A FRAMEWORK FOR THE SELECTION OF APPLICANTS FOR A MASTER’S DEGREE IN

INDUSTRIAL-ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN SOUTH AFRICA

by

Christa Smit

submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

MAGISTER PHILOSOPHIAE
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

in the

FACULTY OF ECONOMIC AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

at the

UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA

Supervisor: Dr SM O’Neil

Pretoria
October 2017
Declaration of originality

I, Christa Smit, declare this dissertation, titled

A framework for the selection of applicants for a master’s degree in Industrial-

Organisational Psychology in South Africa
is my own, original work.

It has not been submitted for any other degree at the University of Pretoria or any other
national or international university.

Where other people's work has been cited (from a printed, internet or other source) it has
been acknowledged and referenced in accordance with the American Psychological
Association, Referencing Standard, 6th Edition (2010).

Language editing by Peter Southey.

Christa Smit
October 2017

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Research can never be done alone. Many people (some from
the very beginning) contributed to this report in different ways. To
all of you, my sincere thanks. You have been part of this study
because I value your opinion, respect your expertise and admire
your fluent articulation with science. I have learnt from your
wisdom; some of you shared yours with me in soft whispers, others
had an inspiring presence of which I was deeply aware
throughout the process.

I appreciate your involvement in this study … and my life, as the

case may be.

_______________________________________________________

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Abstract

A framework for the selection of applicants for a master’s degree in Industrial-Organisational

Psychology in South Africa
by
Christa Smit
SUPERVISOR: Dr Sumari M O’Neil
DEPARTMENT: Human Resource Management
FACULTY: Economic and Management Sciences
UNIVERSITY: University of Pretoria
DEGREE: Magister Philosophiae Human Resource Management
__________________________________________________________________________________

Orientation
Selection committees at universities in South Africa face a growing challenge to select
competent scholars from an increasing pool of high achieving applicants who wish to enter
master’s degree programmes in Industrial-Organisational (I-O) psychology. In the absence of
any guidelines on how to conduct the selection process, each academic department follows
a process of its own. Satisfying the requirements of various stakeholders when deciding whom
to admit to the programme adds to the complexity of a selection process that should also
comply with scientifically based best practice for an applicant-profession competence fit.

The selection of applicants for I-O psychology master’s degree programmes at accredited
tertiary institutions is a neglected aspect of the discourse in the I-O psychology profession in
South Africa. In particular, there is no clarity about the extent to which selection processes
comply with the legal and professional requirements of higher education.

Research purpose
The purpose of this study was to explore and describe the policies, procedures and frameworks
for the selection of I-O psychology master’s students at accredited tertiary institutions in South
Africa. As far as could be established, nothing has yet been published on the topic. An
exploration and description of selection processes followed at academic departments could
clarify uncertainties about the selection practices applied in I-O psychology academic
departments in the country.

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Research approach, design and method
A qualitative research design with multiple case studies was utilised. Semi-structured interviews
were conducted with programme managers at I-O psychology academic departments and
data was analysed using a thematic analysis approach.

Main findings
The interviews revealed divergent selection processes at different departments and
highlighted the role and influence of the various stakeholders in the selection process. The
data confirmed that different selection panels follow different selection processes, ranging
from relying exclusively on previous academic performance to a structured assessment centre
(AC) that included a range of assessment elements. The acknowledgement of the role
stakeholders play in the selection process also differs between the respective academic
departments.

Practical/ managerial implications

The uniqueness and distinctiveness of the I-O psychology profession in the industry could be
promoted by selecting competent applicants to enter master’s degree programmes. This
could contribute to a brand awareness and professional identity of the discipline, in that way
affirming the relevance of I-O psychologists in industry and at strategic business forums. The
results underline the necessity and urgency of continued discourse in South Africa about the
different roles and added value of the I-O psychologist in the industry. The selection of
competent applicants could ensure that future I-O psychologists in academia, industry, public
service and consultancy fit the profession, act as brand ambassadors for the profession and
ensure the enduring characteristic of the I-O psychology profession.

Contribution/value add
The framework suggested for selecting competent I-O psychology applicants might assist the
selection committees at academic departments in South Africa to choose from a range of
elements to structure a fair, just and transparent selection process.

Key words
I-O psychology; postgraduate admission; selecting postgraduate applicants; postgraduate
selection; selection criteria; selection process; competency assessment; professional brand
awareness; brand image; professional identity

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Table of contents

Abstract III

Table of contents V

List of tables VIII

List of figures IX

Notes to the reader X

Abbreviations used in the report XI

Glossary XII

CHAPTER 1 WHY THIS RESEARCH? AN INTRODUCTION 2

1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 2

1.2 Motivation for the study ................................................................................................................. 4

1.3 Stating the problem ...................................................................................................................... 10

1.4 The purpose of the research ....................................................................................................... 11

1.5 Formulating the research question and objectives ................................................................ 11

1.6 The envisioned benefits of the study ......................................................................................... 12

1.7 Setting the boundaries ................................................................................................................. 12

1.8 Introducing the research methodology and research paradigm ...................................... 13

1.9 Structure and chapter layout ..................................................................................................... 13

1.10 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 15

CHAPTER 2 BACKGROUND FROM THE LITERATURE 17

2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 17

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2.2 Selecting applicants for postgraduate programmes ............................................................ 20

2.3 Identifying South African stakeholders’ role in selection ....................................................... 31

2.4 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 37

CHAPTER 3 THE METHODOLOGY TO ANSWER THE RESEARCH QUESTION 39

3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 39

3.2 The research paradigm: Interpretivism ..................................................................................... 41

3.3 The research design: a multiple case study ............................................................................. 44

3.4 The research process followed ................................................................................................... 45

3.5 Ensuring the quality of qualitative research ............................................................................. 58

3.6 Research ethics.............................................................................................................................. 61

3.7 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 62

CHAPTER 4 A THEMATIC ANALYSIS OF DATA AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 65

4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 65

4.2 Overview of the themes ............................................................................................................... 67

4.3 Analysis of interview data: describing the different selection processes ........................... 68

4.4 Summarising the selection process - a discussion ................................................................... 97

4.5 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 99

CHAPTER 5 REVISITING THE LITERATURE IN SEARCH OF A SELECTION PROCESS 102

5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 102

5.2 The historical past directs the discipline’s future ................................................................... 104

5.3 I-O psychology: the professional identity and relevance debate .................................... 114

5.4 The dilemma faced by selection panels ................................................................................ 120

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5.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 124

CHAPTER 6 A FRAMEWORK FOR SELECTION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 126

6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 126

6.2 Selecting applicants for postgraduate programmes .......................................................... 128

6.3 A suggested framework for selection...................................................................................... 130

6.4 Addressing the limitations of the study .................................................................................... 148

6.5 Recommendations for further discussion and research ...................................................... 149

6.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 150

APPENDICES

Appendix A ................................................................................................................................... 152

Appendix B ................................................................................................................................... 155

Appendix C .................................................................................................................................. 175

LIST OF REFERENCES

List of South African Statutes ..................................................................................................... 207

List of websites consulted ........................................................................................................... 208

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List of tables

Table 2.1 Suggested general activities in the selection process………………………..….... 22

Table 2.2 The 25 important competencies identified as identified by PhD and Master’s
students……………………………………………………………………....................…. 29
Table 2.3 Primary and secondary areas of competence for the I-O psychologist
according to SIOPSA (2010 and 2014)………………………………………….....….. 30
Table 2.4 Typical behavioural competencies required by the I-O psychologist…….....… 31
Table 3.1 A summary of the main research paradigms………………….………………..…... 43
Table 3.2 Universities with accredited I-O psychology programmes mooted for data
collection…………………………………………………………………….……….…...... 50
Table 3.3 Questions sent to programme managers……………………………….…….…...... 53
Table 3.4 Notations followed in transcription of the collected data……………………...... 55
Table 3.5 Summary of the duration of the semi-structured interviews and the number
of interview transcription pages………………………………………...................…. 60
Table 3.6 Summary of the researcher’s interpretation of research concepts as used in
this report………………………………………………………………………….….......... 63
Table 4.1 Number of codes and quotations per sub-theme for the respective I-O
psychology departments………………………………………….……………...…….. 67
Table 4.2 Sub-themes related to historical evolvement……………………………….…........ 70
Table 4.3 Sub-themes related to the training philosophy/mission statement
theme………………………………………………………………………..………........... 73
Table 4.4 Sub-themes related to the structure of the programme………..……………....... 76
Table 4.5 Sub-themes related to selection policies………………………..……………....…... 83
Table 4.6 Sub-themes related to selection criteria…………………………………………....... 86
Table 4.7 Sub-themes related to the selection process……………………………………...... 90
Table 4.8 A summary of the different elements included in the selection process at I-O
psychology academic departments………………………………………............… 97
Table 5.1 Several concerns by prominent I-O psychology scholars about the
relevance of the I-O psychology discipline……………………………….……….... 115
Table 5.2 HPCSA Scope of Practice for industrial psychologist…………………………….... 122
Table 5.3 Typical behaviour competencies required by the I-O psychologist.................. 122
Table 6.1 Questions to ask in examining the appropriateness of application form
questions……………………………………………………………………………..…..…. 132
Table 6.2 Components of structured interviewing and how to establish reliability,
validity and user reactions………………………………………………………….…... 139
Table 6.3 The phases of the selection process…………………………………………….…..... 143
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List of figures

Figure 1.1 The main topics addressed in Chapter 1……………………………………….. 3

Figure 1.2 Stakeholder influence in the selection process………………………………… 9
Figure 1.3 The layout of the research report…………………………………………………. 14
Figure 2.1 The main topics addressed in Chapter 2……………………………………….. 19
Figure 3.1 The main topics addressed in Chapter 3……………………………………..… 40
Figure 3.2 The steps followed in the research process……………………………………. 46
Figure 4.1 The main topics addressed in Chapter 4……………………………………..… 66
Figure 4.2 Theme 1(Historical evolvement) with related sub-themes……………….…. 69
Figure 4.3 Theme 2 (The selection process) with related sub-themes…………………. 82
Figure 5.1 The main topics addressed in Chapter 5………………………………….…… 103
Figure 6.1 The main topics addressed in Chapter 6………………………………………. 127
Figure 6.2 Suggested phases and elements in a selection process……………………... 147

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Notes to the reader

The name of the profession in this report is noted as Industrial-Organisational Psychology

abbreviated as I-O psychology.

In the attempt to answer the research question and reach an informed conclusion, several
historical literature sources are cited to provide context throughout the report.

The referencing style of the American Psychological Association (APA), Sixth Edition (2010) is
followed in this report.

Additional explanatory information linked to parts of paragraphs in the respective chapters

appears in indicated Appendices. Some explanatory information appears in footnotes.

To ensure anonymity in the research report, sampled universities are identified by letters of the
alphabet (e.g., A, B, C). Questions asked by the researcher are identified with an ‘R’.

‘University’ and ‘tertiary institution’ will be used interchangeably throughout the report.

Selection committee/s’ and ‘selection panel/s’ both refer to the committee of members
responsible for the selection of applicants for admission to master’s degree programmes.

No differentiation is made between ‘selection process’ and ‘selection procedure’. The two
terms are synonymous.

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Abbreviations used in the report

Acronym Meaning
A.A.A.P. American Association for Applied Psychology
AC Assessment Centre
ACP Association of Consulting Psychologists
APA American Psychological Association
ASA Attraction-Selection-Attrition
CED Central, enduring and distinctive
CHE Council on Higher Education
CV Curriculum Vitae
DOI Digital object identifier
GMAT Graduate Management Admission Test
GPA Graduate Point Average
HEQSF Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework
HPCSA Health Professions Council of South Africa
HR Human Resources
HRM Human Resource Management
HSRC Human Sciences Research Council
I-O psychology Industrial-Organisational psychology
KSA Knowledge, skills and ability
KSAO Knowledge, skills, ability and other personal characteristics
MMI Multiple mini-interviews
NIIP National Institute of Industrial Psychology
NIPR National Institute for Personnel Research
NQA National Qualifications Act
NQF National Qualifications Framework
PASA Psychological Association of South Africa
PBP Professional Board of Psychology
PGCE Postgraduate Certificate in Education
PsySSA Psychological Society of South Africa
QOW Quality of writing
RET Response elaboration technique
SABPP South African Board for People Practices
SAQA South African Qualifications Authority
SIOP Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology
SIOPSA Society for Industrial & Organisational Psychology of South Africa
SoP Scope of Practice
UP University of Pretoria
URL Uniform resource locator
USA United States of America

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Glossary

Since different authors vary in their use of certain key terms, the following explanations are
offered to clarify how these terms are to be understood in this study.

1. Industrial-Organisational psychology (I-O psychology) is the application of psychological

principles in the work place. According to the Society of Industrial and Organisational
Psychology (SIOP), “Industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology is the scientific study of
working and the application of that science to workplace issues facing individuals,
teams, and organizations. The scientific method is applied to investigate issues of critical
relevance to individuals, businesses, and society” (Retrieved from
http://www.siop.org/default.aspx). I-O psychology is the scientific application of
psychological theory, principles, models and methodology to understand, explain and
enhance the individual’s behaviour at work and work performance in the work place.
The discipline and the profession aim to improve performance, productivity, well-being
and general health in the work place (Bergh & Geldenhuys, 2013; Coetzee & Van Zyl,
2014(a); Muchinsky, 2006; Schreuder & Coetzee, 2010; Van Zyl, Nel, Stander, & Rothman,
2016; Veldsman, 1984).

2. Master’s degree is defined by the Council of Higher Education (CHE) as a National

Qualification Framework (NQF) exit level nine (9) qualification with a minimum credit-
bearing value of 180 (Retrieved from http://www.che.ac.za/media_and_publications/
accreditation-and-national-reviews/level-descriptors-south-african-national).

3. Programme, according to the South African Government Gazette, No. 30353, (5

October 2007), is a “purposeful and structured set of learning experiences that leads to
a qualification” (Retrieved from http://www.dhet.gov.za/SitePages/DocHigher
EducationQualificationsFramework.aspx)

4. Applicant is the person who applies for the accredited master’s degree at an accredited
tertiary institution, complying with all the pre-requisites for admission to the master’s
degree programme as stated by the tertiary institution’s General Regulations.

5. Higher education institution means, according to the Higher Education Act, 101 of 1997,
as amended by the Higher Education Amendment Act, 39 of 2008, “any institution that
provides higher education on a full-time, part-time or distance basis and which is -
(a) merged, established or deemed to be established as a public higher education
institution under this Act;

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 (b) declared as a public higher education institution under this Act; or
(c) registered or provisionally registered as a private higher education institution
under this Act” (Retrieved from http://www.che.ac.za/media_and_
publications/legislation/higher-education-act-101-1997).

6. For the purpose of this study, the selection of applicants for admittance onto the master’s
degree programmes is the objective, transparent, fair and scientific justifiable decision
to admit applicants who comply with the requirements of the tertiary institution and the
requirements set by the HPCSA for the I-O psychology profession.

7. The outcome of the research is a framework of multiple elements available as a guideline

for selection committees to plan which elements could be included during the selection
process. The framework in this study is thus a diagrammatic representation of multiple
selection elements grouped in a structure for easy reference during the selection
process.

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“...the major way organizations can actively determine the pool of candidates from which
they will choose their members is through recruitment activities. [...] Haphazard recruitment
and/or faith in the selection process, either self-selection or organizational selection, cannot
be expected to yield the non-right types required for long-term viability.”

(Schneider, 1987, p. 448)

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CHAPTER 1
WHY THIS RESEARCH? AN INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Dialogue about the I-O psychology profession in scientific literature, at professional society
forums, in academic institutions and in industry keeps the profession relevantly anchored to its
prime calling. These forums provide an opportunity for academics and practitioners to
advance their collective understanding about the distinctive character and core functions of
the academic discipline and profession.

Judging from the literature, the research in the I-O psychology profession has not paid much
attention to the admittance of new entrants to the profession or to postgraduate study in I-O
psychology. This study was therefore undertaken in response to the clear need for research
on the selection process for applicants for I-O psychology master’s degree programmes in
South Africa, the role and influence of various stakeholders and the different elements to
include in the selection process.

In Chapter 1, the research question and the formulated objectives indicate the direction of
the research. The research paradigm briefly informs the reader which frame of reference
steered the choice of research design and methodology. Research accountability and the
role of ethics in the research are addressed towards the end of the chapter. While the focus
of this chapter is only to outline how the research was motivated and executed, subsequent
chapters provide a literature overview, an in-depth discussion about the research
methodology and data collection, and an analysis of the findings. The outcome of the
research provides a suggested framework for the selection of applicants for I-O psychology
master’s programmes in I-O psychology and the report concludes with recommendations and
suggestions for on-going research about the topic.

The main topics addressed in Chapter 1 are summarised in Figure 1.1.

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Figure 1.1. Main topics addressed in Chapter 1.

