CV1013

Civil Engineering Materials

- Tutorial on Steel

Asst/P Qian Shunzhi

Office: N1-01C-79
6790-4916
szqian@ntu.edu.sg

1
1. What kind of crystal structures steel have?
What are the various phases for steel?

3
3 Primary Metallic Crystal Structures
Phase: a liquid or solid state of a material with the same crystal structure, iron with
BCC and FCC structures are considered different phases

Body-Centered Cubic (BCC)

Packing factor 0.68

o
[Fe (< 910 C), Cr, Mo, Nb, V]

Face Centered Cubic (FCC)

Packing factor 0.74

o
[Cu, Ni, Fe (> 910 C), Pb, Ag, Au]

Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP)

Packing factor 0.74

[Be, Cd, Mg, Ti, Zn, Zr]
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Various Fe solutions & compounds
Solid solution: alloying elements are fully dissolvable in the base
metal (completely miscible system)
Intermediate compound: alloying elements are partially dissolvable
in the base metal (partially miscible system)

 Austenite () : The higher density, FCC phase

of iron and of solid solutions based
o
on it.
(solubility of 0.8%~2% at 727~1148 C)

 Ferrite (α and δ) : The BCC phase of iron and

of solid solutions based on it (low and super
higho temp ferrite). (α solubility of 0.025% at
727 C)

 Cementite/Iron carbide (Fe3C): as a complex

hexagonal crystal structure with carbon in
interstitial positions. It is very hard and brittle. It
contains 6.7%C, and is present in all
commercial steels. The properties of the steel
are controlled by properly regulating the
amount, size, and shape of the Fe3C phase.
5
http://www.kitchenknifeforums.com/showthread.php/15632-What-is-
retained-austenite-How-does-martensite-form
Fe-C diagram: various phases & C%
In summary:

Cementite (6.7 %C): Fe3C

Pearlite (0.8 %C): a laminated structure of α ferrite (0.025%C) and

cementite (6.7 %C) (Intermediate compound)

δ Ferrite (0.1 %C): BCC Fe

γ Austenite (0.8%~2.0 %C): FCC Fe (Solid solution of C in Fe)
α Ferrite (0.025 %C): BCC Fe

Pearlite contains alternating layers of ferrite and cementite. The

significance of pearlite is that the properties of steel are highly dependent
on grain size and content of pearlite “phase” in steels

Ferrite: soft but ductile As cementite or pearlite% increases

(effectively increase of carbon content), steel
Cementite: hard but brittle
becomes stronger/harder, but less ductile

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2. What is the strain hardening of steel? What
is the mechanism behind strain hardening?

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 Change in mechanical properties associated with cold
work or strain hardening

s2
s1’

s1

8 : Young et al (1998)
Source
Strain hardening

 Strain hardening/cold work/work hardening is plastic deformation

where resistance to further deformation increases with increasing
amounts of deformation (and dislocations!)
 When it is work- or strain-hardened, the ductility and toughness of
the metal or alloy decrease (become brittle)

 Materials strengthened this way cannot be joined by welding without

softening (annealing) the material in the vicinity of the weld.
 Will distort the grain, increase the grain number and
create/concentrate the dislocations along the grain boundaries,
which harden the steel but make it more brittle.

Cold working
(rolling)

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 Strengthening by grain boundaries

Dislocation pileups at grain boundaries indicate these boundaries are very strong
obstacles to dislocation motion
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3. What is fatigue of steel? How to prevent
such fatigue?

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Fatigue

 When a metal component or structure is subjected to repeated or

cyclic stresses it may eventually fail, even though the maximum
stress in anyone stress cycle is considerably less than the fracture
stress of the material.

 Fatigue failure is the result of processes of crack nucleation and

growth or, for components which may contain cracks introduced
during manufacture, growth only.

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Types of stress-cycles

Repeating
Alternating

Fluctuating

Source : Jackson and Dhir 1996

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Approaches to Extend Service Life

 Increase critical crack length acr at failure

 Choose a material with higher KIC acr
da
 Reduce smax Nf  
ao
C (DK (a )) n
2
 K IC 
 Reduce initial flaw size ao acr   
M s max
 1.12 
 Improve inspection resolution
 Improve manufacturing/material quality control

 Lower stress range Ds

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4. What is the effect of an increase in carbon
content from 0% to 1% on the (i) ductility, (ii)
strength, and (iii) toughness of plain carbon
steel?

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Fe-C diagram: various phases & C%
In summary: Refer to slide 26 (Young)

Cementite (6.7 %C): Fe3C

Pearlite (0.8 %C): a laminated structure of α ferrite (0.025%C) and

cementite (6.7 %C) (Intermediate compound)

δ Ferrite (0.1 %C): BCC Fe

γ Austenite (2.0 %C): FCC Fe (Solid solution of C in Fe)
α Ferrite (0.025 %C): BCC Fe

Pearlite contains alternating layers of ferrite and cementite. The

significance of pearlite is that the properties of steel are highly dependent
on grain size and content of pearlite “phase” in steels

Ferrite: soft but ductile As cementite or pearlite% increases

(effectively increase of carbon content), steel
Cementite: hard but brittle
becomes stronger/harder, but less
ductile/tough
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Hardness and strength versus the amount of carbon

Source : Young et al (1998)

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Ductility and toughness versus the amount of carbon

Toughness, Joules
Source : Young et al (1998)

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 Sample MCQ question

Toughness of steel is affected by:

(A) Carbon content and microstructure

(B) Microstructure and surface hardness
(C) Temperature and surface hardness
(D) None of the above

CV2003 - CEM (CSP - 2008) 19

Fe-C diagram: various phases & C%
In summary:

Cementite (6.7 %C): Fe3C

Pearlite (0.8 %C): a laminated structure of α ferrite (0.025%C) and

cementite (6.7 %C) (Intermediate compound)

δ Ferrite (0.1 %C): BCC Fe

γ Austenite (0.8%~2.0 %C): FCC Fe (Solid solution of C in Fe)
α Ferrite (0.025 %C): BCC Fe

Pearlite contains alternating layers of ferrite and cementite. The

significance of pearlite is that the properties of steel are highly dependent
on grain size and content of pearlite “phase” in steels

Ferrite: soft but ductile As cementite or pearlite% increases

(effectively increase of carbon content), steel
Cementite: hard but brittle
becomes stronger/harder, but less ductile

20
Hardness and strength versus the amount of carbon

Source : Young et al (1998)

21
Ductility and toughness versus the amount of carbon

Toughness, Joules
Source : Young et al (1998)

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Hardness test
• Hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation, such as
a dent or scratch on the surface of the material;
• All tests are very similar, either by measuring area or depth of indenter (penetrator) and
then related to a hardness index number;
• Hard material  small impressions  high hardness number;
• A relative number, needed to be converted between different methods via tables;
• Can be used to approximate the tensile strength of the material;
• A certain hardness is required for many machine parts and tools.

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http://www.qualitydigest.com/april04/articles/01_article.shtml