Applied Psychology (University of the Philippines System)
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THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY FOR INTRODUCTORY COURSES
INTRODUCTION LEARNING BIOLOGICAL BASES • DEFINITION: Scientific study of behavior CONTINUED OF PSYCHOLOGY and mental processes and how they are affected c. Stimulus discrimination - different responses are • STRUCTURE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM by an organism’s physical and mental state and made to stimuli which are similar to the CS 1. Central - brain and spinal cord • OPERANT CONDITIONING 2. Peripheral - sensory and motor nerves which external environment transmit information • GOALS: Describe, understand, predict and 1. Reinforcer (reward) - increases response a. Somatic - control skeletal muscles probability control (or modify) behavior or mental processes a. Positive reinforcement - response followed by presentation b. Autonomic - regulates internal organs and glands i. Parasympathetic - conserves energy • PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE: of reinforcing stimulus ii. Sympathetic - expends energy 1. Descriptive studies - describe but not explain b. Negative reinforcement - response followed by removal of unpleasant stimulus • COMMUNICATION WITHIN NERVOUS a. Case history - description of one individual b. Observation 2. Punishment - stimulus that follows response SYSTEM i. Naturalistic - natural environment 1. Neuron - basic unit of nervous system decreases probability response will occur a. cell body - keeps neuron alive ii. Laboratory - setting controlled by researcher 3. Principles of Operant Conditioning b. dendrites - receive information from other neurons c. Surveys - questionnaires and interviews a. Extinction - response no longer reinforced c. axons - send information to other neurons d. Tests - d. myelin - insulates axon to enable information to be b. Stimulus generalization - response will occur to i. Reliability - used to measure whether individual transmitted faster differences in test scores are due to actual differences in similar stimuli c. Stimulus discrimination - responses do not occur to 2. Communication between Neurons the characteristic being measured or due to chance a. Synapses - gaps between neurons errors and fluctuations different stimuli b. Message travels through axon to synaptic knob on ii. Validity - refers to the extent to which a test measures d. Timing of reinforcers - the sooner a reinforcer or axon's tip what it purports; the validity of a test must be punisher follows an action, the greater its effect c. Synaptic vesicles open and release empirically established – relating the test to particular e. Schedules of reinforcement neurotransmitter into synaptic gap criterion that it claims to measure i. Continuous reinforcement - a particular response is d. Neurotransmitter fits into receptor sites on 2. Correlational Studies - strength of relationships always reinforced receiving dendrite, causing it to be more or less between variables, does not show causation ii. Intermittent reinforcement - reinforcing only some likely to fire 3. Experiment - researcher controls variable(s) to responses • THE BRAIN discover its effect on other variables (a) fixed ratio (FR) - reinforcement after a fixed number of 1. Hindbrain a. Independent variable - manipulated/controlled by responses, high rates of responding a. Medulla, pons, reticular activating system, cerebellum researcher (b) variable ratio (VR) - reinforcement after average b. Responsible for reflexive, automatic behavior b. Dependent variable - measured by researcher (data) number of responses, very high, steady rates of responding 2. Midbrain - information conduit (c) fixed interval (FI) - reinforcement after fixed amount of c. Experimental and control groups - only 3. Forebrain time, scalloped response pattern experimental group exposed to independent variable, a. Thalamus - directs sensory messages (d) variable interval (VI) - reinforcement after a variable otherwise treated the same b. Hypothalamus - emotion and survival drives amount of time, low, steady rate of response d. Change in dependent variable caused by independent c. Pituitary gland - controls many other endocrine glands f. Shaping - reinforce successive approximations to the d. Cerebral cortex variable, since all else remained the same desired response i. Occipital lobes - vision e. Confounding Variable - an observed effect that may g. Chaining - a method of connecting responses into a ii. Parietal lobes - sensory information be due to an intervening third variable between the iii.Temporal lobes - process sounds dependent and independent variables; the sequence of behaviors; at the end of the chain there iv. Frontal lobes - motor movements confounding variable must be systematically must always be a reinforcer; the chain is constructed 4. Two brain hemispheres controlled or, if possible, eliminated, otherwise by beginning at the end and working backward; all a. Each one controls opposite side of body obtained results are invalidated behaviors have to be previously conditioned into the b. Left hemisphere dominant for most people f. Inferred Variable - a non-observable variable that is organism’s repertoire