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1.2 Motivation for the study

The identity, relevance and scope of the I-O psychology profession has long been a topic of
contestation, and it is within the context of the profession’s relevance and identity that the
research question is embedded. The first signs of resistance among psychology purists
surfaced shortly after this branch of applied psychology expanded from experimental settings
in the laboratory to the business environment (Landy, 1997). After years of debate and
questioning, however, the I-O psychology profession has become a fundamental discipline in
world-of-work psychology.

The profession has succeeded in re-directing focus areas as the business landscape changed
because of global economic and business demands in the years that followed. To ensure the
discipline’s professional identity in the workplace, previously published studies trace trends in
research as the profession adapted to changing industry demands over the years (see the
studies done by Cascio & Aguinis, 2008(b); Coetzee & Van Zyl, 2014a, 2014b; Flanagan &
Dipboye, 1981; Loignon, Myers, & Rogelberg, 2013; Piotrowski, 2012; Schreuder & Coetzee,
2012). These studies provide insight into the pliability of the profession and the ability of its
scholars to adapt to an ever-changing business environment requiring of the I-O psychologist
special competencies to influence and keep abreast of organisational direction and strategic
thought.

However, the visibility of the profession in industry still seems to be a concern more than 100
years after it was formally recognised as a field of applied psychology (Weathington, Bergman,
& Bergman, 2014). In the past, prominent scholars1 in the profession voiced their concern, but
the profession’s lack of recognition in industry seems to have persisted throughout the years.
After so many years, one wonders why the profession is still concerned with recognition in
industry, and what this implies for its identity.

Professionals who brand themselves as I-O psychologists are the main contributors to the
identity of the profession. How they define their core function in the business world and ‘live’
their loyalty to the profession, determines the distinctive character of the profession and to be
known in industry as a profession recognisably different than other professions. This
distinctiveness is qualified by Ryan and Ford (2010, p. 244) as a unique knowledge which they
call “what we know”. Nomenclature like ‘uniqueness’, ‘distinctiveness’, and ‘distinguishable’,
affirm the special character the I-O psychologist wishes to claim in the business world. The I-O
psychologist is the bearer of the title industrial psychologist and should be acutely aware of

1 See table 5.1 in Chapter 5 for reference to these scholars.

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being a brand ambassador for the I-O psychology profession. The so-called identity crisis of
the I-O psychology profession (Gerard, 2014; Renecle, 2001), requires competent professionals
to create an awareness so that customers are able to distinguish the I-O psychology brand
from its business school consultant counterparts (Dutton, Dukerich, & Harquail, 1994; Nolan,
Islam, & Quartarone, 2014; Rose, McCune, Spencer, Rupprecht, & Drogon, 2013). In this
regard, Greenwood (1957, p. 49) stated many years ago that a profession seeks to prove that
“...the performance of the occupational skill requires specialized education; that those who
possess this education, in contrast to those who do not, deliver a superior service; and that the
human need being served is of sufficient importance to justify the superior performance”.

Although Albert and Whetton (1985) address organisational identity, they note that
organisations use central or core characteristics as a guide for what they should do and how
other organisations relate to them. The same applies to the I-O psychology profession and by
implication the I-O psychologist. A scientist-practitioner mindset directs the I-O psychologist in
the work place and forms a central characteristic for the profession. When admitting new
entrants to the profession, selection panels need to recognise the potential of the applicant
to contribute to the identity of the profession. In addition to what is central in the profession,
the applicant also needs to demonstrate the potential to interpret, motivate and modify
behaviour and performance in a way that no other profession could claim to do. It is around
this unique contribution that the distinctiveness of the profession centers (Albert & Whetton,
1985). On entering the profession, the applicant becomes part of a larger fraternity of
professionals, all of whom have been demonstrating central and distinctive characteristics
and in this way contributing to the professional identity of an I-O psychologist over many years.

In addition to these, the profession also has an enduring quality that satisfies the third criteria
of professional/organisational identity (Albert & Whetton, 1985). There is a link here with
Schneider’s (1987) Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA) framework and his view that “people
who are attracted to, selected by and remain in the setting” (p. 442) eventually determine
that setting. Although this research does not investigate the application of the ASA framework
in the selection process, its relevance here is that Schneider’s views could be applied not only
to organisations but to careers and professions too (Boone, Van Olffen, & Roijakkers, 2004). This
explains the process by which the central and distinctive elements of the professions identity
are produces and reproduced over time.

This application to the I-O psychology profession connects with Holland’s (1959) idea that
people join career environments because of the attributes of those in a specific career
environment. Schneider (1987, p. 444) hypothesises: “...through recruitment and selection
procedures organizations actually end up choosing people who share many common

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personal attributes although they may not share common competencies”. The I-O psychology
profession radiates attractiveness to applicants with certain attributes. When admission
committees select students to enter master’s degree programmes, the attributes and
competences needed to fit the I-O psychology career environment at the exit stage of the
degree articulate with the formation of a professional identity. Selection committees need to
be aware of the ASA framework when the selection process commences.

The training and education of I-O psychology students at the different levels of academic
preparation towards registration as I-O psychologist are addressed in the literature (Payne,
Morgan, & Allen, 2015; SIOP, 2016). The content of the I-O curriculum, the duration of training
programmes and the professional registration or licensure of I-O psychologists are debated
across continents. Recently, Byrne et al. (2014) added to the debate about the training and
education of I-O psychology students and foresaw “a marketplace that requires even more
of I-O psychologists than ever before, and therefore our focus has been on how we adopt a
forward-thinking, proactive approach to anticipate these needs” (p. 13). While the literature
focuses on the competence and competency of the I-O psychologist already practicing, less
is said about the selection and admittance of new entrants to I-O psychology related degrees.

The selection and entry requirements of postgraduate students to I-O psychology programmes
are hardly mentioned in the literature (Greenberg et al., 1981; Schreuder, 2001). Recently,
Wiese and Fullick (2014) recommended a strategic focus on the attraction of compatible
applicants by being open and transparent about the culture of the profession and ensuring a
closer fit with expectations of the profession. Because of this apparent gap in the literature,
the focus of this research is to explore the process of selection of competent applicants for I-
O psychology master’s degree programmes in South Africa. To counter any questions about
the identity and relevance of the profession, new entrants admitted to I-O psychology master’s
programmes should be able to provide evidence-based results, which will affect managerial
practices in industry, by providing both the worker and the organisation with the best
opportunity to resolve strategic employee related challenges in the contemporary work
environment.

Therefore, it is argued that by selecting applicants who are able to cope with the critical tasks
of being an I-O psychologist in academia, consulting, industry and government, the strategic
value of the I-O psychology profession in a complex business environment will be recognised.
In fact, the SIOP strategic goal of “increas(ing) the awareness and use of I-O psychology”
through “building awareness of the field through outreach to business and government
leaders, policy makers, the public, and the media” and “creating opportunities to foster our
science and the application of our knowledge for the betterment of work, workers,

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workplaces, and society” serves as motivation to select those applicants who will be able to
support and contribute towards realising these strategic goals in the workplace
(Retrieved from http://www.siop.org/reportsandminutes/strategicplan.aspx).

Through the selection and admittance of competent students who fit the I-O psychologist
profile, the professional standing of I-O psychology in the business world will be promoted by
a fully integrated scientist-practitioner mind-set ingrained in the I-O psychology student from
the onset of the master’s degree programme. To increase the visibility of I-O psychology,
Ployhart (2012) believes that when I-O psychologists utilise a more direct strategic perspective
and approach, the relevancy of the profession to decision makers in industry will be
emphasised. He maintains: “There is no question that I-O psychology is relevant to
organizations, but it is an open question whether we are as relevant as we could be”. Later
he insists, “...we can do more, and we should do more” (Ployhart, 2012, p. 63).

Admitting applicants to I-O psychology programmes does not occur in isolation. Several
challenges face higher education institutions when selecting applicants for postgraduate
programmes. These include the growing number of applicants, the cost of education and the
demands of industry, which require that selected applicants for I-O psychology postgraduate
programmes must be able to meet the demands of higher education and the profession and
deliver competent service to the organisation and community they serve. The competition to
enter professional degree programmes is becoming increasingly complex (Niessen & Meijer,
2017; Van der Walt, Potgieter, & Wolhuter, 2014).

Another variable which exerts an influence on the I-O psychology profession in South Africa is
the Health Professions Act, Act 56 of 1974 (hereafter The Act), which defines the scope of
practice of the industrial psychologist in South Africa. The Health Professions Council of South
Africa (HPCSA) as statutory body strictly regulates entry to the profession by enforcing the
successful completion of a twelve-month approved internship and formal Board examination
with a high pass mark. At the time of this report, ten higher education institutions are
accredited by the HPCSA to train I-O psychologists in South Africa. Registration as a qualified
industrial psychologist thus requires the completion of an accredited master’s degree, an
approved twelve-month internship under the supervision of a registered industrial psychologist
and a minimum of 70% as a pass mark for the HPCSA Board examination.

Role players such as the HPCSA, the accredited universities, their faculties and departments,
set basic academic entry requirements for admission to these postgraduate studies. These
influence the decisions of selection committees when applicants are selected for the master’s
degree programme in I-O psychology. For many years, academic institutions have been

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experiencing mounting pressure to accelerate the pass rate of postgraduate students due to
the escalating cost of education. The cost of education is, however, not the only restriction
for admitting students to tertiary education (Brynard, 2005; Van der Merwe & De Beer, 2006).
Various other strategic and operational challenges that influence the limitation of student
numbers to postgraduate programmes in academic departments include the additional
requirements of statutory and professional regulatory bodies, the supervisory capacity of the
academic departments and the availability of research support and funding. Within this
context, fair, just and transparent selection thus becomes the task of the academic
department.

Industry also requires skilled and competent I-O psychologists to address the many challenges
faced in the workplace with ingenuity and creativity in a highly competitive global arena. The
competencies of the applicant therefore need to fulfil the profile requirements of an I-O
psychologist for the 21st century organisation (Cascio, 1998). Tertiary institutions have to look
beyond the prerequisite academic admission requirements for post-graduate programmes
and the scientific and legal guidelines for the selection of future I-O psychologists since
applicants for an I-O psychology postgraduate programme need to fill the dual scientific-
practitioner role in industry (Anderson, Herriot, & Hodgkinson, 2001; Augustyn & Cillié, 2008;
Pienaar & Roodt, 2001; Van Vuuren, 2010). In other words, the admittance of a student to an
I-O psychology postgraduate programme needs to satisfy the regulatory/statutory body,
professional society, the tertiary institution and industry.

Figure 1.2 illustrates how the academic department within a faculty is housed within the
confinement of a tertiary institution. The I-O psychology discipline at the academic
department is governed by the regulations of the CHE within the higher education
environment. The scope of practice for I-O psychology is defined by the HPCSA (via The Act).
The role of the Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology of South Africa (SIOPSA) as
a professional society is another stakeholder concerned with the guidance of new entrants to
the profession. The academic department, the HPCSA and SIOPSA are functioning in the
industry when the I-O psychology graduate enters the profession during an internship. The
interaction between all the relevant stakeholders is continual and the adaption to
new/changed demands on the profession from a changing business environment could be
challenging to all involved.

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Figure 1.2. Stakeholder influence in the selection process. The figure illustrates the different
stakeholders who influence the selection process of I-O psychology applicants for master’s
degree programmes.

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Taking into account all the variables influencing selection, admission committees at academic
departments are thus faced with a complicated challenge when selecting new entrants to a
postgraduate I-O psychology programme in South Africa. This research proposes a framework
with different elements that admission committees could choose in combination to drive an
objective selection process based on scientific, transparent and fair principles.

1.3 Stating the problem

Postgraduate selection committees in South Africa are faced with the challenge of selecting
competent scholars from an increasing pool of high achieving applicants to enter master’s
degree programmes in I-O psychology. The challenge is intensified if one is uncertain what
the objective of selection is and which stakeholders to satisfy. In addition, the selection
procedure should comply with scientifically grounded best practice for the applicant-
profession competence fit.

The selection process followed should be objective, fair and transparent and should adhere
to the tertiary postgraduate admission requirements as well as legal requirements for selection
practices in general (Employment Equity Act, 55 of 1998; Basic Conditions of Employment
Amendment Act, 11 of 2002). It is not certain if any South African admission committee at I-O
psychology academic departments abides by any framework for selection or if the selection
process they follow is aligned with a training philosophy or with regulations of statutory bodies
and professional societies or with the competence needed in industry. The overarching
objective of the research was to establish if such a guideline or framework exists and, if not, to
provide one which could assist other I-O psychology departments to create a fair, just and
transparent selection process.

The introductory background set the scene for the research problem to be identified. I-O
psychology departments at South African tertiary institutions are all confronted with the same
challenges experienced by the I-O profession in industry. Knowing how they manage and
conduct the selection of I-O psychology applicants for postgraduate programmes will assist
with the benchmarking of selection processes in South Africa. The different tertiary institutions
apply different methods and measures in the selection of applicants for master’s degree
programmes. Exploring and describing how different academic departments at accredited
universities in South Africa select students to enter I-O psychology master’s degree
programmes might assist selection committees to select applicants with the potential to
succeed academically within the allowed higher education timeframe, be competent in
industry and satisfy the demands of all stakeholders (cf., Ployhart, 2012; Zoogah, 2012).

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1.4 The purpose of the research

This research sets out to establish what the current selection processes are for selecting
applicants to enter a master’s degree programme in I-O psychology at South African
universities and, arising from this, to propose a framework for selecting applicants with the
competence to enter the I-O profession as brand ambassadors for the profession and to
promote the professional identity of I-O psychology in the work place. The justification for this
is the apparent absence of research with a specific focus on the selection of applicants for
master’s degree programmes in I-O psychology both internationally and in South Africa.

1.5 Formulating the research question and objectives

 The primary aim of the study was to explore and describe current selection
processes of applicants for the I-O psychology master’s degree programmes at
HPCSA accredited tertiary institutions in South Africa.

 The outcome of the study is to suggest a framework for a scientific, fair, objective
and transparent selection process of applicants to fit the I-O psychology
competencies needed in the work place and to promote the identity of the I-O
psychology profession in the business world.

Based on this background, the empirical research question then formulated, was

what are the selection processes followed at HPCSA accredited

tertiary institutions in South Africa to select applicants for master’s
degree programmes in I-O psychology?

From the research question, the objectives formulated for the research were

1.5.1 to explore the procedure for selecting applicants for I-O psychology master’s
degree programmes at HPCSA accredited South African tertiary institutions;

1.5.2 to describe the selection procedure at the sampled universities;

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 1.5.3 to suggest a framework for a scientific, fair, objective and transparent
procedure for the selection of applicants to fit the I-O psychology
competencies needed in a competitive business world.

1.6 The envisioned benefits of the study

This study offsets the apparent absence of I-O psychology literature describing selection
processes or providing guidance to admission panels about selecting applicants for I-O
psychology master degree programmes in South Africa. In Chapter 5 the guidance is sought
from international literature in this regard.

It would appear that selection committees at I-O psychology academic departments at

universities in South Africa differ extensively in their approach when they select applicants to
enter I-O psychology master’s degree programmes. Considering that the I-O psychologist
needs to register as practitioner at a statutory professional board legally guarding the
profession by setting criteria for admittance to it, the selection of applicants should be done
with much more seriousness and accountability.

The outcome of the research might assist selection committees at I-O psychology academic
departments by presenting a framework of different elements to include in the selection
process. This could offer I-O psychology departments a guideline to structure a fair, just and
transparent selection process.

1.7 Setting the boundaries

The research included only the selection processes followed at South African universities where
an HPCSA accredited I-O psychology master’s degree programme is offered. Accredited
programmes have the benefit of being evaluated and benchmarked against professional
requirements and standards set by professional bodies. For South Africa, the professional body
is the HPCSA.

The description of the selection practices followed at these universities takes into account their
historical context and how they position themselves in the higher education environment.

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1.8 Introducing the research methodology and research paradigm

Although Chapter 3 provides an in-depth discussion of the research paradigm, the research
process and methodology, a few introductory comments place the research in context. From
an interpretivist paradigm a qualitative research approach was followed through applying a
multiple case methodology. The frame of reference for this inquiry was provided by how the
researcher viewed reality and what informed this reality. The use of multiple methods of data
collection added to the richness of information collated and provided different ideas for the
suggested framework for the selection process of applicants at the end of the report. From a
theoretical point the engagement with literature as discussed in Chapter 2 lead to further
exploration in international literature for guidance about selection practices in the rest of the
world. The findings of this exploration are discussed in Chapter 5.

1.9 Structure and chapter layout

In preparation for the research, a thorough literature review was conducted to assess how
extensively the selection procedures for postgraduate I-O psychology master’s degrees are
reported in international and South African literature. Literature was consulted throughout the
research process at various stages as the study developed. Onwuegbuzie and Frels (in
Wagner, Kawulich, & Garner, 2012) maintain that a literature review can be an evolving and
continuous process, which was indeed how the review of literature was experienced for this
study. For each of the phases in the research process, the literature review informed the data
collection; the literature findings themselves are reported in Chapter 2.

