IO CHEM LECTURE

LESSON 1:
THE KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL AND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF
ATTRACTION IN MATTER

KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY

▪ Explains properties of solids and liquids in terms of intermolecular forces of attraction
and the kinetic energy of the individual particles.

1. All matter is made up of tiny particles(molecule).

2. These are particles are in constant motion.
3. The speed of particles is proportional to temperature. Increased temperature means
greater speed. (if we going to expose in high temp. the movement of the molecule will
high)
4. Solids, liquids, and gases differ in distances between particles, in the freedom of motion
of particles, and in the extent which particles interact.

Gas: total disorder; much empty space; particles have complete freedom of motion; particles
apart.
Liquid: disorders;particles or cluster of particles are free to move relative to each other; particles
are free to move

Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

▪ Are attractive forces between molecules or particles in the solid or liquid states.
▪ Intermolecular forces (IMF) are relatively weaker than the forces within the molecules
forming bonds (intr)

The intermolecular forces of attraction

➢ In a pure substance are collectively

▪ Dipole-dipole
▪ Hydrogen bonding
▪ Ion-dipole
▪ London dispersion
▪ Dipole-induced dipole force

DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCES
▪ Dipole-dipole forces exist between polar molecules
▪ One end of a dipole attracts the oppositely charged end of the other dipole.
▪ If my negative at positive nagkakaroon ng attraction

HYDROGEN BONDING
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▪ Type of dipole-dipole force occurs when a hydrogen atom is attached to a highly

electronegative atom(oxygen,fluorine,nitrogen)
▪ A hydrogen atom on one molecule is attracted to the electronegative atom on a second
molecule.

ION-DIPOLE FORCE
▪ It acts between an ion and a polar molecule.
▪ This explains the solubility of ionic compounds in water, which is polar molecule.
▪ Water is polar
▪ The ions and oppositely charged end the polar water molecules overcome the attraction
between ions themselves.
▪ Each
▪ Cation forms an attractive force with the partially negative end of the molecule.
▪ Anion forms an attractive force with the partially positive end of the molecule.
▪

LONDON DISPERSION FORCES

▪ The weakest type

DIPOLE INDUCED DIPOLE FORCES

▪ Forces exist between a polar molecule and a non polar molecule.
▪ A

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES AND PROPERTIES OF LIQUID

1. Surface Tension
•Molecules within a liquid are pulled in all directions by intermolecular forces.
•Molecules at the surface are pulled downward and sideways by other molecules, not
upward away from the surface.
• Surface tension allows needles and paper clips to float in water if placed carefully on
the surface.
NOTE : THE LIQUIDS THAT HAVE STRONG INTERMOLECULAR FORCES ALSO
HAVE HIGH SURFACE TENSION.

2. Capillary Action
▪ Tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow tubes or be drawn into small
openings such as those between grains of a rock.
▪ Capillary action is shown by water rising spontaneously.
▪ Capillary action, also known as capillarity, is a result of intermolecular
attraction between the liquid and solid materials.
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▪ A thin film of water adheres to the wall of the glass tube as water
molecules up the glass tube as water molecules are attracted to atoms
making up the glass.
▪ Two types of forces are involved in capillary action:
- Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between like molecules (the
liquid molecules)
- Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules (such as those in
water and in the particles that make up the glass tube.
▪ When the cohesive forces between the liquid molecules are greater than
adhesive forces between the liquid and the walls of the container the surface
of the liquid is convex.
▪ When the cohesive forces between the liquid molecules are lesser than the
adhesive forces between the liquid and the walls of the container, the surface
of the liquid is concave.

3. Viscosity
▪ Defined as the resistance of a liquid to flow.
▪ It is loosely referred to as the thickness or thinness of a liquid.
▪ Syrup and oil flow
▪ The viscosity of liquid depends on their intermolecular attraction.
▪ The stronger the intermolecular force, the higher is the liquid’s
viscosity.
▪ NOTE: Long -chained substances like oil have greater intermolecular
forces because there are more atoms that can attract one another,
contributing to the substance’s total attractive forces.
4. Vapor Pressure
▪ You can only achieve vapor pressure is close container the liquid.
▪ The pressure exerted by the gas in equilibrium with a solid or liquid in
closed container at a given temperature.
▪ When liquid or solid substance is made to evaporate in a closed
container, the gas exerts a pressure above the liquid.
▪ Substances with relatively strong intermolecular forces will have low
vapor pressure because the particles will have difficulty escaping as
gas.
▪ Oil, honey mababa ang vapor pressure because high ang
intermolecular force niya.