inferred as the mediator between two observed 4. Cognitive Behavior Modification events; for instance, inferring the experience of "fear" The principles of learning theory are applied to from certain measurable physiological anxiety alter undesirable thoughts, rather than only STRESS AND responses; it is frequently difficult to avoid circular observable behaviors HEALTH explanations in positing an inferred variable a. Social Learning Theory - (Bandura) four processes • STRESS - EMOTIONAL AND PHYSICAL g. Subject Variable - a condition that is part of the which influence learning are: RESPONSES TO STIMULI subject’s make-up and cannot be assigned randomly; i. Attention 1. Caused by stimuli and the way those stimuli are e.g., sex, height, hair-color etc; because of their non- ii. Memory perceived randomnizability, causal conclusions cannot be iii.Behavior 2. Biological reaction derived from subject variable experiments iv. Motivation a. Fight or flight - increase heart rate, breathing, tense muscles h. Non-Subject Variable - a characteristic that is not b. Increased activity in the sympathetic nervous system b. Specific cognitive processes that are recognized: part of a subject’s make-up, and thus can be randomly i. Attribution c. Adrenal glands secrete epinephrine (adrenalin) and assigned; e.g., whether the subject received a certain ii. Expectancy norepinephrine drug or a placebo iii.Logical 3. Coping with stress iv. Verbal a. Reappraise situation b. Maintain control over the stressful situation v. Imaginable c. Rational emotive therapy - (Ellis) considers the • PSYCHOLOGY AND ILLNESS LEARNING 1. Heart disease central core of dysfunctional behavior to be due to Change in behavior as a result of experience a. Type A personalities - hard-working, competitive, irrational beliefs; the therapy focuses on the increased incidence of heart disease • CLASSICAL CONDITIONING alteration of these irrational beliefs b. Type B personalities - easy going 1. Pavlov’s studies d. Problem-solving therapy - focuses on enhancing the 2. Cancer a. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - food - elicits an patient’s ability to make decisions and solve problems a. Exposure to carcinogens increases the risk unconditioned response (UCR) - salivation in stressful or difficult situations b. Psychological factors influence functioning of b. Pair neutral stimulus - tone - with UCS - food e. Paradoxical intervention - patients are instructed to immune system c. Neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus (CS) purposely perform undesirable symptomatic • HEALTH AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS - tone - which elicits conditioned response CR - behaviors on command in an effort to demonstrate 1. Friends - assisted coping salivation their ability to gain control over these behaviors a. Emotional, cognitive and tangible support 2. Principles of classical conditioning f. Attribution therapy - attempts to facilitate the b. Cultural differences in the value placed on friendships a. Extinction - when the CS is not presented with the patient’s ability to re-attribute undesirable feelings 2. Friends as stress producers UCS, it will diminish a. Contagion effect - others can exaggerate stress and symptoms to something less threatening and b. Friend under stress can increase your stress level b. Stimulus generalization - similar stimuli may elicit more acceptable c. Burden of caring for others can increase stress the same response as the CS Downloaded by Cashmere Gray (4readingpurposes@gmail.com) 1 lOMoARcPSD|30371407
SENSATION AND LANGUAGE, THINKING SOCIAL
PERCEPTION AND INTELLIGENCE PSYCHOLOGY • SENSATION - Awareness of physical changes CONTINUED • ROLES - A social position governed by • MEASURING SENSATION ii. Use algorithms (systematic methods guaranteed to norms 1. Absolute thresholds - detection of signal 50 produce a solution) or iii.Use heuristics (a rule that may or may not produce a 1. Norms - conventions by which we live percent of time 2. Zimbardo’s Prison Study solution), (i.e., simplification, reasoning by analogy) 2. Difference thresholds (j.n.d. - just noticeable a. Students assigned to "guard" or "prisoner" roles b. Insight - sudden understanding of solution difference) b. Student behavior reflected their assigned roles a. Difference in sensation detectable 50 percent of time • INTELLIGENCE - capacity to acquire and use knowledge 3. Milgram’s Obedience Study b. Weber’s Law - change necessary for j.n.d. is a 1. Measuring intelligence a. Participants thought they were part of an proportion of original stimulus a. Binet - IQ tests - mental age (as determined by a test) experiment in learning • THE EYE divided by chronological age = IQ b. "Teacher" was instructed to shock "learner" for 1. Light enters through the cornea b. Wechsler - tests include verbal, mathematical and wrong answer 2. Lens focuses light on the retina 3. Retina - at the back of the eyeball nonverbal thinking skills c. Majority of "teachers" complied with the a. Rods - respond to dim light c. Average score is 100, scores describe a bell-shaped instructions to administer shock b. Cones - respond to color (normal) distribution • SOCIAL COGNITION - how the social c. Fovea - center of retina, contains only cones, site