Chapter 3 describes the research design, the methodology, how the chosen research
paradigm influenced the strategy of inquiry and how the execution of the research was
planned.

Information about the procedure of data collection and analysis are discussed in Chapter 4.
This includes planning to address both the first research objective (to explore current
procedures for selecting applicants for I-O psychology master’s degree programmes at HPCSA
accredited tertiary institutions in South Africa) and the second objective (to describe the
selection procedures at the sampled universities). The preparation for data collection and the
conducting of the research are explained. An extensive exposition of the data analysis using
the Atlas.ti© software follows, as well as an explanation of the different coding styles used to
group quotations in themes and theme-families. Thematic analysis was used to analyse
qualitative interview findings.

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After the analysis of the data, some unanswered questions related to the selection process led
to a new literature review in search of deep and historical information to shed light on the
philosophy of the discipline and to establish whether that had any effect on the selection
practices of the past and how it may influence the admittance of applicants to I-O psychology
postgraduate programmes in the future.

Chapter 6 suggests a framework for the selection of applicants for master’s degree
programmes in I-O psychology and concludes with suggestions for further research.

Figure 1.3 illustrates the layout of the full research report and how the chapters followed the
flow of the research.

Figure 1.3. The layout of the research report. The figure captures the flow of the research as
per chapter by presenting the main phases of the research process.

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1.10 Conclusion

Chapter 1 explained the motivation for the research question. The apparent lack of literature
about the selection procedures in the international I-O psychology arena as well as in South
Africa, confirmed the need to explore and describe the selection processes of applicants for
I-O psychology master’s degrees at academic departments at South African tertiary
institutions.

The research design and methodology were outlined. A multiple case study, informed by an
interpretivist research paradigm was the chosen method of data collection from semi-
structured interviews. With the use of Atlas.ti© software, transcribed interview data was
grouped in main themes and analysed according to the thematic analysis method.

The next chapter explains the importance of selecting competent I-O psychology applicants
for postgraduate programmes and how this complicates selection procedures. The
conclusion highlights the lack of literature about the importance of fair, just and transparent
selection of applicants for master’s degree programmes in I-O psychology.

_______________________________________________________

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“We industrial psychologists are a curiously introspective lot about our professional selves. For
some reason or another we are greatly concerned about what we are doing, how we are
doing it, and what we ought to be doing”

(Edwin Ghiselli, 1974, p. 80)

_______________________________________________________

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CHAPTER 2
BACKGROUND FROM THE LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

The research question formulated for this study was

what are the selection processes followed at HPCSA accredited tertiary

institutions in South Africa to select applicants for master’s degree programmes
in I-O psychology?

Based on the research question, the purpose of the literature review was formulated thus

to investigate national and international selection practices for

selecting students for postgraduate programmes at universities;

to describe the unique competence and competencies of the I-O

psychology applicant desirable for admittance to the profession;

to identify the stakeholders involved in the selection process of I-O

psychology postgraduate applicants in South Africa and their entry
criteria;

to establish what industry expects from the I-O psychologist entrant

(and beyond) in the work place. Clarity about the roles and (scientific)
contribution of the I-O psychologist in the organisation provide a
guideline for the selection of entrants to the profession;

to establish what different components and phases of the selection

process would be appropriate for a framework to guide the process of
selecting the best applicant to fit the requirements of the profession
and industry.

Throughout the study, the research question guided the research. However, as the
project evolved and after reflection on the findings from the collected data, this
question remained unanswered: Does I-O psychology literature provide any
direction for the selection of applicants for I-O psychology master’s programmes?

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It was then that a further review of literature followed with the explicit aim

to establish if I-O psychology literature at any stage during the historic

evolvement of the discipline addressed how the selection of applicants
to enter master’s degree programmes could be structured.

Staying true to the interpretivist research perspective and how the study evolved during the
research period, this final aim of the literature review will be discussed in Chapter 5 after
reflecting on the findings of the data. This reflects how the research question led to an
additional review of literature before the framework for selection could be developed.

The selection of master’s degree students should be viewed within the context of general
selection literature, which is extensive. The process of selection to be followed when selecting
applicants to enter the I-O psychology profession will be informed by existing general selection
theory. Competence and competency-based criteria are viewed as necessary selection
criteria directing the selection process.

The critical evaluation of existing literature also necessitates the inclusion of the roles of
stakeholders and their influence in the selection process of applicants for the master’s degree
in I-O psychology in South Africa. The complexity of this process therefore includes the opinions
and desires of all stakeholders, as well as the admission policies of universities and of their
academic faculties and departments.

Furthermore, a selection process has to comply with legal requirements as formulated in

several judicial sources. The Health Professions Act of South Africa, 56 of 1974, specifies the
scope of the I-O psychology profession in South Africa. The Employment Equity Act, 55 of 1998,
stipulates guiding principles for fair, just and transparent selection procedures. The Council on
Higher Education (CHE) specifies the outcomes of a master’s degree in South African tertiary
education. The tertiary institution regulates entry prerequisites as well as exit requirements for
postgraduate master’s degree students. Although not formally through regulation or decree,
industry expects the I-O psychologist to perform at least the basic levels of expertise in the
occupational environment on entry into the professional world of work.

The literature review will conclude with a discussion about the competence and
competencies required of the I-O psychologist by industry. Figure 2.1 illustrates the main topics
addressed in Chapter 2.

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Figure 2.1. The main topics addressed in Chapter 2.

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2.2 Selecting applicants for postgraduate programmes

As the academic and industrial landscapes change due to international and global economic
trends, the competition to enter professional degree programmes increases. In addition to
industry’s demand for well-trained employees to enter the labour market, the reform of higher
education worldwide to be less elitist and more inclusive has imposed new demands on tertiary
institutions. The concept of the massification of tertiary education and providing the
opportunity for study to as many applicants as possible on a postgraduate level is currently a
contentious issue in the higher education landscape (Chan & Lin, 2015; Stenlund, 2013).
Excluding students from furthering their studies when they were eagerly admitted to
undergraduate programmes is a sensitive issue. Restricting the numbers of candidates
entering professional degree programmes could easily be driven by emotion and not by fair,
transparent and just selection practices. Selecting deserving students from a growing pool of
applicants to enter a postgraduate degree programme in the face of limited space, restricted
supervisory capacity and shrinking institutional resources is becoming an increasing challenge
(Davis & Venter, 2011).

The discussion in this chapter places the selection of applicants for postgraduate programmes
in the general context of personnel selection literature. The recent emphasis on competency-
driven attributes of the I-O psychologist entering the workplace via different career routes in
the different industry contexts also necessitated a look at the selection of I-O psychology
applicants based on competencies and not just on proven academic performance in
undergraduate and honours degree programmes (SIOP, 2016). In a series of articles (Zelin et
al., 2015a, 2015b, 2015c, 2015d) by SIOP provides direction and feasible requirements for the I-
O psychologist embarking on a career in the public service (government institutions),
academia, corporate industry and consultancy. Towards the end of the chapter (in Section
2.3) the role of different stakeholders in the selection process is addressed.

2.2.1 Personnel selection

Personnel selection is described in the literature as a process of collecting and evaluating

work-related information about an individual in order to make an offer of employment
(Farr & Tippens, 2010; Gatewood, Feild, & Barrick, 2008). Selection is linked to the
recruitment and placement of employees in the workplace and is the central phase in
the process of matching the individual and the job. According to Ployhart (2006), the
strategic impact of staffing in global organisations is not fully understood or used
optimally by managers. He states that the attraction, selection and retention of

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competent individuals in order to achieve organisational goals is one of the foundational
challenges of an increasingly diverse workforce. Broadly defined selection is the
choosing of the applicant best suited for the job (Grobler, Wärnich, Carrell, Norbert, &
Hatfield, 2011) and the matching of people to pre-defined job roles (Roberts, 2005). The
focus of a selection committee will thus have to be the selection from the pool of
applicants those with the potential of making a success of the job at hand. The question
then is how to determine identified potential for the I-O psychology applicant.

Selection literature provides guidelines on how the selection and admittance of

applicants to a specific job could be structured. This will apply to the selection of
applicants to postgraduate programmes as well. Gatewood et al., (2008) discuss steps
in the development of a selection guideline before the selection process can be
applied. These steps include job analysis, identification of relevant job performance
dimensions, identification of knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics (KSAOs)
necessary for the job, development of assessment devices to measure KSAOs, validation
of assessment devices (the content and criteria) and the use of the assessment devices
in the processing of applications. In addition, Wärnich, Carrell, Elbert, and Hatfield,
(2015) suggest six important elements of a selection framework, namely organisational
goals and objectives, job design, job success criteria, job descriptions and specification,
the recruitment efforts and selection instruments. If the selection of postgraduate
applicants is placed within this suggested selection framework, selection committees will
have to fit the profile of the I-O psychology applicant to criteria such as programme
goals and objectives, the I-O psychologist job design, criteria for success in the I-O
psychology work context and the I-O psychology job description to the profile of the I-O
psychology applicant.

A comprehensive list of the activities of the selection process in general are summarised
in Table 2.1. Not all of them are necessarily included in the assessment of a suitable
candidate. They will be tailored to the specific purposes by the selection panel and
aligned with the staffing strategy of the particular organisation. When selecting
applicants for master’s degree programmes the activities the selection committee
chooses to include would steer the selection process.

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Table 2.1
Suggested general activities in the selection process
Activity
Screening of application blanks
Curriculum vitae
Telephone screening
Biographical data
Previous related work experience
Academic performance in previous degrees
Employment test or assessment centre activities
Group assessments with different activities
Submitting a proposal (depending on kind of job applied for)
Presentation of a pre-decided topic
Background and reference checks
Interviews
Different phases/rounds of interviews (group/individual)
Medical examination or proof of medical fitness (depending on the job requirement)
Note. Adapted from Gatewood et al., 2008; Price, 2007; Roberts, 2005; Searle, 2003; Wärnich et al., 2015.

A clearly defined job analysis describing the job and providing job specifications directs
a selection process in general (Wärnich et al., 2015). Although the debate in literature
about the job analysis versus competency modelling is continuing, the basic premise of
what the job entails lies within the parameters of the analysis of the job. (The issue of job
analysis versus competency-based selection follows in Section 2.2.3).

Job analysis provides information about the specific job/position and guides the
selection panel as to which applicant to recruit and appoint. Gatewood et al., (2008)
describe how job analysis and job descriptions produce work-related information and
translate into employee specifications, which then informs the selection process. A task-
based job analysis method will determine the frequency and significance of certain tasks
and assist subject matter experts to ensure that the required KSAOs meet the demands
of the tasks (Goffin & Woycheshin, 2006). Selecting future I-O psychologists to work in the
new world of work includes the responsibility to select competent and talented
professionals who demonstrate an understanding of people-work challenges in the
competitive global marketplace.

Competitive labour market conditions influence personnel selection. Selection practices

of the past might no longer be appropriate for the selection of professionals. The modern
work environment no longer requires an exclusively desk-bound worker; much more is
expected of the 21st century employee. Volatility of global financial markets, emerging
multinational companies, integrated global business networking, rapid technological

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advancement, innovative thinking, sourcing and retaining of talent all have an impact
on human resource staffing strategies (Cascio, 1995; Cascio & Aguinis, 2008(b);
Gunnigle, Lavelle, & Monaghan, 2013; Ployhart, Schmitt, & Tippens, 2017). Tried and
tested methods of selection might no longer yield the closest job-person fit in the global
work environment.

Until now the traditional view of personnel selection has been discussed. Ployhart and
Schneider (in Schmitt, 2012) name this model of personnel selection the Classic Personnel
Selection Model with the primary focus on defining the job, identifying critical KSAOs for
job performance and linking the KSAOs to a critical performance dimension, thus
reducing the KSAOs to only those necessary for critical tasks as a basis for the selection
procedure. The final phase of the model is to develop critical measures of the KSAOs to
administer to applicants. The authors argue that the classical way of hiring applicants
for a job does not take job performance within a specific context into account. The
influence of job context is thus ignored. In conclusion, they state,

what is lacking in the selection literature is an appreciation for substantive

contextual influences on the selection process elements including KSAOs
and performance. To ignore such contextual influences is to deny the
importance of modern organizational behaviour, strategy and
interactionist psychology” (Ployhart & Schneider (in Schmitt, 2012, p. 52)).

Although selection committees do not know which career path in industry will eventually
be the interest of the applicant, they need to be aware of how the different career
options will influence the competencies needed for the prospective I-O psychologist.
Committees could base the selection process on generic competencies identified for
the I-O psychologist in general when the entry to I-O psychology graduate programmes
is decided.

Another aspect to consider within the general selection literature in South Africa is the
prohibition of unfair discrimination in selection and appointment criteria as stated in the
EEA (55 of 1998). Section 8 of the EEA addresses psychological testing and other similar
assessments. Discrimination, directly or indirectly, against any applicant is prohibited. In
their explanation on the issue of psychological testing and assessment in the light of
Section 8 of the EEA, Foxcroft and Roodt (2009) add that psychological testing and other
similar forms of assessment are prohibited unless they can be proved as valid and
eligible, be applied fairly and are not biased against any employee or group. The
definition of unfair discrimination includes all the aspects of the employment process

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from the recruitment to the termination of the employment relationship. The scope of
the definition extends to include unfair discrimination in recruitment procedures,
advertising, selection criteria and the appointment process and the appointment itself.
In his explanation of what might be seen as ‘unfair discrimination, Van Niekerk,
Christianson, McGregor, Smit, and Van Eck (2008) point out that policies and procedures
of the employment process can be scrutinised and tested in court. The implication for
the selection of applicants for postgraduate programmes is that the selection policies
and procedures of tertiary institutions and selection committees should be clear,
transparent, justifiable and fair in order to survive the ruling of the court (cf., Theron, 2007).

Selection procedures in general were reviewed in this section. The complexity of

selecting applicants to enter graduate programmes is discussed in the following section.

2.2.2 Selection of applicants for postgraduate programmes in general

The admission of applicants for postgraduate degrees has been a well-researched and
documented area of focus. Current trends in graduate admissions, selection criteria,
success rates and other interesting postgraduate challenges are addressed in the
literature. The scope of these studies includes the marketing of graduate programmes
and the role university brand image offers in choosing a postgraduate programme
(Subramaniam, Yusoff, & Othman, 2014); admitting students to postgraduate
programmes based on Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT) and
undergraduate Graduate Point Average (GPA) scores (Hammond, Cook-Wallace,
Moser, and Harrigan (2015) the impact of university admission policies and how
programme mission-driven criteria influence selection processes (Melton & Duke, 2015);
the use of selection mechanisms at tertiary institutions and how psychometric tests may
influence admittance to master’s degree programmes (Maree, 2002); how to use
interviews as part of student selection (Powis, Neame, Bristow, & Murphy, 1988); making
written admission goal statements part of the selection process (Newton & Moore, 2006);
analysing selection practices for professional training programmes in psychology
(Mayekiso, Strydom, Jithoo, & Katz, 2004); and psychometric tests administered as part
of selection (Maree, 2002). However, Gaengler et al. (2002) comment that measuring
the success of any given process used for student selection remains a challenge.

Despite the numerous areas of interest and studies named thus far, the selection of
students for postgraduate studies is fuzzy. Maree (2002) is of the opinion that it is not
always clear whether selection mechanisms predict tertiary academic success as

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accurately as one would want them to (cf., Ebersöhn & Maree, 2003). Although
academic performance in previous degrees is an important consideration in the
admittance of applicants for I-O psychology master’s degrees, it should not be the only
criterion considered in the selection process. Swanepoel and Moll (2004) found little
support for relying only on academic performance in the honours degree as a predictor
of success in the master’s degree and suggest the inclusion of other elements (for
example, the role of the supervisor as mentor, language proficiency and reasoning skills
to name a few) too. Yet some studies (Hatchett, Lawrence, & Coaston, 2017; Holmström
& Taylor, 2008) report that previous academic performance might be useful in predicting
success in subsequent degrees, but they do note that other variables (personal
characteristics, competency assessment, quality of writing) might influence this finding.
Although the research by Van der Merwe and De Beer (2006) focused on the academic
success of students based on their school-leaving results, their conclusive
recommendation is that cognitive factors such as language proficiency as well as non-
cognitive factors such as locus of control and study habits should be included in a
selection battery to achieve higher predictive validity.

Selection committees need to consider if the successful completion of a postgraduate

programme within a limited period should be the sole drive and aim when the admission
of applicants for postgraduate programmes is addressed. It is apparent that factors such
as the branding of the profession, the quality of the academic programme, the type of
future applicant targeted for recruitment and the value of successful completion to
sponsors and tertiary institutions need to be considered during the admission process as
well.