5. Boiling Point
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▪ Temperature at which its vapor pressure is equal to the external or

atmospheric pressure. Then duon na nagkakaroon ng boiling point.
▪ Increasing the temperature of a liquid raises the kinetic energy of its
molecules, until such point where the energy of the particle movement
exceeds the intermolecular forces that hold them together.
▪ The greater the intermolecular force, the higher the energy needed to
increase the kinetic energy of the molecules to break these forces.
Dikit dikit ang mga molecules kaya matagal mag boil.
▪ NOTE at higher altitude, the atmospheric pressure is the lower, hence
the boiling point will subsequently decrease.
6. Heat of Vaporization
▪ Molar heat Vaporization is the amount of heat required to vaporize
one mole of substance t its boiling point.
▪ The application of heat disrupts the intermolecular forces of attraction
of the liquid molecules allows them to vaporize.
▪ The Hvap is
▪
Structure and Properties of Water
▪ At room temperature, pure water is colorless, odorless and tasteless liquid.
▪ It turns to ice, its solid form at o degree and 1atm

Unique Properties of water

1. Water is a good solvent
2. Water has a high specific heat
3. The boiling point of water unusually high.
$. Solis water is less dense.
- Unlike all other liquids, the molecules in solid water are farther apart
than they are in liquid water.
- - when solid water forms

TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

▪ Solid can be classified as crystalline or amorphous based on the arrangement
of their particles.
- CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS have highly regular arrangement of particles.
- AMORPHPUS SOLID have considered

AMORPHOUS SOLIDS
▪ Such as glass, are formed rapidly that constituents’ particles do not have
time to align or organize into a more crystalline lattice.
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▪ Example: Cotton candy , mayonnaise, biological tissues, foam, grain, fault

gouge, sand,

CRYSTALLINE SOLID
▪ Have well defined crystal lattice.
▪ A lattice is three dimensional system of points designating the positions

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION

Why do you need salt to make ice cream?
• Ice-cream makers know that if you add rock salt to ice, the mixture freezes at a few
degrees below 0°C.
▪ A colligative property is a property of solutions that depends only upon the
number of solute particles, not upon their identity.

Tea is not the same as pure water.

• Some of these differences in properties have little to do with the specific
identity of the solute.
• Instead, they depend upon the mere presence of solute particles in the
solution.

Three important colligative properties

1.Vapor-pressure lowering
▪ Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapor pressure that is in dynamic equilibrium
with its liquid in closed system.
o A solution that contains a solute that is nonvolatile (not easily
vaporized) always has a lower vapor pressure than the pure solvent.
▪ Equilibrium is established between the liquid and vapor in a pure solvent.
▪ In a solution, solute particles reduce the number of solvent particles able to
escape the liquid. Equilibrium is established at a lower vapor pressure.
▪ Ionic solute that dissociate have greater effects on vapor pressure than does a
non-dissociating solute.
o Three moles of sodium chloride dissolved in water produce 6 mol of
particles because each formula unit of NaCl dissociates into three
ions,
o Three moles if calcium chloride dissolved in water produce 9 mol of
particles because each formula unit of Cacl2 dissociate into three ions.
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o Three moles of glucose dissolved on water produce 3 mol of particles

because glucose does not dissociate.
o The decrease in a solutions vapor pressure is proportional to the
number of particles the solute makes in solution.
• The solution has the lowest vapor pressure is Calcium Chloride because the
particles dissociate, and contains 2 particles. Water that can’t easily
evaporates.
• The vapor-pressure lowering caused by 0.1 mol of NaCl in 1000 g of water
is twice that caused by 0.1 mol of glucose in the same quantity of water.
• In the same way, 0.1 mol of CaCl2 in 1000 g of water produces three times
the vapor-pressure lowering as 0.1 mol of glucose in the same quantity of
water.
• Not all solute dissociating.

