forman enlaces covalent

CAP 1 structure t Bonding Cnometal nometals

Bonding
joining of two atoms in a stable arrangement that always leads to
lowered energy increased stability
two or more elements compound
atoms gain lose or share electrons to attain the electronic config
of noble gas
a that's closest to them in the periodic table to
complete the octet rule

Ionic Covalent
transfer of electrons from one element sharing of 2 electrons between
to another two nuclei
generallyhappens elements from left occurs w elements in the middle
side combine w the
are
rightside AND
held via electrostaticinteraction
Clikecarbon t elementsfrom the
same side
examCplefNato t CP'e NaCl exampled H Ch CH4
K e t IO e
e
KI Total bonds formed depends
Li t F Lif on the location of the atom
transferof electrons forms stable Atoms w upto 4valenceelectrons

µ
salts of cationslanions S
Tf
Affomms
tog born
or produce
an octet 8
example BF of bonds 8 of e valence
B 3e 3 bonds can be formed

exampleff N
Hz
N se r 8 5 3 predicted bonds
 Lewis structures
Areelectron dot representations for molecules
i Draw only the valence electrons
2 Give
everysecond row element no more than 8 e
3 Give each hydrogen 2 e
4 Afterplacing all electrons in bonds and lone pairs use a lone pair
to form a multiplebond if the atom doesn't have an octet
exampled HF diatomicmolecule
H le H t ii HE
F 7e
exampled CH N exampled CH40
H
I H
C 545 µ C N H C 4e I
H te x 5 5 e i 1 It He H C Oi H
N 3e H H O Cee i
H
12 e Ne
IOI bonds
4e total lone pairs
exampleddraw a Lewis structure for formula
ethylene a compound molec
z Hy in which each cartoon is bonded 2 hydrogen
by
C 4 2 Se lone pair is turned
H 2 114 Ye H C EC H to a bond so both C's H C C H
I I 1 I
re H H complete the octet rule µ A

Formal Charge
The chargeassigned to individual atoms in a Lewis structure
determines how the of electrons around an atom compare to the
of valence electrons
F C number of valence electrons number of electrons of an atom
all of it's unshared e S Iz ofshared
exampled FC for each atom Ot
in Hz
0 FC 6 2 t I 16 H FC I O t E 2 I
e Ipairs Enge I
0
I
6 5
I

ft Ifj H
Fc I
I
to
 isomers
Different molecules w the same molecular formula
exampled C HO

i
H
1
constitutionalisomerstt
theyhave
formula
H
molecular
the same

H C c
1 I I H jI j 1j different connectivity
H H of the atoms
H H
ethanol dimethyl ether

Exceptions to the octet rule

1 Hydrogen it accommodates 2 e in bonding
2 B yHium don't have enough valence eto form an octet in a
neutral molecule they'rehighlyreactive because of this
3 Someelementsinthesdromandlater empty d orbitals so they have
more than 8 electrons around them like phosphorus and sulfur

Resonance
Two or more valid Lewis structures for a molecule that has the same atom
piaexmmepntyybcuotNHdigffereht.a.o
an9ement of electro.no
resonance hybrid wi
characteristics of bothforms
resonance stabilized µ fin I O H TN1 yof both
is an accuraterepresentation

H H
Allows certain electrons to be delocalized over 2 or more atoms which
adds stability
Resonance stability
1 Resonance structures aren't real
2 Resonance structures aren't in eowilibrium w each other there's no movement
3 Resonance structures aren't isomers