An interesting argument, based on a systems approach when selecting students for

undergraduate business programmes, emphasises the important role not only of all the
stakeholders in admitting students to academic programmes, but also the programme’s
mission and the activities included in the curriculum. Melton and Duke (2015) argue that
if an academic programme follows a proactive mission-driven approach, the admission
of applicants will correspond with the desired outcome of the programme’s mission.
They ask the following question from the perspective of the mission: “given the mission,
which student should be recruited?” and the following from the perspective of students:
“given the students in the program, what resources will be needed to progress toward
the mission?” Furthermore, they distinguish between programmes that are capacity-
driven, which aim to maintain enrolment, and programmes that are criteria-driven to
maintain academic standards. One of the questions asked during the interviews with
programme managers at the identified tertiary institutions was aimed at establishing if

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the training mission of the Department had any influence on the selection of applicants
for their master’s programme in I-O psychology. The feedback on this question will be
discussed in Chapter 4, Section 4.3.1.2.

Another important factor in the selection of applicants for postgraduate programmes is

the presence of various stakeholders and other decision makers who might exert an
influence on the selection process. Stakeholders include the HPCSA, SIOPSA, industry,
who expects from the graduate to be employable and ready for the labour market on
exit from the master’s programmes, and the tertiary institution governed by the CHE.
Klehe (2004) identifies institutional pressures as a major contributing factor in the selection
of applicants.

The discussion first focused on selection practices in the general domain of personnel
selection before discussing the selection of postgraduate applicants for graduate
programmes. The focus now turns to the selection of I-O psychology applicants and will
compare selection based on traditional job analysis with competency-based selection.

2.2.3 Selecting I-O psychology applicants for master’s degree programmes: Traditional
job analysis vs competency based selection practices

Matched against the background of a highly driven market place where industries
compete not only for economic survival, but for financial wealth and prosperity too, the
professional who engages with this kind of market competition needs to be competent,
self-driven and have an entrepreneurial mind-set. The I-O psychologist in the 21st century
work environment is confronted with the opportunity not only to build a career of
excellence but also to be a brand ambassador for a profession with much to offer
industry (Cascio, 1995, 2001; Shippmann, Hawthorne, & Schmidt, 1992).

What distinguishes I-O psychology from other occupations is professional identity, expert
knowledge, the skill to generate new knowledge and the possession of competencies
that other professions are unable to imitate (Byrne et al., 2014). Although Albert and
Whetten’s (1985) criteria for identity focus on organisational identity, the same criteria
could be applied to the professional identity of the I-O psychologist. The central
character of the I-O psychology profession distinguishes it from other professions that are
based on their special nature and purpose in the work place. The I-O psychologist also
needs to claim a distinctiveness that indicates that the mix of elements available in the
repertoire of the I-O psychologist is “recognizably different from others (and similar to

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members of the same class)” (Albert & Whetton, 1985, p. 267). Lastly, the authors
emphasise the enduring quality of professional identity over time. The identity of the I-O
psychology profession is embedded in a history of more than 100 years.

The selection of I-O psychology applicants to act as brand ambassadors for the
profession places the onus on postgraduate committees at universities to select
competent applicants to admit to programmes where these latent competencies will
be developed during the course of their postgraduate preparation for the world of work.
Ryan (2003) emphasises that the root of the profession lies within the disciplinary core (a
sound knowledge base) from where the identity of the profession stems. Accordingly,
the identity of the profession comes from the way in which I-O psychologists act and
perform tasks and on what they base their expertise. The visibility of the profession is the
responsibility of I-O psychology brand ambassadors (Reynolds, 2013). From personnel
selection literature (Dressler, 2011; Wärnich et al., 2015) we learn that selection for a
specific position is based on job analysis and job description. Several authors challenge
appointments based on traditional job analysis, however, and propose a competency
based model for appointments (Cohen, 2015; Goffin & Woycheshin, 2006; Patterson,
Ferguson, & Thomas, 2008; Shippmann et al., 2000; Stevens, 2012).

When White (1959) refers to competence in the context of motivational behaviour, he

views the development of a competence as being based not on pure drive or instinct
but on a deeper need to interact successfully with the environment, a need that leads
to prolonged learning. Reflecting on what White (1959) said many years ago, the kind
of ‘motivational competence’ when we select I-O psychology applicants for master’s
programmes might be the competence needed for new entrants to the profession - a
deep-rooted motivational drive to be competent in your environment.

The competency debate started in earnest within the context of personnel selection
when McClelland (1973) said that the reliance on intelligence and aptitude test results
to predict who would be more (or less) qualified for college entrance, ruled out
deserving candidates with lower test scores. His reasoning was based on the lack of
predictive validity of intelligence scores, which resulted in college administrators falsely
believing that applicants with high test scores would be more successful in their studies.
He advocates, “that a wider array of talents should be assessed for college entrance
and reported as a profile to the colleges” (McClelland, 1973, p. 7). In his well-known
publication about the competent manager, Boyatzis (1982) asserts that competencies
are characteristic of an individual’s effective or superior performance. Commenting on
the pivotal systematic literature reviews focussing on competence and competencies

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by Shippmann et al. (2000) and Campion, Fink, Carr, Phillips, and Odman (1997), Bartram
and Roe (2005) noted that there is a commonality of function, conduct and
competence across psychological specialisation fields.

When the process to allow applicants to enter a master’s programme in I-O psychology
begins, a job description of the I-O psychologist provides a guideline that directs the
process. However, what complicate the selection process are the various career routes
the qualification can lead to, namely academia, industry, public service or consultancy.
For each of them the emphasis on competencies might differ slightly. The challenge is
to formulate a generic competency requirement that serves all career options while
nevertheless giving priority to the roles expected from the I-O psychologist in industry. A
more generic competency requirement is the challenge.

If it is accepted that traditional job analysis forms the basis of selecting an employee for
a specified position, it follows that the competence of the future I-O psychologist needs
to be considered during the selection process. The selection of the I-O psychology
applicant is thus also tied to the recruitment of suitable candidates that will lead to the
successful placement of the student intern in industry upon completion of the master’s
degree. However, the recruitment of postgraduate I-O psychology students is not
discussed in this report although targeted recruitment for the I-O psychology brand
seems to be a future focus for the profession.

Selection based on competencies and not on abilities alone is the continuous focus of
Bartram (2004, 2005, 2006). He describes a competency as a “repertoire of capabilities,
activities, processes, and responses available that enable a range of work demands to
be met more effectively by some people than by others” (Bartram, 2004, p. 246). He
adds that a competency in the business environment is that behaviour of the individual
which supports the accomplishment of organisational objectives (Bartram, 2006).

The SIOP Education and Training Committee conducted a benchmark survey in 1995
with the purpose of providing a baseline to US I-O psychology programme directors to
compare programmes and improve I-O graduate training. A second survey was done
in 2011 and Tett et al. (2012) as well as Tett, Walser, Brown, Simonet, and Tonidandel,
(2012) reported the updated findings. Payne et al. (2015) listed the 25 important
competencies identified by PhD and master’s students (see Table 2.2) in the I-O
psychology profession as part of the 2011 SIOP benchmarking survey.

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Table 2.2
The 25 important competencies identified as identified by PhD and Master’s students
Identified area Description of the competencies
1 Research methods
2 Statistical methods/data analysis
3 Personnel recruitment, selection and placement
4 Ethical, legal and professional contexts of I-O psychology
5 Work motivation
6 Criterion theory and development
7 Individual differences
8 Performance appraisal and feedback
9 Job/task analysis and classifications
10 Training: theory program design and evaluations
11 Leadership and management
12 Attitude theory, measurement and change
13 Small group theory and team processes
14 Organisational development
15 Consulting and business skills
16 Health and stress in organisations
17 Organisational theory
18 Individual assessment
19 Judgment and decision making
20 Fields of psychology
21 History and systems of psychology
22 Career development
23 Job evaluation and compensation
24 Human performance / human factors
25 Consumer behaviour
Note. Adapted from Payne et al., 2015.

In addition to the role description of the I-O psychologist, the SIOPSA Future Fit Working
Committee (2010, 2014) also established the primary areas of competence of the I-O
psychologist. The comparative comments of 2010 and 2014 respectively are captured
in Table 2.3.

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Table 2.3
Primary and secondary areas of competence for the I-O psychologist according to
SIOPSA (2010 and 2014)
Primary areas of competence Primary areas of competence
2010 2014
Goal specification Goal definition
(need analysis and goal setting) (need analysis; goal setting)
Assessment Assessment
(individual, group, organisation, situation) (Individual; group; work context;
organisation)
Development Design
(service/product definition and requirement (Definition and requirement analysis; design,
analysis; service/product design, testing, pilot and testing; evaluate)
evaluation)
Intervention Intervention Implementation
(intervention planning; direct person- (implementation planning: direct person-
orientated intervention; indirect intervention; orientated interventions; direct situation-
service/product implementation orientated interventions; indirect
interventions; product implementation
Evaluation Evaluation
(planning, measurement, analysis) (planning, measurement, analysis)
Communication Communication
(giving feedback; report writing) (giving feedback; report writing)

Secondary areas of competence Secondary areas of competence

Called “Secondary areas of competence” Called “Enablers” in
in 2010 2014
Professional strategy Professional strategy
Continuing professional development Continuing professional development
Professional relations Professional relations
Research and development Research and development
Marketing and sales Marketing and sales
Account management Account management
Practice management Practice management
Quality assurance Quality assurance
Note. Adapted from SIOPSA Future Fit Action Domain, Second Draft Report, April 2010; SIOPSA Future Fit
Working Committee, 2014.

The SIOPSA Future Fit Working Committee in 2010 and 2014 also identified typical
behavioural competencies required by the I-O Psychologists. Table 2.4 summarises the
competencies.

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 Table 2.4
Typical behavioural competencies required by the I-O psychologist
Called “typical behavioural competencies” in Called “supportive behaviours
2010 in 2014
Deciding and initiating action Solving problems
Leading and supervising Analysing
Working with people Learning and researching
Adhering to principles and values Writing and reporting
Relating and networking Creating and innovating
Persuading and influencing Influencing people
Presenting and communicating information Presenting and communicating information
Writing and reporting Relating and networking
Applying expertise and technology Persuading and influencing
Analysing Supportive approaches
Learning and researching Adhering to principles and values
Creating and innovating Adapting and responding to change
Formulating strategies and concepts Coping with pressures and setback
Planning and organising Delivering results
Delivering results; meeting customer expectations Entrepreneurial and commercial thinking
Following instructions and procedures Planning and organising
adapting and responding to change Meeting client and stakeholder expectations
Coping with pressures and setbacks
Achieving personal work goals and objectives
Entrepreneurial and commercial thinking
Note. Adapted from SIOPSA Future Fit Action Domain, Second Draft Report, April 2010; SIOPSA Future Fit
Working Committee, 2014.

2.3 Identifying South African stakeholders’ role in selection

In South Africa, various stakeholders play a role in the selection and training of students in I-O
psychology master’s degree programmes. The stakeholders are the HPCSA, tertiary institutions,
including academic faculties and their respective academic departments, SIOPSA and
industry partners. All the identified stakeholders are graphically presented in Figure 1.2.

2.3.1 The Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA)

The HPCSA, constituted by The Act, regulates all health-related professions in South Africa
and provides for the Professional Board of Psychology (PBP), among other stakeholders,
to regulate psychological training and practice in the country (Bergh & Geldenhuys,
2013). Defining the scope of the I-O psychology profession has formulated requirements
for the training, internship and practice of the I-O psychologist.

According to the PBP, the scope of practice for I-O psychology is the following:
(a) planning, developing and applying paradigms, theories, models,
constructs and principles of psychology in the workplace in order to

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understand, modify and enhance individual, group and
organizational behaviour effectively;

(b) performing psychometric and other assessments in order to

determine the potential and/or suitability for training, development
and employment and to determine individual, group and
organizational effectiveness; referring patients to appropriate
professionals for assessment or intervention; designing, developing,
standardizing and implementing assessment tools and procedures
related to the work environment;

(c) facilitating individual and group processes for effective

organizational functioning; designing and implementing training
programmes for effective organizational functioning; designing and
developing strategies in consumer behaviour; developing
interventions to ameliorate poor performance in work settings;
designing and implementing programmes based on understanding
ergonomics;

(d) advising on the development of policies, based on psychological

theory and research; designing, managing and evaluating industrial
psychology intervention programmes;

(e) training and supervising other registered psychology practitioners

in Industrial Psychology;

(f) conducting psychological practice and research in accordance

with the Ethical Rules of Conduct for Practitioners registered under the
Health Professions Act, 1974; adhering to the scope of practice of
Industrial Psychologists;

(g) designing, managing, conducting, reporting on and supervising

the industrial psychology research.
(Health Professions Act, (56 of 1974), retrieved from
http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/a29-07.pdf)

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During the second year of the master’s degree programme and after complying with all
the requirements of the HPCSA to enter a practical programme (an internship), the I-O
psychology student will be allowed to commence with a 12-month internship. This is the
first formal contact with industry as I-O psychology intern and provides the opportunity
for the intern to apply theoretical knowledge to professional practice under the
supervision of a senior industrial psychologist (HPCSA, 2017. Retrieved from
http://www.hpcsa.co.za/Uploads/editor/UserFiles/downloads/psych/psycho_educatio
n/form_218.pdf). The scope of practice is the “statutory job description” of the I-O
psychologist (HPCSA, 2017. Retrieved from http://www.hpcsa.co.za/Uploads/editor
/UserFiles/downloads/psych/sept_promulgated_scope_of_practice.pdf). Selection
committees should be aware of the basic requirements and expectations for the I-O
psychologist when the criteria for selection to enter the master’s degree programme are
formulated.

2.3.2 Tertiary institutions - universities

As a main stakeholder in the process of admittance of applicants to higher education

the tertiary institution needs to adhere to regulations from the CHE. The CHE is responsible
for the promotion and assurance of quality related to higher education in South Africa
(CHE, 2013). Additional to the CHE, the Higher Education Qualifications Sub-Framework
(HEQSF, 2010) recognises and clarifies the vocational, professional and general route of
qualifications and enables students to move between programmes as they pursue their
professional careers. It is within the parameters of the HEQSF that I-O psychology training
and education is regulated under the auspices of the South African National
Qualifications Framework (NQF). The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA, 2012)
develops the content of the level descriptors with the purpose of supporting the design
and implementation of qualifications, contributing to the coherence of learning
activities and facilitating evaluation criteria for comparability. The I-O psychology
master’s degree at an academic department needs to comply with all the rules and
regulations that apply to the registration and accreditation of a master’s degree
programme. It is within this context that applicants for I-O psychology master’s degree
programmes have to comply with pre-stated entry requirements in order to continue
with the screening process of selection committees at the academic departments.

A master’s degree in I-O psychology is classified as an NQF level nine qualification. On

exiting a master degree programme, an I-O psychology graduate should be able to
apply the competence aligned with the theoretical framework based on outcomes. At

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the end of the I-O psychology graduate’s training at the tertiary institution the learner
needs to be able to:
a) demonstrate specialised knowledge to critique research practices, engage
in a discussion about current research and demonstrate research ability in
an area of research interest,
b) evaluate current knowledge production and choose an appropriate
enquiry to study an identified research area,
c) demonstrate the ability to design, select and apply creative methodologies
to address complex practical and theoretical problems,
d) apply a wide range of specialised skills to address complex and challenging
problems in practice and be able to understand the consequence of any
proposed solution,
e) make ethical decisions and contribute to the ethical standards in a specific
context,
f) design and implement a strategy for accessing, processing and managing
information leading to a comprehensive review of specialised research
towards significant insight,
g) produce, communicate and defend academic information and conduct
an advanced discourse by using a range of specialised skills to address
different audiences at different levels of knowledge and expertise,
h) apply different interventions at appropriate levels, demonstrating an
understanding of hierarchical relations in the system and being able to
address the consequences of the intervention,
i) sustain independent learning and academic professional development as
well as interact with the professional group,
j) operate independently, manage resources, behave responsibly and with
good conduct.
(SAQA, Level descriptors, November 2012. Retrieved from http://
www.saqa.org.za/show.php?id=5469).

The National Qualifications Act (No. 67 of 2008) (NQA) regulates the structure of
qualifications in South Africa. The NQA defines a qualification as the “formal recognition
and certification of a learning achievement as awarded by an accredited institution”,
while a programme is a “purposeful and structured set of learning experiences leading
to a qualification” (South African Government Gazette, No. 38116, p. 16).

Furthermore, it is important for the selection committee to take note of the purpose and
characteristics of a master’s degree as set out in the NQA. The description of the

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master’s degree (professional) is applicable to the I-O psychology profession. The
designator of the professional master’s degree specifies a specific qualifier, in this case
I-O psychology. The NQA notes that the degree (either by dissertation alone or by
coursework and dissertation) must include a significant research component and focus
on the preparation of the graduate for “advanced and specialised professional
employment”. The NQA allows for consultation with professional regulatory bodies to
fulfil requirements for professional registration. The master’s degree (professional) may
also include a form of work-integrated learning (South African Government Gazette, No.
38116, p. 8).