2. Freezing -Point Depression

• When a substance freezes, the particles of the solid take on an orderly pattern.
o The presence of a solute in water disrupts the formation of this pattern.
o As a result, more kinetic energy must be withdrawn from a solution than from the
pure solvent to cause the solution to solidify.
• The freezing point of a solution is lower than the freezing point of the pure
solvent.
• The difference in temperature between the freezing point of a solution and
the freezing point of the pure solvent is called the freezing-point
depression.

Freezing point depression is another colligative property

o The magnitude of the freezing-point depression is proportional to the
number of solute particles dissolved in the solvent and does not depend
upon their identity
o The freezing-point depression of aqueous solutions plays an important
role in helping keep travelers safe in cold, icy weather.
• The truck spreads a layer of salt on the icy road to make the ice
melt.
• The melted ice forms a solution with a lower freezing point than
that of pure water.

Boiling -Point Elevation

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• The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the
liquid phase equals the atmospheric pressure. Kapag mataas ang atmospheric temp sa
place mataas dn ang boiling point
o Adding a nonvolatile solute to a liquid solvent decreases the vapor pressure of the
solvent.
o Because of the decrease in vapor pressure, additional kinetic energy must be
added to raise the vapor pressure of the liquid phase of the solution to atmospheric
pressure and initiate boiling.
o More solute mas mataas ang boiling point merong disruption.

The boiling point of a solution is higher than the boiling point of the pure solvent.
• The difference in temperature between the boiling point of a solution and the boiling
point of the pure solvent is the boiling-point elevation.

The fluid circulating through a car’s cooling system is a solution of water and ethylene glycol, or
antifreeze.
▪ The antifreeze doesn’t just lower the freezing point of the water in the cooling system.
▪ It also elevates the boiling point, which helps protect the engine from overheating in the
summer.
Boiling-point elevation is a colligative property; it depends on the concentration of particles, not
on their identity.
• The magnitude of the boiling-point elevation is proportional to the number of solute
particles dissolved in the solvent.
• The boiling point of water increases by 0.512°C for every mole of particles that the
solute forms when dissolved in 1000 g of water.

Solutes other than NaCl could be used to produce the same freezing-point depression in an
ice-cream machine. What factors do you think make NaCl a good choice?
NaCl, or rock salt, is readily available, inexpensive, and non-toxic. It is an ionic compound. It
produces twice the freezing-point depression of a molecular solid such as sucrose, or table sugar.
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Solutions and Their Properties

Types of Solution
Solutions are mixture of two or more substances evenly distributed
throughout a single phase.
It consists of a solute and a solvent.
• Solute is the substance dissolved
• Solvent is the dissolving medium
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Solute Solvent Solution Example

Gas Gas Gas Oxygen in nitrogen

Gas Liquid Liquid Carbon dioxide in water

Gas Solid Solid Hydrogen in palladium

Liquid Liquid Liquid Ethanol in water

Liquid Solid Solid Mercury in silver

Solid Liquid Liquid Salt in water

Solid Solid Solid Copper in tin (Bronze)

Solution can be classified as:

• Unsaturated Solution – contains less solute than solvents
capacity to dissolve
• Saturated Solution– contains the maximum amount of
solute that the solvent can dissolve at a certain temperature
• Supersaturated Solution – contains more dissolved solute
than is present in a saturated solution
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Energy of Solution Formation

Note: Substances in a solution must have the same nature of
polarity.
Three steps in solution formation
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The enthalpy of solution (ΔHsoln) is the enthalpy change

associated with the formation of the solution. It is equal to the
sum of the ΔH values for three steps.
ΔHsoln = ΔH1 + ΔH2 + ΔH3
A positive ΔHsoln signifies an endothermic process, while
negative ΔHsoln indicates an exothermic process.
• Exothermic more energy is release
• Endothermic more energy is used

Concentration of Solutions
• Concentration of solution is a measure of the
amount of solute in a given amount of solvent or
solution.
• The amount of solute in a solution may be expressed
in several ways
a. Percentage of by mass
b. Percentage of by volume
c. Percentage of by mass-volume
d. Mole fraction
e. Molality
f. Molarity
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Mole Fraction
• The mole fraction (x) of a component in a solution is
equal to the number of moles of that component
divided by the total number of moles of all the
components present.
• The sum of the mole fractions of all components in a
solution will always be equal to one.
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