Resonance structures isomers

Drawing them
i structurediffers in the position of multiple bonds and nonbonded electrons
the placement of atoms and single bonds stays the same
Two structures must have the same of unpaired electrons
g
Structures must be valid Lewis structures
4 ar Tm shows movement of an electron pair
where
the e
removing
T alwaysbegins bond
or lone pair
Resonance Hybrid
the compositeof all possible resonance structures
is more stable than resonance structure because it delocalizes
any
electron density over a larger volume
each resonance form contributes equally to the hybrid when identical
when differentstructures are different hybrid looks better and is the major
contributor
Better resonance structure is one that has more bonds and fewer charges
exampled
o O
it
c l
c
CH H CH A
mayor contributor minor contributor
Drawing a hybrid w delocalized electron density
I determine what is different in the resonance structures
position of a multiple bond
site of a charge
exampled OS
o a resonancehybrid
11 Ii
s
C L f g c 3charge is delocalized
µ ni
1
H1 TNI H N
1
doublebondis delocalized
It H H between O C N

Determining Molecular shape

Two variables define a molecule'sstructure
between the centers of two bonded nuclei
length average distance
1 Bond

2 BondAngle determines the shapearound

any atom bonded to twootheratoms
determined by countinghowmany groups surround the atom canatom1lonepairs
after use the valence shellelectron pairrepulsion vsEPRtheory to determinethe shape
area electronspairsrepeleach other tokeepstable arrangements away from eachother
Twogroupe
ignore multiple bonds in predicting geometry count only atoms t lonepairs
exampled Belt HCICH
v v v v
H Bl H H CH
r n

Threegroupse
exampled BF CHz CHz
FA r F H H
C Cr 2
B H EH
F

FOVRgMP
exampled CH4
H It
900
H
109.511
H C H s
C
H H H
specialcases
H N H N
N
4mn79
aur group it.fi
IIIamiaaeJFemcmapIEfEfE
HD H I H bonded atoms are compressed
HESH into smallerspace w a
fourgroups 1050 smaller bond angle
a bent molecule
 Drawing Organic Structures
condensed
1 All atoms are drawn in bond lines
are usuallyomitted
2 Atoms are drawn next to theatoms
they arebonded with
3 Parentheses around similar
groups
bonded to the same atom
4 Lonepairs areomitted
skeletal
used for both rings1chains ofatoms
i Carbonatom is at junction or end
ofany line
2 Assume each carbon has enough
hydrogens to make it tetravalent
3 Draw all heteroatoms and Hz
directlybonded to them

Heteroatoms are joineddirectly to the

carbon to which it is bonded

skeletalstmcture.su chargedCarbonAtom
bothhydrogen atoms and lonepairs are omitted
i chargeon a carbon takesplace of one hydrogenatom
2 Chargedetermines the number of lonepairs
f have one lone pair
Ct have NO_lonepairs
 Hybridization
The combination of two or more atomic orbitals toform the same number of
hybridorbitals each having the same shape and energy
new hybrid orbitals are intermediate in energybetween the Zs and Zp orbitals
r a
Tp Tp Tp hybridize into Isps Isps Isps Isps

each targelobe concentrates electron the 4 hybrid orbitals form

y density in the bonding between 4 eavivalentbonds
2 nuclei makes bonds formed
from hybrid orbitals stronger
than pure put bonds

Bond length t strength

Doublebonds consisting of both
a o and T bond are strong
p bond is weaker than sigma

As the s characterincreases the

bond becomes shorter and stronger
501 s 33l s 251 S because orbitalholds its electrons
closer to the nucleus

electronegativity t bond polarity

Electronegativity is the measure of an atom's
attraction for electrons in a bond
how much an atom wants an e
An atom is mere electronegative if it r

attracts electron density

An atom is mere electropositive if it
gives up electron density
Electronegativity values indicate if e are
equally1unequallyshared in a bond
 e are eowallyshared non polar bond
exampled C C each attract e to the same 1 similar extent
e w uneowal sharing have a polar bond because e are pulled away
have a dipole a
partial separation of charge
ft partial positivecharge
f partial negative charge

Polarity of Molecules
Determining a net dipole zero in a molecule
1 Electronegativity to ID all polar bonds 1directions of the bond dipoles
2 Determine
geometryby counting groups and check if dipoles cancel or
reinforce each other
CAP 2 Acids and Bases