Depending on the faculty where the qualification is housed, certain faculty entry
requirements are also stipulated. The entry requirements differ according to whether the
qualification resides in faculties of humanities or faculties of economic and
management sciences. The academic departments where the qualification is
presented might state additional entry requirements, for example achieving an average
above 65% for the honours degree and/or submitting proof of any related work
experience.

Comparing the selection criteria for students with or without a commercial background
should also be considered during the selection process. Students applying for a master’s
degree in I-O psychology are encouraged to apply at all accredited universities in South
Africa due to large numbers of I-O psychology honours students and the limited intake
for the master’s degree programme at the accredited academic departments of the
various tertiary institutions.

At some South African universities, the absence of a Baccalaureus Commercial Honours

I-O Psychology degree is a disqualifying criterion and restricts the movement of
applicants between universities in the country. Although different career paths exist for
the Magister Artium and Magister Commercii students, in the end both groups register at
the HPCSA as industrial psychologists.

Thus, it is clear that apart from just fitting the applicant with the profile of a future career
in I-O psychology, it is also necessary to select that applicant who will be able to comply
with all the requirements of a master’s degree as set by the tertiary institution and its
relevant faculty and academic department. The difference between the different
accredited institutions in South Africa will be apparent in the discussion of the results in
Chapter 5. The level descriptors (previously mentioned) are a guideline to the selection
committee when considering an applicant’s admittance to the programme.

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2.3.3 The Society of Industrial and Organisational Psychology of South Africa (SIOPSA)

The Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology of South Africa (SIOPSA) is the
official society for the I-O psychology profession in South Africa. SIOPSA states as their
purpose “to encourage the existence of a fair and humane work situation in South Africa,
to which all have an equal opportunity of access and within which all can perform
according to their abilities, can develop to their full potential and can experience a high
quality of work life” (SIOPSA Constitution. Retrieved from https://www.siopsa.org.za
/pages/about_siopsa#constitution). SIOPSA is committed to serving the I-O psychology
profession in South Africa as the leading professional society, optimising individual, group
and organisational effectiveness and well-being in the broader context of society
(SIOPSA 2020, 2015).

In 2007 the Society initiated the Future Fit Working Committee to establish the value-add
of I-O psychology in the South African business milieu. In addition to evaluating the
critical contribution of I-O psychology in industry, it was also important to establish the
influence of I-O psychology research and interventions in South African industries.

The Future Fit Action Domain released its first report during 2009. The Future Fit Action
Domain defined the scope of practice of I-O psychologists, defined the behavioural and
technical competencies required from the I-O psychologist and defined the different
variables which may influence the work of the I-O psychologist. Hereafter a survey
followed which reported in 2010 about the work context of the I-O psychologist, the role
of the I-O psychologist in industry, primary and secondary areas of competence, typical
behaviour competencies needed, knowledge components and typical skills required by
the I-O psychologist in practice (SIOPSA, Second daft report, Future Fit Action Domain,
2010). The research continued and in July 2014 the latest results were communicated at
the SIOPSA Conference.

2.3.4 Industry as stakeholder

During the years of training, the role of industry is limited to guest lecturing and perhaps
providing vacation work for undergraduate I-O psychology students. Much more
emphasis needs to be place on the role of industry during the years of formal academic
study. Advisory committees at academic departments could also inform academia
about the issues in industry for the purpose of adjusting academic curricula by providing
the theoretical grounding to address critical employee-related issues in the organisation.

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 In South Africa, industry plays a major role in providing the master’s graduate with the
opportunity of a twelve-month internship, which is a pre-requisite of the HPCSA before
the completion of a formal examination and subsequent registration as an I-O
psychologist. Collaborating with industry is thus crucial because they provide tertiary
institutions with valuable feedback about needs in the business environment as well as
reflecting on the value-add of I-O psychology in the contemporary business
environment.

2.4 Conclusion

The I-O psychology profession is concerned about the well-being of the employee in the work
place, the organisation and the larger socio-economic environment. Although the discipline
has evolved over many years, the discourse about the relevance, identity and visibility of the
profession in the business environment is continuing. Various stakeholders influence the entry
to the profession. The fusion between the opinion and requirements of the stakeholders and
the requirements of the tertiary institution is a delicate balance. Selecting applicants to be
competent brand ambassadors for the profession is a challenge that is not explicitly addressed
in literature.

_______________________________________________________

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“Something important is lost if the balanced, liberal, tolerant and thoughtful context and
heritage of our profession is unfamiliar or ignored”

(Kwiatkowski, Duncan, & Shimmin, 2006, p. 197)

_______________________________________________________

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CHAPTER 3
THE METHODOLOGY TO ANSWER THE RESEARCH QUESTION

3.1 Introduction

The answer to a research question is seldom conclusive. This adds to the depth of a research
topic and provides the opportunity to continue the refinement of the solution in time to come.
This chapter addresses the process that was followed to arrive at the best approach to
studying the research question. After assessing its different components, a qualitative
approach using a multiple case study methodology was chosen as most appropriate. The
steps in the research process are introduced by headings that describe how the process
unfolded during the course of the project. Figure 3.1 is a diagrammatical representation of
the main topics addressed in Chapter 3.

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Figure 3.1. The main topics addressed in Chapter 3.

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3.2 The research paradigm: Interpretivism

No researcher can conduct research without being grounded in a philosophical paradigm

which serves as the point of departure when interpreting the phenomena under investigation.
The eyes with which the world is scrutinised, have already in the background the frame to fit
the interpretation. The research paradigm operates in the background and the reader of a
research report should keep in mind that the interpretation of data is subconsciously
influenced by the researcher’s philosophical frame of reference. Throughout the report, the
researcher has the responsibility to link the interpretation of findings to the philosophical
research paradigm of choice. To provide context for the discussion and findings of this report,
it is necessary to provide background about the research paradigm that guided the study.

Thomas Kuhn2 (1970), probably the first person to give the word ’paradigm’3 its meaning,
suggested that members of a community of scientists share a paradigm. Within the
community they share their philosophies, contribute to the growing communal knowledge by
adding new constructs through literature, are responsive to the subject matter of the
community, test their ideas within the group and inevitably compete for dominance in their
field. Years of publications in that specific scientific community build the paradigm and
influence the thoughts of the members. A clear and notable research tradition is established
and characterises their shared research paradigm. Donmoyer’s (2008) explanation in
Appendix A elaborates on this and links to Kuhn’s view (1970).

Within each school of thought, certain philosophical anchors define and describe the scientific
inquiry. According to Ponterotto (2005), these anchors are ontology, epistemology, axiology,
rhetorical structure and methodology, although Denzin and Lincoln (2011) argue that the
researcher’s personal biography of class, gender, race, culture and ethnicity influence how
these concepts are defined. Ontology is the researcher’s basic belief about the nature of
reality. Epistemology explains the relationship between the researcher and the researched.
Axiology emphasises the objectivity-subjectivity of the researcher and the role of researcher
values throughout the research process. How the researcher conducts the research refers to
the methodology of the research (Wahyuni, 2012). Lastly, each of the paradigms has its own
rhetorical structure portrayed in a special language associated with the paradigm (Creswell,
2009; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Ponterotto, 2005; Schurink, Crafford, & Schurink, 2011).

2 Kuhn (1970) referred to the word paradigm already in the first edition of his major work “The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions” in 1962. The second enlarged edition of the work was published separately in 1970.
3 For the purpose of this research, the research paradigm is the theoretical framework within which this research is

positioned

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At first four basic paradigms have been described in the literature: positivism, post-positivism,
critical theory and constructivism. However, Lincoln, Lynham, and Guba, (2011) add the
participatory or postmodern paradigm in their most recent discussion. As more authors
contributed their own understanding to the debate about philosophical frames of reference,
new paradigms have emerged. Schurink (2009) identifies three (additional) research
approaches or perspectives in qualitative research, namely objectivism, realism and
constructivism or subjectivism. Pragmatism is another worldview (paradigm) added by
Creswell (2009), while in their discussion Chilisa and Kawulich (in Wagner et al., 2012) include
transformative/emancipatory and post-colonial/indigenous as additional research
paradigms.

No one research paradigm is better than the others and the worth of the paradigm lies in its
ability to best answer the question or provide the best solution to a problem (Grant & Giddings,
2002; Schnelker, 2006). For the purpose of this study, research was conducted within the
interpretive paradigm as it allowed me to capture the subjective perceptions of the research
participants. The results are presented in a narrative format in line with the epistemological
requirements of the study. Given that the researcher is an integral part of the research process,
the interpretation of the results is influenced by her values (axiology).

During the different stages of the research process, it was important for the researcher to
earnestly seek the best answer to the research question. The ultimate goal was to engage
with the respondents and to listen and reflect actively as the respondents answered the
research questions (De Vos et al., 2005). The subjectivity, a characteristic of the interpretivist
paradigm brought to the research process by the researcher (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill,
2009; Schurink, 2009; Grant & Giddings, 2002), sharpened the researcher’s mindfulness and
constant awareness while interpreting literature, reflecting during interviews and writing the
report. Understanding the role of the various stakeholders in the selection process emphasised
the researcher’s subjective interpretation of how they influence selection policies and
practices. Stakeholders complicate the selection process and are responsible for several
difficult variables to take into account during selection a kind of ‘noisy’ reminder to the
researcher of how the various requirements set by the stakeholders restrict the process of
selection.

Table 3.14 presents an overview of the research paradigms discussed above, with details
regarding the interpretive paradigm, relevant for this study, highlighted in blue.

4Table 3.1 provides a summative broad overview of the major paradigms from which the researcher identified the
best paradigm fit for this research

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Table 3.1
A summary of the main research paradigms.

Research Ontology Epistemology Methodology Axiology Language

Positivism One reality constant Statement of fact; Quantitative; experimental; Free of values; emotional Emotionally
over time; naïve objective; strictly scientific procedure; detachment neutral; precise;
realism uncover; explain; prediction of objective;
results; replicate, verify, confirm scientific
Postpositivism True reality can be Modified objectivism Quantitative; experimental; Free of values; emotional Emotionally
imperfect strictly scientific procedure; detachment neutral; precise;
uncover; explain; prediction of objective;
results; replicate, verify, confirm; scientific
may include qualitative methods
Constructivism/ Multiple constructed Reality socially Naturalistic designs; part of Researcher values are part Subjective;
Interpretivism realities constructed; dynamic participants life; observations; of the research process interactive;
interaction between many realities; understanding; and report personalised
researcher and participant; research questions open-ended,
knowledge is subjective; descriptive and non-directional
Critical theory/ Reality is shaped by Collaboration; dialogical; Naturalistic designs; part of Value biases influence the Subjective;
Ideology culture, gender, dialectic participant’s life; observations research process; interactive;
social, and political empower participants personalised
values
Participatory/ Participative reality; Knowledge is socially Balancing autonomy, co-
Postmodernism co-created by mind constructed operation and hierarchy
and surrounding
cosmos
Transformative/ Social reality Knowledge is true, Purpose to destroy myth, illusions Moral and political activity;
Emancipatory historically bound; empowers, transforms; and false knowledge commit to value position;
changing; reality to transformation and reflecting and examining
be discovered and emancipation of values; allows for views to
multi-layered researcher and participant be right or wrong
Postcolonial Relationship with living Knowledge is an individual Language frameworks; stories; Respect for the Oral histories;
indigenous and non-living; I-we entity talks circles; marginalised groups; song; healing
Note. Adapted from Bryman, 2012; Creswell, 2009; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Morrow, 2005; Ponterotto, 2005; Schurink, 2009; Schurink et al., 2011; Wagner et al., 2012.

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3.3 The research design: a multiple case study

Within the qualitative research approach, a case study approach was chosen as the best fit
to answer the research question. Neatly described by Willig (2009), the case study is an in-
depth, sharply focused and intensive exploration of a phenomenon within an enclosed unit.
She identifies the main defining features of case study research: it views the case in context; it
aims to understand the individual case in particular; it integrates data from multiple sources
(triangulation); studies change over time and generate insights and theory after the in-depth
investigation of the particular case.

Gillham (2001) characterises a case as a unit embedded in the real world, to be studied and
understood in context. Tracy (2010, p. 837) also confirms the importance of context and says:
“Values for quality...are ever changing and situated within local contexts and current
conversations”. Comparing this description with the identified ‘cases’ of this research, the
sampled departments are embedded in the real world and studied and understood in the
current context of the I-O psychology discipline at tertiary institutions in South Africa.

The case study allows the in-depth study of occurrences, phenomena and diverse influences
within the case or object of study. Yin (2009) distinguishes three kinds of case studies
(exploratory, explanatory and descriptive) and says the kind of research question, the control
of the researcher in the actual event and the degree of focus on contemporary versus
historical events will dictate which kind of case study to choose. Denzin and Lincoln (2000)
also identify three kinds of case studies linked to Yin’s distinction, namely the intrinsic case study
(the interest lies in the case itself); the instrumental case study to gain insight into a specific
issue which a study of the case will include; and a collective case-study (a number of cases
are studied); it is an expansion of the instrumental case study. The multiple case study (as
opposed to the single case study) uses the procedure of replication between the different
cases (Creswell, Hanson, Plano, & Morales, 2007). Comparability and the opportunity to use
cases as reference points add to the richness and depth of the collected data.

An embedded, comparative multiple-case-study design provided the best methodological

option to understand the complexity of selection procedures at selected universities in South
Africa. The ’cases’ identified were the different I-O psychology academic departments at
universities sampled from a population of South African universities, thus making this research
a multiple or collective case study of sampled accredited universities in South Africa (Eriksson
& Kovalainen, 2008). This multiplicity made it possible to compare data collected. Yin (2009)
states that every case should serve a specific purpose within the overall scope of inquiry. The

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specific purpose for this exploration was to compare the different I-O psychology academic
departments’ selection procedures with the ultimate aim of deriving a suggested framework
for postgraduate selection procedures.

Interpreting research results from an interpretivist paradigm means that the rich descriptive
results from a case study shift the responsibility of generalisability to the reader who should be
able to generalise the findings from the population to their own unique experiences
(inductively).

3.4 The research process followed

The research process is the clear and systematic planning of how to proceed with investigating
the identified problem. Babbie and Mouton (2001) say the research process has a standard
logic, which Leedy and Ormrod (2010) describe as cyclical and Wagner et al. (2012, p. 12)
define as an “orderly series of steps”. Saunders et al. (2009) suggest that these steps in the
research process may not be that straightforward and that revisiting the steps during the
research process might be necessary to refine ideas and other issues. They also distinguish
between deductive and inductive approaches. Irrespective of whether the approach is
qualitative or quantitative, there is a certain sequential logic in the research process.

How the research unfolded to answer the research question is described in nine steps. Figure
3.2 graphically summarises the research process.

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Figure 3.2. The steps followed in the research process.

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3.4.1 Identifying the topic of interest

This researcher’s Interest in the topic existed long before the search for answers in
scientific literature began. Apart from our own selection practices being fair, just and
transparent, how successfully do they contribute to matching graduates to openings in
industry? The selection of I-O psychology applicants for master’s programmes over many
years has always raised the question whether the process is actually selecting those
applicants who are most likely to enter the I-O psychology profession and “grow”
themselves to function optimally in a highly competitive business environment.

Searching South African literature revealed no published literature about the selection
of master’s degree students for I-O psychology programmes although there is a vast
amount of literature in scientific journals about the general selection of undergraduate
and postgraduate students for tertiary education. The need for a scientific basis for
selection practices of postgraduate applicants for I-O psychology became a pressing
issue. What started initially as an observation became a research project which
hopefully will lead to a continuing discourse about selection of applicants for master’s
programmes in I-O psychology that satisfy the interwoven demands of a profession,
industry and the tertiary institution.

3.4.2 Formulating the research question

From the growing realisation that selection processes lack rigour and are not grounded
in a scientific process, a research question and objectives were formulated. They
appear in Chapter 1.

3.4.3 Reviewing the literature

“…a simple chronological account of previous research cannot

provide sufficient thrust to the argument why a particular
research problem or questions is significant and how the research
effort should be continued” (Schurink, 2010, p. 422).

When the project started, the initial literature review was focused on the selection of
applicants for postgraduate tertiary education in general. The search yielded studies
from various disciplines but provided enough keywords and direction to continue with a
more focused approach.

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 Initially the literature search attempted to include all and any articles in the entire field
of selection for postgraduate studies. The sheer volume of published research in this field
made the task impossible, however. Sanity lay in focusing on the components of the
research question instead.

Identifying seminal authors was important. Being able to follow comments on focal
articles and to critically analyse opposing views and construct an own judgement
followed only after much reading and comparing of opinions.

After the initial pre-proposal phase of the literature search, specific databases were
identified and became the focus of further searches. Electronic bibliographic
databases like Academic Search Premier, (EBSCOHost), Business Source Premier
(EBSCOHost), PsychARTICLES, (EBSCOHost), PsychINFO (EBSCOHost); the ProQuest
dataplatform, SAePublications, SAIBINET and the Scopus platform, were among the most
used. Individual hand searches for specific concepts, theories, and opinions remained
an important way of scrutinising journals for specific information.

