersky et al., 2013; Rebbe et al., 2017) and couples by
combinations of abuse/trauma exposure among both partners in the dyad (Nelson & Wampler,
2000).
o Animal studies have provided the first evidence of epigenetic effects caused by early trauma.
Rats developing in optimal environments show less stress reactivity. Because lactating female
Long-Evans rats exhibit individual variation in the frequency of pup licking/grooming, high or
low levels of pup licking/grooming are considered a maternal phenotype. As adults, the

Page | 24
 offspring of high licking/grooming mothers show less plasma ACTH and cortisol responses to
acute stress in comparison with animals reared by low licking/grooming mothers.
o (Zinn et al. 2020; Liu et al. 2019; Anyan & Hjemdal 2016; Skrove, Romundstad, Indredavik
2013; Collishaw et al. 2007; Connor & Davidson 2003; Garmezy & Rutter 1983). Resilience
has been found to be a protective factor in relation to the development of EBP Previous
literature has focused on resilience as a moderator in the association of ACE with EBP (Uddin
et al. 2020; Phillips et al. 2019; Clements-Nolle & Waddington 2019); however, based on the
existing knowledge, mediation might also be expected, but this has rarely been studied (Uddin
et al. 2020; Yee et al. 2017). Regarding mediation, recent findings show that those exposed to
ACE have on average lower resilience (Villasana et al. 2017). Further, lower resilience was
found to lead to more EBP among younger adolescents (Liu et al. 2019). Finally, in one of the
few previously published studies on resilience as a mediator, resilience was shown to mediate
the relationship between family functioning and depression among adolescents from single
parent families (Yee et al. 2017)
o Studies of adults in mental hospitals (Carmen & Rieker, 1984), adults suffering from multiple
personalities (Bliss, 1986), adults who are borderline (Walsh, 1977), and adolescents who go
on to commit murder (Lewis, Lovely, Yaeger, eta!., 1989) show that these adults and
adolescents very often were demonstrate that they often were raped or incestuously abused as
children and that they are quite prone to being raped again and again in their adult lives
(Russell, 1986). Those who harm children have often been harmed themselves as children
(Silver, Dublin, & Lourie, 1969). And some of those who indulge in self-mutilation or who
make repeated suicide attempts give vivid past histories of long-standing childhood horrors
(Herman & van der Kolk, 1987).
o The offspring of high licking/grooming mothers also show significantly increased
hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor mRNA and protein expression, enhanced glucocorticoid
negative feedback sensitivity, and decreased hypothalamic CRF mRNA levels, which all
indicate decreased stress reactivity as a result of optimal quality of care. Furthermore, DNA
methylation patterns differ in high licking/grooming versus low licking/grooming offspring.
The glucocorticoid receptor promoter sequence in the hippocampus of adult offspring of low
licking/grooming mothers is hypermethylated and functionally less sensitive to cortisol
feedback. Maternal behaviours also affect other biological systems that are associated with the
LHPA axis. Prolonged periods of maternal separation alter the methylation state of the

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 promoter for the arginine vasopressin gene (AVP) in the pup, increasing hypothalamic
vasopressin AVP synthesis and LHPA responses to stress, along with memory deficits and
learned helplessness behaviours.

METHODOLOGY

Aim
A comprehensive study which aims to comprehend the effects of adverse childhood experiences
on young adults in context to their romantic relationships.

Objective

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 The objective of the study is to understand the effects of adverse childhood experiences on a
young adult's romantic relationships.

Variables

Correlation design is used

• Adverse Childhood Experiences are the traumatic experiences that an individual goes
through in their childhood which inadvertently manifest in numerous facets of their life
as they grow and mature into adulthood.

• Romantic Relationships refer to the close intimate bond shared by romantic partners
which instills faith, companionship and love between each other.

Hypothesis

The hypothesis is formed that adverse childhood experiences have a correlation with the quality
of romantic relationships in adulthood.

Sample and it’s selection

• Population - Young Adults (18-30 years)

• Residents of Delhi and Noida

• Sample: 50 young adults

• Sampling Method: Convenient Sampling and Snowball Sampling Method

Description of the tools employed

A correlational quantitative research design will be executed with voluntary snowball sampling.
The 2 variables will be studied through psychometric tools to be administered on ages 18 to 30.
The data obtained will be statistically analyzed and interpreted in order to discuss its implications.
The tools employed for the study are - ACE, ECR

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ACE – A 10-item questionnaire called the ACE (Adverse Childhood Experiences) Questionnaire
(Felitti et al., 1998) is used to assess childhood trauma. The ACE Study's 10 categories of
childhood trauma are evaluated using the questionnaire. Physical abuse, verbal abuse, sexual abuse,
physical neglect, and emotional neglect are five that are personal.