Bronsted Laury Acids and Bases

Acidity in terms of protons positively charged Ht

Acid Base
A proton done Aproton acceptor
Always contains a hydrogen atom Must be able to form a bond to
Symbol HA a proton
Must contain an available e pair
to donate
symbol B
Chargedspecies are used as salts w Cations to balance the L I charge
OH and NHz Lit Nat Rt aka counterions ions
spectator

Reactions of Bronsted Lowry

Results in transfer of a proton from an acid to a base aka proton transfer
reactions
one bond is broken one is formed
net charge must be the same
on both sides of equation
any
Transfer reactions
remove Itt from acid to form the conjugatebase
I add Itt to base to form a conjugateacid

CH O
base
CHzOH NH NHz
 ID the acid and base
i When
only one
starting material contains H it's the acid
2 If
only one
starting material has a lone pair or T bond it's the base
3 Compound w netpositive
charge tends to be the acid a negative net
chargetends to be a base
exampled acids bases
HCl Hz504 OH
Acid strength t p ka
Cap 3 OrganicMolecules Functional Groups

Alkane Alcohol Nitrite Amide o

11
t OH R CIN f j
y cc
R n

Alkyl Halide Aldehyde Ketone sulfide

Alkene Ea I 0
I 11
C R j R
L c X C
r H r R
Alkyne Amine Carboxylic Acid Ester Ether
O 0
E R N R 11 11
it C C R O R
aroma'tico 1 OH OR
R R
A thiols
w R SH
Functional Groups
An atom or group of atoms chemical t physical
w characteristic
properties reactive pet of the molecule
organicmolecules have C C C H bonds hetero atoms nitrogen
oxygen sulfur phosphorus halogen
Heteroatoms IT Bonds
lone pairs easily broken
create e deficient makes basest
sites on C nucleophiles

1
Hydrocarbons only made up of C and H

Aliphatic Aromatic
named after the strong
A alkanes CHzCHz characteristic odors
b alkenes CH CH benzene
C alkynes CHE CH
when added to another group
it's a
phenylgroupts
 carbon atoms inalkanesC can be

Hydrogen atoms depend on the type of carbon atom to which

they
are bonded

2 Compounds containing C Z o bonds

alkyl halides
alcohols electronegativity from the hetero atoms
ethers creates a polar bond making C e
amines deficient
thiols
sulfides
Gonds alkyl halides t alcohols
1bond G
o o
classified based on
z o
o
o o of C C Z
3bonds

amine
Oo classified based on of
O 000 C N

3 Compounds containing a CEOgroup

aldehydes
ketones polar C O bond makes carbonyl C an
carboxylicacid electrophilelone on 0
pairs react as a
esters nucleophile t base
amides IT bond
easily broken
acid chlorides
amides
based of of C N
 Functional groups determine a molecule's
bonding
shape
a

type
strength of intermolecularforces
physicalproperties
nomenclature
chemical reactivity
Intermolecular Forces
Interactions between molecules
Ionic compounds
oppositely charged particles are held by extremelystrong forces
stronger than the covalent
Covalent compounds 3 types
composed of discrete molecules
force depends on the functional group
t.ee aas aka London Forces
weak interactions via electron density
change
only attractive forces in nonpolar
compounds
larger surface area
atoms are more
larger forcet
have
larger induced polarizable
easily dipoles which makes for strong forces
2 DipoleInteractions
Dipole
attractive force between permanent dipoles of 2 polar molecules
dipoles in adjacentmolecules align St t f create force
3HydrogenBondingTL
occurs when It bonded to atom in FON is electrostatistically
attracted to lone pair of FON in another molecule
 Physical Properties
1 Boiling Point Cbp the temp at which a liquid is converted via energy
to a gas
ionic high bp
strong interactions on
covalen bp depends functional groups
larger surface area higher top r
more polarizable higher bp
Liavids have different bp t can be separated via distillation
lower boiling compound volatile component t distills 1st
more
higher boilingcomponent less volatilecomponent 1 distills later
2 Meltingpoint Mp the temp at which a solid is converted to its
liquid phase