ALLYN & BACON CLASSICS

A Primer in Theory
Construction

PAUL DAVIDSON REYNOLDS

Boston New York San Francisco

Mexico City Montreal Toronto London Madrid Munich Paris
Hong Kong Singapore Tokyo Cape Town Sydney
 Contents

Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii

1. INTRODUCTION 1

For What Should Scientific Knowledge Be Useful? 2

Typologies 2 * Prediction and Explanation 3 •
Sense of Understanding 5 • Control 7

Theory 8

How Does a Concept or Statement Become Part of a

Scientific Body of Knowledge? 10

Desirable Characteristics of Scientific Knowledge 12

Abstractness 12 • Intersubjectivity (Meaning) 14 •
Intersubjectivity (Logical Rigor) 14 • Empirical
Relevance 16

Summary and Conclusion 17

2. THE IDEA 19

Kuhn Paradigms 20
Example: Freud's Theory of Personality 22

Paradigms 25
Examples: Heider's Balance Theory 26 • Two Conceptions
of Status Structures: Elitist and Pluralistic 28
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Paradigm Variations 32
Examples: Variations on the Freudian Conception of
Personality 32 • Variations on Heider's Balance
Theory 35
Identifying Paradigms 42
Conclusion 43

3. CONCEPTS 45
Definition of Concepts 46
Abstract vs. Concrete Concepts 49
Concept Measurement 52
Quantification of Concepts 57 The Nominal
Level 58 - * The Ordinal Level 59 • The Interval
Level 60 • The Ratio Level 62 • General Comments
on Quantification 63

Summary and Conclusion 65

4. STATEMENTS 67
Existence Statements 67
Relational Statements 69 Associational
Statements 70 * Causal Statements 71 • Deterministic
and Probabilistic Statements 74
Levels of Abstraction 76
Theoretical Statements 77
Relation of Theoretical Statements to Theory 78
Relationship between Theoretical
Statements and Empirical Data 80
Summary 82
 Contents ix

5. FORMS OF THEORIES 83

The Set-of-Laws Form 83

Examples: The Iron Law of Oligarchy 84 • The Laws of
Operant Behavior 85 • The Exercise of Influence in Small
Groups 88

The Axiomatic Form 93

Example: The Exercise of Influence in Small Groups 94

The Causal Process Form 98

Examples:The Effect of First Impressions on
Cognitions 99 • Creation of Oligarchies 100 •
Operant Behavior, Law II 102 • The Exercise of
Influence in Small Groups 104 • Status Incongruence
and Mental Health 105

Evaluation of the Three Forms of Theory 109

Simulation or Model Building 113

Summary 116

6. TESTING THEORIES 117

Abstract Statements and Concrete Research 117

Empirical Research and Confidence in Abstract

Statements 119

Statistical Decision Procedures 122

Classical Statistical Inference 123 * Should the

Hypothesis Be Presented before the Data Are
Examined? 130

Changing Confidence in Theories 132

Comparing Theories 134
Conclusion 139
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7. STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING A

SCIENTIFIC BODY OF KNOWLEDGE 141

Research-Then-Theory 142
Theory-Then-Research 146
Comparison of Strategies 148
How to Get a New Idea 154
Composite Approach 156
Research Methods 159
Conclusion 161

8. CONCLUSION 163
Potential for a Social Science 165

APPENDIX: STUDENT EXERCISES 171

Comments 171
Assignment I: Empirical Generalization and
Empirical Support 172
Assignment II: Explanation of an Empirical
Generalization 173
Assignment III: Testing a Theory 174
Assignment IV: Application of Theories to
.Natural Phenomena 175
References 177
Author Index 183
Subject Index 185