Articles sourced were downloaded and by means of a speed-read technique (O’Neil,

2008)5 ‒ reading the title, summary and conclusion ‒ the article was classified as useful
or not. Articles that seemingly had the potential to answer the research question were
captured in an excel spreadsheet, the article was read in the full and where applicable
a keyword about the main content was noted in a separate column against the article.

The review of literature focused at first on general topics of selection practices and
processes and started with reviews of studies done about admissions of applicants to
postgraduate programmes. Insights from this initial review of literature brought clarity
and perspective about the selection process of postgraduate applicants. Lists of
references directed the researcher to other sources. Both inductive and deductive
processes of elimination of literature were followed. The researcher returned repeatedly
to the review of literature during the different phases of the research process to ascertain
the degree to which the literature corroborated the discoveries from data. This deep
awareness after the analysis of the interview data took the research back to historical
evidence in literature in an attempt to get clarity about the findings.

The review of literature took place in three clearly identified phases. At the beginning,
the literature informed the researcher’s interest in the topic of selection processes for

5 A technique shared at a postgraduate research lecture during 2010.

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 admission of applicants to postgraduate programmes and assisted with the formulation
of the semi-structured interview questions. During the second phase, the researcher
searched for information about the I-O psychology profession and included historical
literature as early as 1938. The last phase of the literature review moved away from
selection and I-O psychology as a profession. During this phase, the focus was more on
the future demands the profession might experience, the brand-image of the I-O
psychologist and the focus on recruiting competent I-O psychologists.

What follows is a discussion about the research methodology for this project.

3.4.4 Choosing a design: multiple case study

The topic of this research is the exploration and description of the selection process of
master’s degree applicants for postgraduate study, identified as the ‘case’. A multiple
case study was chosen to capture the complexity of selection processes and
procedures in South Africa. The several ’cases’ are the different tertiary institutions
sampled from a population of tertiary institutions, thus making this research a multiple or
collective case study of sampled universities in South Africa that present an HPCSA
accredited master’s degree in I-O psychology (Eriksson & Kovalainen, 2008). The
multiplicity makes comparison possible. Yin (2009) states that every case should serve a
specific purpose within the overall scope of inquiry. The specific purpose for this
exploration was to compare the different tertiary institution’s selection procedures to
derive a collective (and generic) framework for postgraduate selection for I-O
psychology.

The components for a case study proposed by Yin (2009) provided the basis for
structuring the study. The five components are the research question, the proposition,
the unit of analysis, the logical linking of data to the propositions, and the criteria for
interpreting the findings. These components will be highlighted in the discussion of the
findings.

3.4.5 Selecting the cases

The HPCSA lists 10 accredited tertiary institutions in South Africa6 that offer a master’s
degree in Industrial Psychology. All 10 universities were identified for inclusion in the data

6 At the onset of the project in 2011.

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 collection, but one of them did not reply to the invitation to take part in the research.
The other nine universities were visited and interviews were conducted on-site at the
respective academic departments during the period 2011 - 2012. Table 3.2 presents the
10 universities with accredited I-O psychology master’s degrees that were eligible for the
sample.

Table 3.2
Universities7 with accredited I-O psychology programmes mooted for data collection
Name of the academic
Tertiary institution Faculty/college
department/section
1 University of Cape Town Faculty of Commerce Organisational Psychology
School of Management
Sciences

2 University of Fort Hare Economic and Industrial Psychology

Management Sciences

3 University of Economic and Industrial Psychology and

Johannesburg Management Sciences People Management

4 University of KwaZulu College of Humanities Psychology -

Natal School of Applied Human Industrial and
Sciences Organisational Psychology

5 North West University Economic and Industrial Psychology

Management Sciences

6 University of Pretoria Economic and Human Resource

Management Sciences Management

7 University of South Africa Economic and Industrial and

Management Sciences Organisational Psychology

8 University of Stellenbosch Economic and Industrial Psychology

Management Sciences

9 University of the Western Economic and Industrial Psychology

Cape Management Sciences

10 University of the Humanities Psychology

Witwatersrand School of Human and
Community Development

Babbie and Mouton (2001) posit the unit of analysis as the “what” of the study. As the
topic of the study identifies the selection practices for I-O psychology master’s
programmes, it follows that the unit of analysis will be the selection processes and
practices at the sampled South African universities.

7 Information from academic departments at universities retrieved from the respective university websites as
indicated in the list of references.

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After ethical clearance at the researcher’s home university was obtained, an email was
sent to the programme managers of all universities where an HPCSA accredited
programme is presented.

3.4.6 Data collection

The qualitative case study method of inquiry provides for a variety of interesting types of
data collection methods, including Interviews, documents, archival documents,
observations and physical artefacts (Saunders et al., 2009; Yin, 2009). Additional to what
Yin (2009) proposes, Leedy and Ormrod (2009) includes several other data collection
methods including field notes, observations, past records and audio-visual materials. It
was not possible to employ the full set of data-collection methods in every one of the
nine institutions. Stake (in Denzin & Lincoln, 2000) points out that the search for
particularity competes with the search for generalisability. He explains that all that is said
about a single case is different from what should be said about all cases. For this study,
it was important to take into account all features defining the specific case and how
background, training philosophy and/or selection model, and resources might differ
from case to case. Data collection methods might thus vary between the different
institutions in an attempt to provide the fullest possible description of selection
procedures at each institution.

Data collection was done through documents, policies and semi-structured interviews.
As the study progressed and data collection intensified, other collection methods were
added to clarify information from interviews or internet sources. This will be addressed in
more detail in the specific sections where it occurred. After the completion of all the
interviews at the universities, several other interviews were also conducted with parties
of interest and to clarify selection issues as experienced in the corporate world.

3.4.6.1 Preparing for semi-structured interviews

Interviewing is commonly used to collect qualitative data. A semi-structured interview

creates the opportunity to uncover and collect rich data. The researcher aimed to
gather as much non-numeric data as possible to provide an answer to the research
question. Although interviews differ depending on context and objective, Mason (2007)
claims that all interviews have some core features in common. Most important is the
exchange of dialogue, whether face-to-face, telephonically, in groups or individually.
The style is relatively informal and centred around a specific theme or topic. Interviews

Page | 51
are also context-specific and the meaning and understanding are created during
interviews.

Within the interpretivist paradigm, the semi-structured interview provided for reflexivity for
both the interviewer and interviewee. Engaging with programme managers responsible
for selection gave the researcher the opportunity to test their perception, hear their
ideas and reflect on their understanding about selection practices at their respective
departments as they experience this in their social reality. This confirmed the researcher’s
ontological locus. Epistemologically the interaction with the participants was carefully
considered to ensure no misinterpretation of language skewed the interaction during
the interview.

Planning for interviews takes time. Apart from logistics and travel arrangements,
preparation included scheduled appointments with programme managers, arrange for
additional permission and ethical clearance to conduct the research at the institution
and confirmation that the scheduled appointment will continue.

Contact was made via e-mail to the identified master’s programme managers after
sourcing the information from departmental administrators at the different I-O
psychology departments and/or the SIOPSA telephone directory for staff members at
South African university departments offering I-O psychology. Appointments were
confirmed by telephone and/or email. Semi-structured interviews were conducted on
the premise of the respective tertiary institutions.

Preparation for the collection of data from the sampled universities started with a
structure for the questions to ask during the interviews. Questions were grouped in two
parts, namely
 background information about the I-O psychology programme with
a focus on the history and evolvement of the department and its
programme, and
 information about the selection process followed at the university

The questions in Table 3.3 were sent to programme managers via email and were used
as a guideline during the semi-structured interviews.

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Table 3.3
Questions sent to programme managers
PART A: Background information with specific reference to I-O Psychology
What is the history of the Department and the evolvement of the Master's
1
degree programme up until now?
What is the Department's training philosophy with regards to postgraduate
2
studies – Master’s degree in Industrial Psychology in particular?
Does the Department offer a master’s degree as MA and/or MCom in Industrial
3
Psychology?
4 Are admission criteria the same for both programmes?
How is the master’s programme structured? Course work and research mini-
5
dissertation/research report, full dissertation?
What is the role of the programme manager? Recruitment, selection,
6
coordination of the Master’s programme?
For how long has the current programme manager been responsible for the
7
master’s degree programme?
PART B: Selection information
Are students selected for all master’s degree programmes offered at your
1
department?
Do you recruit for the Industrial Psychology master’s degree programme?
2 Documentation; active/passive recruiting; advertisements; scholarships as
incentives?
How are recruiting and selection for the Master’s degree programme influenced
3
by regulations of the university, faculty and department?
4 What are the current criteria for selection?
5 Reasons for limited intake of master’s degree students?
6 Who is responsible for the selection of the students?
7 Who decides about the restriction of numbers for the new intake of students?
8 Do you use the application form as the first basis of selection?
Which critical indicators in the application form are important for the initial
9
screening?
What are the different phases in the selection process/procedure at the
10
Department?
11 Do you conduct selection interviews?
12 If so, what is the reason/s for conducting interviews?
13 If yes, are structured questions used during interviews with all applicants?
Do you use any form of psychometric assessment during the selection process?
14
Is there any assessment centre activity?
How do you convey the results of the selection to unsuccessful applicants? And
15
to the selected few?
Is there any guidance (mentoring/coaching) during the selected students’
16
years of study?

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 3.4.6.2 Collecting secondary data

During the data-collection phase of the project, in addition to data obtained from the
interviews themselves, secondary data was gleaned from information brochures,
departmental websites and documents provided by programme managers during
interviews. General postgraduate application details were found on the website of the
tertiary institution and more detailed information was obtained from the departmental
website. Not all of them were up to date, but accessing the respective websites
throughout the period of data collection gave an indication of requirements, the
content of the programme and the relevance of the degree in the business
environment.

The researcher accessed available selection and application documents on the

respective tertiary institution websites8. At one university (identified as ‘C’) the
postgraduate selection policy was available on the website and questions about the
admittance of applicants to the university could be clarified during the semi-structured
interview. It was also important to get acquainted with the general regulations of the
tertiary institution’s selection policy if it were available on the website of the institution. E-
documentation from I-O psychology departments of the universities was also requested
from programme managers, which they shared without hesitation.

3.4.7 Data analysis

Data analysis included the preparation of the collected data for transcription and
analysing the case study data.

3.4.7.1 Preparing the data for analysis: transcription

After the completion of the first semi-structured interview (which was also the pilot
interview before continuing with the rest of the interviews), the recorded data was
transcribed by following the transcription notation proposed by Wood and Kroger (2000).
The transcription was cleaned, de-identified and loaded to the Atlas.ti© software
programme. Analysis of the pilot interview was done to test the user-friendliness of the
software analysis programme and to identify both obvious and subtle themes emerging
from the pilot transcription (cf., Friese, 2012).

8 The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) of departmental websites are noted in the list of references.

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The researcher adjusted the phrasing of some of the interview questions and added
warning clues to the guideline script as reminders to focus attention on certain questions
during subsequent interviews. In fact, evaluation and reflection after each of the
interviews indicated to the researcher where (and under which circumstances) to adjust
the phrasing of interview questions in subsequent interviews. As the interview sessions
with master’s programme managers at the different institutions progressed, it was
important not to deviate from the (semi-structured) questions and in the process
jeopardise the trustworthiness of the responses to the questions, thus making comparison
of data impossible (Fossey, Harvey, McDermott, & Davidson, 2002; Grinsted, 2005;
Morrow, 2005).

Transcribed interviews with the programme managers at the I-O psychology

departments are identified with the letters A to I. The university linked to the programme
manager shares the same letter of the alphabet.

The identification and description of themes and codes were the next steps in the
process of data analysis. How it was done, is discussed in the following section.

Most of the literature concerning transcriptions is found in texts about discourse analysis.
The contrast between discourse analysis and other qualitative methods is similar to the
contrast between synthesis and analysis (Wood & Kroger, 2000). The transcript notation
used in the interviews is that suggested by Wood and Kroger (2000) and summarised in
Table 3.4.

Table 3.4
Notations followed in transcription of the collected data
Notation Explanation
(.) Untimed Pause (just hearable, less than 0.2 seconds)
[] The onset and overlapping of talk
text Underline indicates emphasis
CAPITALS Indicate talk that is noticeably louder than surrounding talk
Ho:me A colon indicates an extension of the sound or syllable that it follows
.hh Audible in-breath
hh Audible out-breath
( ) Unclear speech or noise
(( laughs)) Double parentheses enclose transcribed descriptions of non-speech
sound or other features of talk or scene.
- Sharp cut-off of speech
Note. Adapted from Wood & Kruger, 2000.

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3.4.7.2 Analysing case study data

Analysing case study evidence is, according to Yin (2009), one of the most difficult
aspects of qualitative case study research. It is reasoned that one way of doing data
analysis is to translate the qualitative data to quantifiable statistics, which will be easier
to analyse and interpret. Another suggested way of doing data analysis is the tabulating
of data in matrix formats and creating a form of data display for analysis. Yin (2009) then
suggests two general strategies, one of which is the development of a proposition to
focus attention on specific organised data to open possibilities for explanations to
investigate. The second strategy is to develop a descriptive framework to organise the
case study.

Srivastava and Hopwood (2009) suggest the use of a practical iterative framework for
the analysis of qualitative data and specifically refer to it as a reflexive process and not
just as a repetitive mechanical task. They state, “…reflexive iteration is at the heart of
visiting and revisiting the data and connecting them with emerging insights, progressively
leading to refined focus and understandings” (p. 77). The questions that form the
framework for data analysis are:

Q1: What are the data telling me? (theoretical, subjective, ontological,
epistemological and field understanding);

Q2: What is it I want to know (research objectives, questions and theoretical

points of interest);

Q 3: What is the dialectical relationship between what the data are telling me
and what I want to know? (refining the focus and linking back to the
research question) (Srivastava & Hopwood, 2009, p. 78).

In preparation for the semi-structured interviews, the systematic ordering of interview

data lead to the creation of themes. The iterative process of deductive and inductive
reasoning throughout the preparation phase for the interviews was also apparent
during the analysing of data. Moving forward and backwards through the data, the
themes became clearer and the researcher could make the link with important
literature statements indicated in the subsequent chapter.

Codes are the definitions assigned to text in transcriptions. Gibbs (2007) describes codes
as a way to identify passages in the text which are linked and which describe the same

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theoretical idea. Codes are a way of categorising and ordering data to ease the
process of sorting and finding meaning in text and talk. The process of coding intensified
as the researcher worked through the transcripts, each round bringing a deeper
connection and understanding of links between interview transcripts but also within
different passages in one transcript. Gibbs (2007) recommends that codes should be
more categorical, analytic and theoretical than descriptive. Retrieving text from
different transcripts will then be comparable. The researcher is of the opinion that
memos linked to a code can be descriptive and definitive in order to convey the
meaning of the code and not the meaning of the text (Friese, 2012).

After the nine transcriptions were submitted to the Atlas.ti© software programme, the
coding began. As the coding of data progressed, new codes were created. The
repetitive reading of the transcribed text brought new insight and new codes, which
meant that it was necessary to move back to previous coded transcripts to add the new
code to a quotation (cf., Friese, 2012). This continued throughout the data analysis
phase until code-saturation was reached at the fourth round of working through all the
transcribed text. In order to become familiar with the interview data, the transcribed
text was also read in hard copy several times. Documents retrieved from departmental
and university webpages assisted to clarify uncertainties in the data. The repetitive
reading of the transcripts brought the feeling of true engagement with the collected
data.

3.4.8 Reviewing the literature

The initial finding after data analysis was that it was still not clear which process (if any)
could be recommended for selection committees to follow during the selection process.
In view of the enduring character of the profession (Albert & Whetten, 1985), it seemed
likely that historical literature might throw light on the selection process issue. A follow-
up literature review was then conducted.

3.4.9 Reporting findings and recommendations

Several parties have an interest in the findings of a report. Not only is it the responsibility
of the researcher to report the outcome of the research to stakeholders, sponsors and
participants in the study, but ethically the researcher has the obligation to share the
results, evaluate the outcomes and plan ahead. For De Vos et al. (2009),
recommendations introduce an action plan to all interested parties who either

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 commissioned the research project or have other stakes in the research.
Recommendations create a future plan and suggest opportunities for further research.

Chapter 6 concludes with recommendations and suggestions for future research. The
research findings will be shared with programme managers of master’s degree
programmes and the suggested framework could be tested and refined during future
selection processes.

3.5 Ensuring the quality of qualitative research

Providing excellence in qualitative research is complex and challenging. In a statement about

the use of qualitative techniques, Carrera-Fernandez, Guárdia-Omos, and Peró-Cebollero
(2014) state clearly the use of data such as visuals, spoken language, audio and texts, does
not qualify research as qualitative. The manner in which the data is approached and
analysed, interpreted and explained determines if the study could be classified as qualitative
or quantitative. A qualitative research approach is more associated with a range of
methodological techniques and, according to Mason (2007), this is what makes qualitative
research exciting and applicable to many disciplines.