ECR – R – A 36-item assessment of adult attachment style called ECR-R. The avoidance and
anxiety attachment subscales are measured by the ECR-R.

Procedure

The data was collected from Amity University, Noida and my neighborhood. The chosen age
group was of young adults aged between 18-30 years. For collection of data convenience sampling
was used, participants were approached and were briefed about the aim of the study being
conducted and were presented with an informed consent form which had the description of the
examiner and the aim of the study along with “Agree/ Disagree” which ensured the participants
that the participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw if they wished, due to nature of
the tools used a trigger warning was also issued. For the conduction of the tests the respondents
were called and made comfortable, they were given a brief description of the study and what the
study is supposed to measure, and all their doubts were cleared.

Statistical Analysis

ANALYSIS OF RESULT

A comprehensive study which aims to comprehend the effects of adverse childhood experiences

on young adults in context to their romantic relationships. The hypothesis is formed that adverse

childhood experiences have a correlation with the quality of romantic relationships in adulthood.

Page | 28
As per the data scoring and interpretation of results, it is evidently clear that adverse childhood

experiences can have deteriorating effects on an adult's romantic relationships.

DISCUSSION

This study attempts to comprehend the effects of adverse childhood experiences on young adults

in context to their romantic relationships. In this study we aim to correlate how childhood can have

an impact well into adulthood and how it manifests itself in relationships. The study is correlational

and the sample size is 100 with the age range of participants taken as 18 – 30 years. This study

also tries to emphasize on its effects on an individual’s life, especially in terms of their romantic

relationships.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACES) are characterized as exposure to traumatic events

throughout childhood, such as emotional, verbal, sexual, physical, or mental abuse, violence

exposure, neglect, abandonment, substance misuse exposure, or other detrimental events that the

child may carry into adulthood. Trauma that happens during a person's formative years, when they

are particularly impressionable, can have a long-lasting effect on their perceptions, beliefs,

cognitive patterns, way of living, and interpersonal connections (Briere & Scott, 2015). It may aid

in the emergence of stress disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder and complex

posttraumatic stress disorder, major depression, depression with psychotic features, anxiety, panic

disorders, somatic symptom disorder, psychosis, substance use disorders, borderline personality

disorder characteristics, and complicated posttraumatic stress disorder (Briere & Scott, 2015).

Adverse childhood experiences were found to increase the risk of dissociation, which may be used

as a survival technique, and to relate to substance use, criminal activity, and criminal behaviour

(Zyromski, Dollarhide, Aras, Geiger, Oehrtman, & Clark, 2018). According to Kealy and Lee

Page | 29
(2018), cumulative childhood trauma exposure was linked to a higher risk of psychiatric distress

and suicidality in adults.

Childhood is a crucial period in everyone’s life. It sets the stone for the development of the child

and shapes them into adults. Events that could be stressful that happen in childhood are referred to

as "adverse childhood experiences," or "ACEs" (0-17 years).

A comprehensive study which aims to comprehend the effects of adverse childhood experiences

on young adults in context to their romantic relationships. The hypothesis is formed that adverse

childhood experiences have a correlation with the quality of romantic relationships in adulthood.

As per the data scoring and interpretation of results, it is evidently clear that adverse childhood

experiences can have deteriorating effects on an adult's romantic relationships.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Adverse childhood experiences (ACES) are characterized as exposure to traumatic events

throughout childhood, such as emotional, verbal, sexual, physical, or mental abuse, violence

exposure, neglect, abandonment, substance misuse exposure, or other detrimental events that the

child may carry into adulthood. Trauma that happens during a person's formative years, when they

are particularly impressionable, can have a long-lasting effect on their perceptions, beliefs,

cognitive patterns, way of living, and interpersonal connections (Briere & Scott, 2015). It may aid

in the emergence of stress disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder and complex

posttraumatic stress disorder, major depression, depression with psychotic features, anxiety, panic

disorders, somatic symptom disorder, psychosis, substance use disorders, borderline personality

disorder characteristics, and complicated posttraumatic stress disorder (Briere & Scott, 2015).

Page | 30
Adverse childhood experiences were found to increase the risk of dissociation, which may be used

as a survival technique, and to relate to substance use, criminal activity, and criminal behavior

(Zyromski, Dollarhide, Aras, Geiger, Oehrtman, & Clark, 2018). According to Kealy and Lee

(2018), cumulative childhood trauma exposure was linked to a higher risk of psychiatric distress

and suicidality in adults. A comprehensive study which aims to comprehend the effects of adverse

childhood experiences on young adults in context to their romantic relationships. The hypothesis

is formed that adverse childhood experiences have a correlation with the quality of romantic

relationships in adulthood. As per the data scoring and interpretation of results, it is evidently clear

that adverse childhood experiences can have deteriorating effects on an adult's romantic

relationships.