d. I.Q. (Intelligence Quotient) is computed by dividing environment influences thoughts, where vision is sharpest a person’s "mental age" by their "chronological age" perception and belief • THE EAR and multiplying by one hundred; yielding the 1. Attribution - motivation to explain behavior 1. Outer ear - collects sounds waves formula: IQ = (MA/CA) X 100 a. Situational - caused by the environment 2. Middle ear - waves strike eardrum which passes 2. Uses of IQ tests b. Dispositional - caused by something within them to three tiny bones which intensify the force a. As a predictor of school success individual of the vibrations b. Concerns about being "culture fair" c. Fundamental attribution error - overestimate 3. Inner ear - contains receptor cells (hair cells) 3. Nature of intelligence - one ability or many? dispositional and underestimate situational located within the cochlea which initiate nerve 4. Influence of the environment causes impulses which travel to the brain a. Hereditability - studies over a forty-year span have d. Self-serving bias - use dispositional • TASTE revealed 50 – 80 % genetic component to IQ. attributions for good behaviors and situational 1. Four basic tastes - salty, sour, bitter and sweet - each Consequently, the general conclusion seems to be attributions to excuse our own behaviors associated with different receptors or taste buds that heredity has a substantial effect on IQ scores, 2. Stereotypes - summary impressions when all • SMELL with at least half the observed variation in IQ scores members of a group share common traits 1. Receptors in mucous membrane of nasal passage attributable to genetic differences 3. Attitude - a relatively enduring opinion b. Experience determines point within genetic range • SKIN SENSES including both cognitive and emotional 5. Extremes in intelligence components 1. Touch (pressure), warmth, cold and pain a. Intellectually Challenged - IQ below 70 • PERCEPTION - organization and i. Biologically based - Downs syndrome, fetal alcohol a. Attitudes and behavior influence each other interpretation of sensations syndrome b. Cognitive dissonance - when an attitude and 1. World seen as constant, although the sensations ii. Psychosocial - disease, malnutrition, lack of behavior conflict, we are motivated to make may change intellectual stimulation them consistent 2. Needs, beliefs, emotions and expectations all b. Intellectually gifted - skills on one or more 4. Prejudice - unjustif ied negative attitudes influence perception intellectual domains toward a group • CONFORMITY - behavior that occurs as a result of real or imagined group pressure LANGUAGE, MEMORY • OBEDIENCE - following orders from an THINKING AND Ability to retain and retrieve information authority INTELLIGENCE • INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY • INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS • LANGUAGE - Rule-governed system of 1. Information must be encoded to be processed by 1. Groupthink - tendency for all group symbols used to represent and communicate brain members to think alike and suppress dissent information a. Storage - retention of information 2. Group Polarization - tendency of a group to b. Retrieval - accessing information take a more extreme position than those of 1. Understanding language a. Phonology - knowledge of sounds 2. Three memory systems individual members b. Semantics - knowledge or word meanings a. Sensory - literal copy of information - held for 1-2 3. Responsibility c. Syntax - knowledge of grammatical structure seconds a. Diffusion of responsibility - avoidance i. Deep structure - meaning b. Short-term b. Social loafing - individual slows down to let ii. Surface structure - organization of words i. Limited capacity (7 + or - 2 items) the group shoulder the load d. Psycholinguistics - the study of the ability to ii. Information held for about 30 seconds; then it is forgotten or further encoded and placed in long-term c. Bystander apathy will not occur when one produce and understand language memory i. Perceives the need to help 2. Acquiring language c. Long-term ii. Decides to take responsibility a. Rules and strategies are innate i. Unlimited capacity iii.Weighs the costs of helping i. Basic timing and sequence of language development is ii. Information stored and retrieved by category iv. Knows how to help similar across cultures ii. Children learn the rules of their native language, (i.e., 3. Forgetting • LOVE - (Sternberg) overgeneralization) a. In sensory memory - through decay 1.Has three related components: b. Particular language acquired is based on experience b. In short-term memory a. Intimacy 3. Language and thought - language has an impact on i. Limited capacity subject to “filling up” b. Passion ii. Can retain information through rehearsal how easily we process information c. Commitment (a) Maintenance (rote) rehearsal • THINKING (b) Elaborative rehearsal - associating new with old 2.Depending on the combination of these 1. Using concepts - apply past experiences to present information elements, produces different dimensions in a thoughts c. In long-term memory relationship: a. Concept - a mental grouping of a set of objects or i. Decay - information fades if not used a. Liking - intimacy alone events