A qualitative research approach raises questions about the quality, ethical risks, high costs and
the duration of studies. In an editorial comment, Gephart (2004) writes that qualitative
research describes processes, provides a view of how people describe reality and provides a
basis for understanding social processes underlying management. The absence of explicit
analytical methods is, according to Gephart, one of the reasons qualitative methodologies
fail. Providing evidence of proofs reveals the rigour with which the qualitative research was
conducted. Qualitative research accepts that there is no one truth, and one of the goals of
a qualitative methodology is to explain the uncovered multiple perspectives it brings to the
fore (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010). For this research, a qualitative approach provided the
opportunity to explore the cases from the inside and to describe the processes which led to
an answer to the research question (Gillham, 2001).

Ensuring quality and rigour in the qualitative case study methodology is important. According
to Lincoln and Guba (1985) credibility, transferability, dependability and conformability are the
criteria used to prove the robustness of a qualitative inquiry. Unlike quantitative research’s
controlled scenarios, qualitative research is subjected to the 'ever changing backdrop' of
influences in the qualitative research field (Barbour, 2001) in which evidence always need to
be explained by theory (Gillham, 2001).

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Credibility is an important criterion in qualitative research as it directs all decisions necessary
for the research process ahead. Creswell (2009) suggests eight validity strategies to assure
research quality and rigour: triangulation (examining and converging evidence from different
sources to justify themes); member checking (to test the accuracy of themes and descriptions
with participants); the use of rich description of the findings (provide clear descriptions of the
setting to enhance understanding of the results); clarification of researcher bias (reflective
comments by the researcher clarifies how the interpretation of results was influenced by the
background of the researcher); acknowledge discrepant information (acknowledge other
perspectives which add more depth to a theme or a finding); peer debriefing (a person not
involved in the research project who reviews the study) and the use of an external auditor to
review the project in full.

In addition to credibility, Tracy (2010) affirms the significance of important criteria marking
excellent qualitative research. Quality can be assured if the topic of the research is relevant,
timely, significant and interesting. A rich rigour and sincerity is characteristic of excellent
qualitative research. Tracy maintains that the research needs to resonate with the audience
by describing and showing its usefulness. Credibility can be obtained by the richness of
descriptions, triangulation, multivocality and member reflections. She says that qualitative
research should make a significant contribution, be ethical and coherent, and display
interconnectedness between literature, research questions and the interpretation of results.

Triangulation was demonstrated for this research through the combination of data from
interviews with programme managers and industry partners, secondary data sources from
websites and departmental administrators, and various e-communications throughout the
research with programme managers to clarify uncertainties during the data analysis phase.
Reflecting about the process with programme managers and academics also brought clarity
about uncertainties in the data analysis and interpretation phases.

As the research team consisted only of one researcher, inter-rater reliability did not pose an
obstacle. Multiple coding was not an issue in this study but the coding of data from multiple
sources was done with objectivity and transparency, with all records and transcripts made
available. After the completion of the first round of coding, the code names and definitions
were given to an independent reviewer to establish the clarity of the code descriptors by
matching codes with selected passages, as well as with the formulated definitions. At the end
of the data analysis phase, the same reviewer evaluated the combination of codes in groups.

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Margolis and Molinsky (2009) demonstrated the thoroughness of their qualitative enquiry with
verbatim passages to substantiate their research findings. This enabled the reader to match
the objectivity of the researcher with the replies of the respondent. The same procedure was
followed with the data analysis. The researcher had to demonstrate accountability by
explaining to research participants how they were selected for the study. No external funding
issues had to be addressed as no other stakeholders were involved in this project. Accuracy
of transcripts needed to be checked prior to analysis (Ballinger, 2008). An independent
reviewer checked the accuracy of all the transcripts for this study.

Important characteristics of a qualitative approach, as identified by Creswell (2009), were the

guidelines for the researcher to comply with. The researcher conducted the interviews in a
natural setting, transcribed the transcriptions verbatim and stayed active as a key instrument
managing the research flow and process. The interpretivist paradigm allowed for the use of
multiple data sources (semi-structured interviews, information on departmental and university
websites and data from secondary [hard copy] documents provided by programme
managers at some of the universities). The duration and transcription details of the semi-
structured interviews are summarised in Table 3.5.

Table 3.5
Summary of the duration of the semi-structured interviews and the number of interview
transcription pages.

Duration of the interview

University Number of transcribed pages per interview
(Hours:minutes:seconds)

A 2:20:43 50

B 45:37 26

C 1:01:03 33

D 1:30:20 48

E 55:56 22

F 1:53:50 40

G 1:31:12 33

H 57:47 27

I 48:11 22

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3.6 Research ethics

Complying with ethical standards in research, the researcher comes face to face with
respondents when doing case study research. Gaining entrance to the world of respondents
should be done with care and respect. Denzin and Lincoln (2000, p. 234) say: “Quality
researchers are guests in the private spaces of the world. Their manners should be good and
their code of ethics strict”. Both researcher and respondent are at risk. Saunders et al. (2009)
propose a scheme for ethical issues to consider at the different stages of research. When
formulating and clarifying the topic, researcher and institution rights and responsibilities are
clarified; during the design phase of the research, the respondent has the right to be fully
informed, the right to privacy, and the right to quality research; when data is collected the
assurance of the respondent’s safety is paramount; informed consent should be obtained and
the confidentially of respondent identity and results is important; intellectual property rights
during the processing and storing of data need to be secured; during the phase of analysing
and reporting the data, quality research needs to guarantee the right of the organisation and
the researcher’s to confidentiality and anonymity.

By abiding by a set of rules and values when conducting research where human respondents
are involved, the researcher adheres to unwritten rules of professional conduct, including
respect for the research process, the profession, the respondent and the integrity of the self.
This should be the underlying code of the researcher’s behaviour.

How can the reader of a research report ever be sure that research findings are presented
with honesty, rigour and objectivity? The integrity of both the researcher and the research
results needs to be above suspicion for the findings to add any value to the area of study. In
his discussion about ethics in qualitative studies, House (in Guba, 1990) argues that mutual
respect, non-coercion, non-manipulation and the support of democratic values and
institutions, are the basic principles when engaging with respondents of research studies. “This,
(he says), is how we should treat participants in our studies, as well as each other” (p. 159).
Disrespect shows in research, and in the end violates what research is supposed to bring to
communities of people, namely knowledge, understanding, enlightenment, acceptance and
growth.

For the researcher it was important to treat all participants with respect and not to cause them
any discomfort before, during or after the interviews. Practical issues like the time and the
duration of interviews were carefully monitored and conveyed beforehand. The purpose of
the meeting was clearly communicated to programme managers before arriving for the
interview.

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Tracy’s (2010) elucidation of research ethics includes procedural, situational, relational and
exiting ethics. Procedural ethics refers to universally accepted ethical practices, such as
confidentiality, accuracy, avoidance of fabrications and the right of participants to know the
consequences of their participation and of the research. Situational ethics requires the
researcher to understand the influence of context and to display the responsibility to reflect
and critique own ethical behaviour with regard to the research method and the exposing of
data. The researcher also needs to be mindful of their actions on other. Tracy (2010) calls this
relational ethics. She explains respect and care for participants may lead to an
interdependence between the researcher and participants. Exiting ethics refer to the way the
researcher returns to participants to share findings and results. To present the findings to those
who contributed to the results will confirm the sincere intention of the researcher to offer
scientific analysis and reasoning to a difficult research question.

In line with what Flick (2008) suggests about ethical research, practical components
demonstrating ethically sound research formed part of the planning and execution of the
research. This included, for instance, a request for informed consent and a guarantee of the
privacy of all institutions, programme managers and any other participants throughout the
data collection, data analysis and during the writing of the report. In addition, the accuracy
and interpretation of data were constantly reviewed to ensure that they were correct and
above suspicion (Flick, 2008). One university required ethical clearance before the interview
with the programme manager could took place. After submitting the necessary documents,
permission was granted and the interview took place on the premises of the institution.

3.7 Conclusion

Chapter 3 was structured to reflect the way the researcher planned and executed the
research to answer the research question. The researcher’s interpretivist frame of mind
influenced all aspects of the process, including the interpretation of concepts, the extensive
review of literature through the different phases of the study, preparation and planning for the
interviews, analysis of the data and interpretation of the results. Reflection about confusing
research concepts (see Appendix A) brought clarity, after which the researcher could plan
and structure the research process with more certainty. In conclusion, Table 3.6 summarises
the researcher’s interpretation of research concepts used in the report.

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Table 3.6
Summary of the researcher’s interpretation of research concepts as used in this report

Research concept Interpretation as used in this report

Research paradigm Interpretivist

Research design  Empirical research design

 Primary and secondary data
 Exploratory and descriptive questions
 Multiple case study

Quality of research Applying standards of

 Credibility/authenticity
 Accountability
 Transferability
 Dependability
 Confirmability

Research method Semi-structured interviews

Document analysis

Research process The different steps of the process were:

 identifying the topic of interest
 formulating a research question
 review of literature
 decision of theoretical (research) approach
 research methodology
 selection of the sample
 collecting and analysis of data
 report of findings
 recommendations

Research ethics Informed consent

Avoid harm
Ensure privacy
Confidentiality
Anonymity
Deception of respondents
Competence of researchers
Cooperation with contributors
Release of findings
Debriefing respondents
Note. Babbie & Mouton, 2001; De Vos et al., 2009.

In Chapter 4, the details of the data collection and data analysis process are discussed. The
themes identified after interview analyses are defined; data is organised, discussed and
interpreted to answer the research question.
_______________________________________________________

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“It may be time for industrial psychologists to ask incisive questions of their discipline and
profession, questions that relate to

 the positioning of industrial psychology in the pursuit of success as defined by

organisations’ leaders who hire and remunerate industrial psychologists
 its real sense of relevance and resultant contribution to broader, societal
sustainability.”

(Van Vuuren, 2010, p. 1)

_______________________________________________________

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CHAPTER 4
A THEMATIC ANALYSIS OF DATA AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4.1 Introduction

A thematic analysis approach was followed to analyse data from interview transcriptions in
addition to secondary data retrieved from the respective university websites. The main
objective of the inductive analysis was to explore and describe selection processes at other
universities to be able to suggest which elements could be included in the selection process
to make an informed choice about which applicants to admit to a master’s programme in IO-
psychology.

Much is said in literature about themes “emerging” from data on their own. In practice,
however, themes become clear and the researcher is be able to answer the research question
only through actively engaging with data content, (Srivastava & Hopwood, 2009). According
to Guest, MacQueen, and Namey (2012), applied thematic analysis moves beyond the
counting of words and phrases in qualitative data and identifies ideas in the data, which they
refer to as themes. Being actively involved with the data through transcribing the interviews
and assiduously coding the responses furnished a depth of understanding of the data that
assisted the researcher to identify the ideas that were there – the so-called themes (see also
Braun & Clarke, 2005).

From the research question, three objectives were formulated, namely

to explore the procedure for selecting applicants for I-O psychology master’s
degree programmes at HPCSA accredited tertiary institutions;

to describe the selection procedure at the sampled universities;

to suggest a framework for a scientific, fair, objective and transparent selection

procedure of applicants to fit I-O psychology competencies needed in a
competitive business world.

The first and second objectives are addressed in this chapter. The third objective, namely the
suggested framework for selection, is discussed in Chapter 6.

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Chapter 3 described how the research process guided the collection of data. The primary
focus of Chapter 4 is to present an analysis of this data. The themes of grouped data are
tabulated and the opinions of the respective master’s programme managers highlight the
main trends in the selection practices at the sampled universities.

Towards the end of this chapter, the dilemma which confronted the researcher is explained
and the reason for returning to the literature for more clarity and guidance from the I-O
psychology profession’s history is motivated. Figure 4.1 summarises the outlay of Chapter 4.

Figure 4.1. The main topics addressed in Chapter 4.

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4.2 Overview of the themes

The two (2) main themes of exploration during the interviews were
1) THEME 1: Historical evolvement

Background information about the respective departments and how the

history of the department and evolvement of the master’s programmes
might have had an influence on the selection practices of that specific
department.

2) THEME 2: The selection process

How the respective departments manage the selection process of

applicants for the master’s programme in I-O psychology.

Twelve related sub-themes were identified within the parameters of these two overarching
themes. How many times the sub-theme was addressed during the interview is noted in Table
4.1.

Table 4.1
Number of codes and quotations per sub-theme for the respective I-O psychology
departments

Main sub-themes Number of quotations related to the sub-theme

Total number of
University A B C D E F G H I quotations per sub-
theme
THEME 1: HISTORICAL EVOLVEMENT*

History (3)** 15 0 14 11 8 12 8 5 6 79

Training philosophy/Mission (9) 22 17 10 22 10 4 19 8 7 119

Structure of the programme (19) 1 12 40 32 46 34 37 40 45 287

THEME 2: SELECTION PROCESS

Benchmarking (4) 1 6 1 8 1 1 3 8 1 30

Communication (4) 3 2 5 7 3 8 6 7 3 44

Industry involvement (7) 1 6 4 16 1 3 7 18 6 62

Internships (2) 0 0 0 4 0 0 2 6 4 16

Other codes (3) 4 0 1 8 1 0 3 2 0 19

Selection criteria (28) 37 33 43 48 32 34 24 43 35 329

Selection policy (4) 6 5 8 5 12 2 5 10 5 58

Selection process (22) 12 21 49 72 30 44 51 48 52 379

Supervision (11) 1 9 15 24 19 12 13 22 16 131

TOTALS: 103 111 190 257 163 154 178 217 180 1553
Note. * Table B.1 in Appendix B summarises the main themes and sub-themes and provides a definition of each code;
** Total number of codes in Theme 1 and 2 combined: 116 codes

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4.3 Analysis of interview data: describing the different selection processes

From an interpretivist research perspective it was important to interpret data within the stated
research objective, namely to explore and describe how other universities in South Africa
select applicants for I-O psychology master’s degree programmes.

The description of the interview data follows the same order as the questions in the semi-
structured interviews.

The first main theme (Theme 1) identified was how the historical evolvement of the department
could have influenced the selection process of applicants. The first part of this theme was to
explore whether any departmental mission statement or training objectives guided the
selection, and if so, how it did so. The second was to establish if the structure of the master’s
programme had an influence on the selection of applicants.

An objective of the research was to explore how other departments planned and executed
the process of selecting applicants for the master’s programme. This provided the second
main theme (Theme 2) of the research. All related references to the phases of the process,
the role of stakeholders and the admission requirements of the academic institution are
included in the second main theme.

4.3.1 THEME 1: Historical evolvement

THEME 1, which transpired from the data analysis, includes three sub-themes related to the
main theme: HISTORICAL EVOLVEMENT. The three sub-themes include the historical
background of the evolvement of I-O psychology departments at the sampled universities, the
evolvement of the master’s programme through the years and the separation of the disciplines
Human Resource Management and I-O psychology. Figure 4.2 is a graphical presentation of
how the sub-themes are linked to form Theme 1.

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Figure 4.2. Theme 1 (Historical evolvement) with related sub-themes 1.

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Each of the sub-themes will be discussed separately in the following section.

4.3.1.1 Sub-theme 1: Historical background and evolvement of South African I-O

psychology departments

The history of all the departments included in the project tells a story of a deeply rooted
and sincere intention to develop the discipline of I-O psychology in South Africa since its
earliest beginnings in 1943 when the University of Stellenbosch presented an industrial
psychology module as part of a psychology degree. Shortly thereafter, in 1946, a
commerce degree in Industrial Psychology followed. The Journal of Industrial Psychology
published a series of articles about the history of I-O psychology at some academic
departments at tertiary institutions (Augustyn, Raubenheimer, & Van Biljon, 1978; Botha,
1977; Kampfer, 1977; Langenhoven, 1977; Schoeman, 1978; Vlok, 1977). These articles
provided historical background in the preparation for the interviews.

The researcher considered it necessary to investigate the historical background of the

department to establish whether any tacit assumptions based on the culture of the
department influenced the selection process. Table 4.2 summarises the sub-themes
related to the historical evolvement of the department.

Table 4.2
Sub-themes related to historical evolvement
Theme 1, Sub-theme 1: History
Codes for History Description

Evolvement of The historical background of how the academic

department department evolved over time

Evolvement of The historical evolvement of the master's degree

programme programme over time

HRM and I-O Psychology Explanation of how the department handles/(d) the split
split between HRM and I-O Psychology

Programme managers interviewed were not sure about the historical development of
their departments but were aware of some historical issues in the evolvement of their
degree programmes. Most of the I-O psychology departments originated in Psychology

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departments and were later housed within the Faculty of Economic and Management
Sciences. Only two of the selected universities kept it within the faculty of Humanities.

The two programme managers reflected:

C: We (are) positioned in Psychology and that is where we feel at home. We
are Psychologists.

H: (translated): The universities merged and all the Industrial Psychologists

became part of the BA Psychology group in Humanities.

At one university, the HRM and I-O psychology programmes are the same and
accredited as such at the HPCSA.