Page | 31
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Dube SR, Miller JW, Brown DW, Giles WH, Felitti VJ, Dong M, Anda RF. Adverse childhood

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adolescence. Journal of Adolescent Health. 2006;38(4):444e1–10.

Dube SR, Felitti VJ, Dong M, Chapman DP, Giles WH, Anda RF. Childhood abuse, neglect, Bellis

MD. Developmental traumatology: the psychobiological development of maltreated children and

its implications for research, treatment, and policy. Development and Psychopathology.

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 Abstract

This study attempts to comprehend the effects of adverse childhood experiences on young
adults in context of their romantic relationships. In this study we aim to correlate how childhood
can have an impact well into adulthood and how it manifests itself in relationships. The study is
correlational, and the sample size is 100 with the age range of participants taken as 18 – 30 years.
This study also tries to emphasize its effects on an individual’s life, especially in terms of romantic
relationships.
Keywords: Trauma, romantic relationships, young adults, adverse childhood experiences.

Page | 74
 Chapter - 1

[Introduction]

Adverse childhood experiences (ACES) are essentially exposure to traumatic events throughout
childhood, such as emotional, verbal, sexual, physical, or mental abuse, violence exposure,
neglect, abandonment, substance misuse exposure, or other detrimental events that the child may
carry into adulthood. Trauma that happens during a person's formative years, when they are
particularly impressionable, can have a long-lasting effect on their perceptions, beliefs, cognitive
patterns, way of living, and interpersonal connections (Briere & Scott, 2015). It may aid in the
emergence of stress disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder and complex posttraumatic
stress disorder, major depression, depression with psychotic features, anxiety, panic disorders,
somatic symptom disorder, psychosis, substance use disorders, borderline personality disorder
characteristics, and complicated posttraumatic stress disorder (Briere & Scott, 2015). Adverse
childhood experiences were found to increase the risk of dissociation, which may be used as a
survival technique, and to be connected with substance use, criminal activity, and criminal
behaviour (Zyromski, Dollarhide, Aras, Geiger, Oehrtman, & Clark, 2018). According to Kealy
and Lee (2018), cumulative childhood trauma exposure was linked to a higher risk of psychiatric
distress and suicidality in adults.
Childhood is a crucial period in everyone’s life. It sets the stone for the development of the
child and shapes them into adults. Events that could be stressful that happen in childhood are
referred to as "adverse childhood experiences," or "ACEs" (0-17 years). For instance:
1. being subjected to abuse, neglect, or violence
2. observing violence in the society or at home
3. experiencing a family member's suicide attempt or death
Aspects of the child's surroundings that can damage their sense of security, stability, and
kinship are also considered, such as growing up in a home where:
4. issues with substance abuse
5. mental illness issues
6. instability brought on by a parent's divorce or incarceration of family members
Please be aware that the instances shown above are not all of the negative experiences.
Numerous additional stressful events may have an effect on health and wellness. In youth and

Page | 75
adulthood, ACEs are connected to chronic health issues, mental illness, and substance use issues.
Furthermore, ACEs can be prevented.
ACEs can have long-lasting, detrimental effects on health, wellbeing, and life possibilities
like educational and employment prospects. Involvement in sex trafficking, injuries, sexually
transmitted infections, maternal and child health issues (including teen pregnancy, pregnancy
complications, and foetal death), and a variety of chronic diseases and leading causes of death,
including cancer, diabetes, heart disease, and suicide, can all be increased by these experiences.

Toxic stress can result from ACEs and associated socioeconomic determinants of health,
such living in underdeveloped or racially segregated communities, traveling frequently, and
enduring food insecurity (extended or prolonged stress). Children's immune systems, stress-
response mechanisms, and brain development can all be significantly impacted by the toxic stress
caused by ACEs. Children's learning, decision-making, and attention may be impacted by these
changes.
Developing healthy and secure relationships may be challenging for kids who experience
toxic stress as children. They may also suffer with money, employment, and depression throughout
their lives, as well as having a history of precarious employment as adults. Their own children may
likewise be affected by these impacts. Due to systematic racism, the effects of poverty brought on
by a lack of educational and employment opportunities, or both, certain children may have
additional exposure to toxic stress arising from past and continuing traumas.

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 References

Last Name, F. M. (Year). Article Title. Journal Title, Pages From - To.

Last Name, F. M. (Year). Book Title. City Name: Publisher Name

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 Footnotes
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 Tables

Table 1

[Table Title]

Column Head Column Head Column Head Column Head Column Head
Row Head 123 123 123 123
Row Head 456 456 456 456
Row Head 789 789 789 789
Row Head 123 123 123 123
Row Head 456 456 456 456
Row Head 789 789 789 789

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 Figures

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