on the basis of important common features ii. Forgetting b. Companionate Love - intimacy and b. Must be learned through definition or example (a) Interference - similar items interfere (b) Motivated - conscious or unconscious “hiding” a commitment c. Concepts aid in predicting and interpreting events c. Empty Love - commitment alone memory and organizing experiences (c) Cue-dependent - unable to gain access to the information d. Fatuous Love - passion and commitment 2. Problem solving - set of information used to (d) Zeigarnik effect - interrupted, or incomplete tasks seem e. Infatuation - passion only achieve goal to be better remembered than completed tasks f. Romantic Love - intimacy and passion a. Strategies (e) Non-verbal memory - pictures are remembered significantly better than words; motor memory seems to be g. Consummate Love - intimacy, passion, and i. Define the problem impervious to decay commitment Downloaded by Cashmere Gray (4readingpurposes@gmail.com) 2 lOMoARcPSD|30371407
DEVELOPMENT PERSONALITY MOTIVATION AND
• DEFINITIONS CONTINUED EMOTION 1. Learning - influence of experience (nurture) 2. Psychosexual development • MOTIVATION - need or desire to act a certain 2. Maturation - unfolding of biological patterns (nature) a. Oral stage (0-1) - sucking, feeding, etc. way to achieve a goal 3. Critical Periods - early development periods during b. Anal stage (2-3) - defecation 1. Range of motives which particular early experiences are essential c. Phallic stage (3-5) - sexual attraction to the opposite a. Physiological - hunger, thirst, pain avoidance 4. Stages - organization of behaviors and thoughts sex parent produces the Oedipus complex b. Social - learned d. Latency period (5-puberty) - sexual feelings c. Maslow - motives organized in a hierarchy of needs - during particular early periods of development - forgotten; child concentrates on skill development defined by relatively abrupt change physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, e. Genital stage - adult sexual relationships self-actualization • COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 3. Anxiety - unjustified fears resolved by ego through 2. Motivational system - set of motives and 1. Piaget use of defense mechanisms a. Assimilation - fit new information into what is known a. Repression - active exclusion of unconscious behaviors that operate in a particular life area b. Accommodation - change existing beliefs in impulses from consciousness a. Hunger and eating b. Projection - attribute to others our thoughts and feelings i. Hunger signals - stomach contractions, hypothalamus, response to new knowledge c. Reaction formation - behavior patterns opposite to environment c. Stages of development i. Sensory-motor stage (birth - 2) - object permanence our anxiety producing urges ii. Food preferences - cultural, personal and biological ii. Preoperational stage (2-7) - use of symbols and d. Displacement - redirects anxiety producing origins language; egocentric; lack the principles of conservation behaviors to a more acceptable target b. Sexual motivation - hormones iii. Concrete operational stage (7-11) - understand e. Rationalization - substitute “good” reasons for real c. Work conservation, identity, grounded in concrete experiences reasons for behavior i. Extrinsic motivation - working for external reward iv. Formal operations stage (12-adult) - abstract reasoning 4. Defense Mechanisms ii. Intrinsic motivation - working for pleasure of activity a. Denial - the refusal to acknowledge an external itself 2. Language development - acquisition depends on source of anxiety 3. Maslow’s hierarchy of motivations biological readiness and experience b. Fantasy - utilizing imagination to satisfy desires that a. In the hierarchy of needs, the needs at each level must • SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT are, in reality, highly unlikely (e.g., sexually be satisfied before going on to the next level 1. Attachment - emotional tie between infant and fantasizing about a celebrity) c. Intellectualization - the repression of the emotional b. The hierarchy of needs caretaker (Harlow’s monkey studies) i. Physiological needs - food, water, sex, and shelter 2. Sex typing - learning “masculine” or “feminine” component of an anxiety-provoking event; the event is treated in a purely analytical manner ii. Safety needs - security needs a. Identification with the same sex parent iii.Belongingness and love needs - acceptance and d. Regression - resorting to infantile behaviors as a b. Rewards and punishments for sex appropriate behavior friendship method for avoiding anxiety and/or responsibility 3. Erikson’s stages e. Identification - identifying with the anxiety- iv. Esteem needs - self-esteem, and esteem from others a. Trust Versus Mistrust: 0 – 2 years of age producing stimulus in an attempt to reduce one’s own v. Self-actualization needs - realizing one’s potential as a b. Autonomy Versus Doubt and Shame: 2- 3 years of age anxiety (opposite of projection) creative, productive person c. Initiative Versus Guilt: 3 – 6 years of age f. Overcompensation - an attempt to conceal perceived • EMOTION d. Industry Versus Inferiority: 6 – 11 years of age deficiencies in one area by excelling in another; e.g., 1. Defining features of emotions - subjective • MORAL DEVELOPMENT - Kohlberg a student with poor academic performance becomes an excellent athlete experience, physiological arousal, expressive Theory: g. Sublimation - the re-channeling of sexual or behavior, changes in cognition 1. Preconventional morality - obey because ordered aggressive impulses in a socially acceptable 2. Inborn - people from different cultural to or will be punished direction; e.g., an aggressive person becomes a backgrounds can identify emotions 2. Conventional morality - based on trust, loyalty or professional boxer 3. James-Lange Theory - emotion is a result of a understanding social order • HUMANISTIC THEORIES - people are perception of bodily changes and behaviors 3. Postconventional morality - laws are situational rational, capable of choice and desire to 4. Cannon-Bard Theory - emotion is a result of and can be changed achieve personal growth perception of a stimulus which causes both • CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 1. Carl Rogers - self-concept directs behavior, physiological changes and subjective feelings 1. Newborn Child conflict between real and ideal self 5. Cognitive Labeling Theory - emotion is a result of a. Reflexes - automatic behaviors, rooting, sucking, 2. Abraham Maslow - individual strives for self- the interpretation of the causes of physiological swallowing, startle, etc. actualization - fulfillment of potential arousal b. Vision - nearsighted, interested in novelty • EXISTENTIAL PSYCHODYNAMICS 1. Yalom - primary drive of the individual is to derive 6. Frustration-aggression hypothesis - aggression c. Social skills i. Smile at 4-6 weeks in response to faces meaning from the complexities of their life results from blocking of efforts to achieve a goal ii. Rhythmic "conversations" experiences; to understand a structure, rationale, or 2. Adolescence justification to the events they have experienced; a. Biological development - increased hormone failing this, life is seen as absurd and pointless, leading to despair, depression, and existential crises; the CONSCIOUSNESS production; sex organs mature; growth spurt b. Intellectual development - formal operational primary concerns of this approach to psychotherapy • JAYNES’ THEORY (abstract reasoning), independence, questioning deal with confronting the issues of death, freedom, 1. Consciousness not only evolves neurobiologically, 3. Aging existential isolation, and meaninglessness but is also formed by the individual’s interactions a. Transition Theories - unanticipated, anticipated, • SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY - how and with culture nonevent, chronic hassle under what situations thoughts and behaviors 2. The foundation of consciousness is based in the b. Major Milestones - starting out, marriage or living are learned alone, parenthood, empty nest, midlife crises, physiology of the brain’s left and right hemispheres; • CONSISTENCY IN PERSONALITY retirement, widowhood 1. Trait - relatively enduring quality or characteristic there are three fundamental forms of human 2. Cross-situational - most central to self-concept awareness that are the outcome of this process: • PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT a. Bicameral - controlled by right hemisphere of brain, PERSONALITY 1. Assessment methods must be: which dominates left-hemisphere activity; individual a. Reliable - same results over time subordinates consciousness of self to control by a Distinctive patterns of behavior, thoughts and b. Valid - measure what it is supposed to measure group, a higher power, or other individual emotions that characterize individual's 2. Interview b. Modern - the dominance of the right brain patterns of adaptation a. Advantage - tailored to individual's previous answers b. Disadvantage - low reliability hemisphere over the left is weakened as civilization • THE ORIGINS OF PERSONALITY 3. Observation develops and humans become more autonomous and 1. Biological and genetic influences a. times particular behavior occurs independent; as humans become more independent, 2. Experience - cultural and unique b. Good reliability 3. Stability and change individual consciousness emerges 4. Self-report c. Throwbacks to bicamerality - the re-emergence of a. Genetic characteristics relatively stable through life a. MMPI - to diagnose psychological disorders b. Less active, hostile and impulsive with age b. Ten primary scales measure personality dimensions bicameral consciousness in modern life is manifested c. Personality changes as a result of life experiences 5. Projective techniques - individual provides an by episodes of schizophrenia, hypnosis and poetic • FREUD interpretation of ambiguous material and religious frenzy 1. Personality consists of three parts a. Rorschach inkblots • SLEEP RHYTHMS a. Id - basic biological urges; unconscious b. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) b. Ego - gratifies urges within acceptable bounds; conscious c. Concerns about reliability and validity since 1. REM - rapid eye movements associated with c. Superego - values and ideals of society; conscience interpretations are subjective dreaming Downloaded by Cashmere Gray (4readingpurposes@gmail.com) 3 lOMoARcPSD|30371407