A: (translated): Our MCom Human Resource Management degree has

been recognised by the HPCSA for all these years.

Given that some of the programme managers had less than 5 years tenure at the
department and had been responsible for the management of the master’s programme
for only a short period, it seemed that their knowledge of selection processes was limited
to what they had learned from their immediate predecessor and that they were
unaware of the department’s history.

From the discussion it was apparent that the division between the HRM and I-O
psychology was recognised, not questioned, and did not influence the selection of I-O
psychology applicants. Some HRM and I-O psychology modules are shared between
the two degrees in some departments, but modules like psychological assessment are
presented only to students registered for I-O psychology.

C: (translated): …Human Resource Management as a separate degree and

Industrial psychology as a separate degree…we share staff.
and
R: (translated) Then Human Resource Management is separate, Industrial
Psychology is separate and Labour Relations?

C: (translated): They share subjects which they attend together. But

Industrial Psychology does the psychometric assessment and the
practicals separately. Human Resource Management also have their
own practicals separately. They will also be taught about psychometric

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 assessment but the focus will be from an HRM perspective.

At one of the departments where the I-O psychology degree is part of a School of
Psychology, the programme manager reports:

D: But there is a Human Resource Honours and Masters programme…in the

School of Economic and Business Sciences.

Contrary to what the researcher had predicted, it seems that the historical development
of the degree programme in academic departments did not influence the selection
process for I-O psychology master’s degrees. In fact, the historical background and
evolvement of the department had no influence on the current selection practices at
all. In none of the interviews, it came to the fore that the historical background had any
influence in current selection practises. The value of including this question in the semi-
structured interviews was solely for the benefit of the researcher so to place the specific
university in the context of the research population.

An analysis of the articles mentioned in the opening paragraph of this section and of
departmental websites provided more information about the historical development of
IO-psychology at academic departments than was obtained from the interviews.

Moving forward to establish if there was any directing ‘force’ when departments
selected applicants for master’s programmes, the researcher thought it necessary to
probe for any training philosophy, mission statement or learning culture embedded in
the history of the department.

4.3.1.2 Sub-theme 2: The role of a departmental philosophy in the selection

process

According to Melton and Duke (2015) a pro-active, mission-driven approach in

academic departments would assist selection panels to identify desirable characteristics
for a programme and then to select applicants accordingly. The authors suggest a
hybrid policy for admission which includes a combination of a prerequisite-driven
process with additional criteria such as completion of course-specific workshops, service
learning, hours worked as part of community service or attendance of in-service learning
opportunities. In the interview, the current philosophies of selection of master’s students
were explored. The codes related to this philosophy are summarised in Table 4.3.

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Table 4.3
Sub-themes related to the training philosophy/mission statement theme
Theme 1, Sub-theme 2: Philosophy
Codes for Philosophy Code description

Academic throughput Referring to the completion of the master’s degree in

the minimum allowed time period

General Any reference to a training philosophy not associated

or linked to any of the other philosophy codes

Gut feel A philosophy based on a subjective feeling of what

should be taught in the programme

Industry orientated The fundamentals of what industry expects from the

Industrial psychologist

Personal development of Deliberate attention by the programme manager and

student supervisor to focus on the professional development of
the student

Research orientated Content of the master’s programme is focused on the

quality of the research output of the students

Scientist-practitioner mind- Any reference to training aimed at dual exposure to a

set scientist/practitioner mind-set

Subsidy driven Fundamentals of training are based on numbers for

maximum subsidy received

Theory based Groundedness of the programme

The researcher wished to establish whether any philosophical teaching strategy or any
formulated mission influenced the selection of applicants, and, if so, how it had
originated. The teaching philosophy could have been based on academic average
admission criteria in order to increase the academic throughput and earn more subsidies
for completed degrees. A department’s scientist-practitioner viewpoint could be
another determining factor in their selection criteria.

Programme managers were asked if their training philosophies had any influence on the
selection practice they followed. It was interesting that no particular philosophical mind-
set could be detected. A general perspective on the role of a training philosophy was:

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 A: (translated): We had a training philosophy but it was informal in each
panel member’s mind. It was an informal process. So, if you had an all-
rounder and he achieved well, you could see that he had a practical
inclination, was a logical thinker, was clued-up, could take the theory to
practice; it was clear he is the good Industrial Psychologist.

One programme manager linked philosophy and departmental mission in answer to the
question and said the following:

H: (translated): …our philosophy is to train future fit people practitioners who are
professional industrial psychologists and scientists. So, scientists and
practitioners.

From the responses received to the question referring to pressure from the tertiary
institution to reduce the duration of the degree, it was clear that completion rates and
academic throughput were a serious consideration. A recorded response was:

A: (translated): The University has a negative influence in the sense that it has a
certain subsidy formula. It subsidises students who come in and go out very
quickly. Secondly, it subsidises only articles.

and

G: (translated) So the selection is directed towards academic achievement

and not on performance in practice.

The researcher was also interested to know if the duration of the degree had any
influence on the selection process and criteria. Referring to master’s degrees that were
limited to one year, one programme manager noted that the time limitation was difficult
for students. On the educational depth of a one-year programme he/she replied:

E: …we are asking very serious educational questions about doing it in that time.
Because they struggle to complete within one year.

E: The University is the employer, they grant the degrees and it is a constant
battle managing the demands of the profession and the University demands
when they clash…if you want to graduate with a Master’s degree you
graduate demonstrating competencies in research.

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 E: ...so our philosophy is it is an academic masters and those are the cut-offs.
[referring to the academic average]

Limiting the duration of a master’s degree programme might give added reason to
select students on proven academic merit. The researcher explored how these criteria
directed the department’s selection practice and if that was part of their philosophy
when selecting.

A response was:

G: (translated): The selection is currently our Achilles heel. And there is unease
by everyone about the selection. In the nineties, we had an extensive
selection programme with psychometric assessment and 16PF and
deductive reasoning and conceptual reasoning tests, leaderless group
discussions, an interview. That was all part of the selection programme. But
when we looked at the logistics and the predictive validity and other
predictors, it was a shocking discovery to realise that the only valid predictor
was undergraduate academic performance.

The scientist-practitioner idea and the role it played in the training of the master’s
students was mentioned by some of the programme managers.

H: (translated): At this stage we strive to train students we know will be able to

provide in the need of the market or be able to foresee the changes in the
market.

A: (translated): ...we want to send effective industrial psychologists to practise.

D: Do we see ourselves as psychologists? We see ourselves very firmly as

psychologists even though more often than not our interns do human
resource work. We still see ourselves as psychologists and I think um (.) that
why it is important for us is that it is based here in this School as opposed to
the Business School or in Commerce.

D: …it is part of our programme that our students are compelled to think on their
own a lot, but at the same time while we instil all those kind of skills in them I
also want them to have some of the hands-on experiential knowledge

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 before they go out to work…We don’t want our students to be
dependant…We try to foster as much independence…We want to
encourage independent thinking…We are doing a lot of critical reasoning,
analytical thinking, abstract reasoning, etcetera.

It is thus clear the no single philosophical mind-set is shared between South African
departments. However, all programme managers are clear about what they want the
outcome to be of their involvement with students on the master’s programme. The view
of the scientist-practitioner seemed to be an important guideline for the content of
course material.

4.3.1.3 Sub-theme 3: The structure of the programme

Part of establishing the variables influencing the selection process was to include
questions about the structure of the programme and how that could steer the direction
of the selection process. These included questions about the duration of the
programme, the practical components, the number of modules and the way the
programme was structured. Table 4.4 summarises the main and sub-themes related to
the structure of the programme.

Table 4.4
Sub-themes related to the structure of the programme
Theme 1, Sub-theme 3: Structure of the programme
Codes for Structure of the
Description
programme

General The way in which the master’s degree

programme is structured regarding modules,
duration, research component/s, logistics,
examinations

Block week basis Academic modules are presented in block

weeks

Clear distinction between HRM HRM and I-O psychology programmes are either
and I-O psychology separate or share some modules

Completion/duration rate The time it takes to complete the master’s

degree

Evening classes Course work modules are presented in the

evening to accommodate working students

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Examination in modules Written examinations for course work modules

Examination of mini-dissertation Examination of the mini-dissertation is done by

reviewers either externally or internally

Focus on psychology Psychology modules are included in the course

work of the degree programme (e.g.,
counselling, psychopathology)

Full dissertations MPhil The department also offers an MPhil degree in

Organisational Psychology/ Human Resource
Management

Full time Master’s degree programme is presented on a

full-time basis with class attendance during the
day or evening. The programme duration is
limited to 12 months

Mini-dissertation with expected It is compulsory to submit an article as part of the

article degree. The mini-dissertation is either presented
in the format of an article or the article is
submitted separately from the dissertation

Modular The presentation of the course work is in modular

format and at completion the student sits for an
examination

Part-time The programme is also presented over a longer

period providing the student the opportunity to
distribute the modules and research over an
extended period

Positive outcome of the Honours The research report completed as part of the
research report Honours degree is an indication of the
applicant’s research ability and academic
writing skills

Research component of the Supervisor is assigned to the student for the

programme research component which forms 50% of the
degree.

Research supervision Refers to supervision by a lecturer assigned to

the student for the duration of the identified
research project which forms a 50% part of the
degree

Year one is course work The course component of the degree needs to
be completed in one year. The number of

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 modules differs at the respective universities

Academic international Input or collaboration with international

benchmarking universities, departments, researchers in HRM
and IOP

Academic national benchmarking Input or collaboration with universities,

departments, researchers in HRM and IOP in
South Africa

Industry international The international industry expects exit level

benchmarking expertise from new graduates

Industry national benchmarking The national industry expects exit level expertise
from new graduates

It seemed that the duration of the programme and whether it was presented on a full
time or part-time basis had no influence on the selection of applicants. In one of the
interviews, the programme manager said that the student has the opportunity after
selection to opt for a full-time or part-time programme. The statement was:

C: (translated): He has his calendar and knows when class is. They have to
inform us then if they will be full-time or part-time. Which subjects they are
taking so we have an idea about the distribution throughout the year.

If the duration of the degree is limited to only one year, the researcher assumed that the
selection criteria would include a reference to some clear differentiating criteria, for
example the ability to plan, organise, rapidly assimilate new information and cope with
pressure, but at the specific university the selection is based only on proven academic
performance in the Honours degree. The programme manager responded:

D: …it is technically a one year course. It is a full time course… they cannot hold
down a full time position. Every now and again then there is a person in
Honours who has been working in a full time position and somehow
managed to have done well, but we advocate against it. It is full time hard
work and 99% of the time our students are not working. … We start in the
beginning of February and the hand in date is the end of January (the next
year). So it is an intense year. It is a very demanding year.

Most of the course work during the first year of the master’s programme is in modular

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format, with either the submission of an examination portfolio or a written examination at
the conclusion of the module. At one of the universities where a full-time programme is
presented, the students attend classes on certain days during the week. At another
university, the classes are presented during the evenings to accommodate working
students.

E: We work with working individuals with huge discipline issues related to time
management. We have a very tightly managed programme because it is a
year you have to be in the class and if you miss a certain number of classes,
you are out of the programme because our commitment to the education
is we offer them a year. We throw massive amounts of resources at it. It is
intensive but if you are not in class once it is a huge percentage of the
amount of classes you going to skip…We got a very well refined system and
processes and structures. By the time the students get invited into the
programme, they get the calendar for the next year and it all goes out in
December. So they know what they are contracting into. So we have
orientation the week before formal lectures start (in February)…they attend
the classes sometimes three times a week … and that is from five to seven.

The pressure from tertiary institutions to shorten the master’s programme results in the
appointment of a supervisor to the new student shortly after admittance. At the
departments where a one-year programme is followed the assignment of supervisors to
students is priority and the research methodology module is one of the first to be
presented. Supervision is intense with structured guidance on a regular basis and
scheduled ahead of time.

E: …choose your supervisor by this date. Everything is blacked out in advance

that they get. And one of the first steps is that they have a topic choice. So
all of that is mapped out in documentation that goes out and it maps into
their programme.

At one university where the group of selected students convenes as early as in

December, the programme manager said:

H: (translated): So, we provide them with a (research) focus area early in

December. They have the opportunity to think what they want to do and at
the end of January they are assigned a supervisor.

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 However, at a university following a programme structured over a longer period of three
years, the research methodology and the assignment of a supervisor for the research
project are crucial.

C: (translated): …our first class is the end of November. During that class, the
study leaders and their projects are introduced. In February when they start
with class, they must have a study leader already.

Even though master’s degree programmes differ in duration, programme managers did
not indicate that this had an influence on the selection of applicants. What transpires
from the reflections is the pressure on students to complete as quickly as possible.

Questions about the benchmarking of the master’s programme with international and
national universities were included to establish the presence of any international and
national collaborations and requirements that could influence the selection of
applicants. Although it was reported that several collaborations between departments
exist on national and international level, no reference was made that this influenced the
admittance of targeted applicants to master’s programmes

In conclusion: Theme 1 (Historical evolvement) provided information about the

background that might influence the selection process for the I-O psychology master’s
programmes. The four main codes or sub-themes under Theme A, discussed and
illustrated by the answers given by programme managers, were the role of a
departmental philosophy in the selection process, the historical background and
evolvement of South African I-O psychology departments and the structure of the
programme.

In Theme 2 all the sub-themes related to the exploration and description of the selection
process are discussed.

4.3.2 THEME 2: The selection process

The second main theme (THEME 2) explained the details of the selection process.
All the related reference to the phases of the process, the role of stakeholders and admission
requirements of the academic institution are included under Theme 2. This theme included
two important sub-themes, namely the selection policies of stakeholders (the tertiary institution,
the faculty, the academic department and HPCSA) and the different selection criteria. The

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different elements of the selection process are discussed in detail. Each of the sub-themes
and how it influences the selection of applicants for I-O psychology master’s programmes will
be discussed separately. The illustration (Figure 4.3) is a synopsis of Theme 2 and related sub-
themes.

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Figure 4.3. Theme 2 (The selection process) with related sub-themes.

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4.4.2.1 Sub-theme 1: The selection policies

Selection processes at tertiary institutions are based on institutional policies and faculty
and departmental rules and regulations. Apart from the formal policies, I-O psychology
also needs to consider the policies of regulatory bodies and professional societies, in this
instance the HPCSA and SIOPSA.

Reviewing and discussing some of the admission policies brought clarity about the formal
regulatory restrictions when admitting applicants to master’s programmes. Most
information about admission requirements were obtained from marketing material,
departmental brochures, yearbooks and verbal information provided by programme
managers. From tertiary institution websites, the requirement for postgraduate admission
links to faculty regulations and prospective applicants are directed to faculty and
departmental websites for more information about regulatory policies for postgraduate
admission. Website navigation in most instances is complicated and no clear indication
is available about postgraduate admission policies. Admission requirement detail is
available on departmental portals but not all websites are updated with the latest
application detail. Departmental websites were accessed intermittently during the
preparation as well as data-analysis phases.

From the analysis of interview data, four codes were identified, namely requirements by
the department, the faculty, the HPCSA and the tertiary institution. Table 4.5 summarises
these sub-themes.

Table 4.5
Sub-themes related to selection policies
Theme 2, Sub-theme 1: Selection policy
Codes for Selection policy Description
Departmental requirements Requirements and prerequisites set by the
academic department where the master's
degree is presented

Faculty requirements Academic requirements and prerequisites set

by the faculty where the Master’s degree is
hosted

HPCSA requirements The requirements set by the HPCSA for being a

registered industrial psychologist

Tertiary institution requirements The requirements set by the tertiary institutions

for entry to a postgraduate programme

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A duration of 2-4 years for the completion of the degree programme is allowed by most
of the universities. Three universities reported a 12-month period allowed for completion.
Two programme managers indicated the workload additional to supervision (other
teaching and research responsibilities) during the 12 month period causes stress to
supervisors of master’s students.

Seven of the nine programme managers said they admit honours applicants to the
master’s programme only if they have completed a BCom Honours in Industrial
Psychology. This seemed to be a faculty requirement where the master’s programme is
situated in the Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences.

The delicate balancing act between the requirements of the tertiary institution and the
professional/regulatory body was mentioned in one interview. The programme manager
voiced this duality neatly in the following excerpt from the interview:

E: The University is the employer, they grant the degrees and it is a constant
battle managing the demands of the profession and the University demands
when they clash… The pressure from the University is to increase Master’s
students, because that’s what’s generating funding for them. There is
pressure from the University (to) increase subsidy generation, research output.
That is what they are interested in… Those are the University messages,
whereas our profession’s messages are train and skill professionals in the
scope of practice.

Admitting equity candidates to the master’s programme is a requirement from the

tertiary institution. Programme managers responded to the admittance of applicants
from designated groups as follows:

G: (translated): But there is without doubt pressure you experience that says
when you do not select students you need to present a very good reason
why you do not select them.

And also:

G: (translated): There are too many students who do not belong here. But then
when it comes to the selection, the bigger figure of authority is so
overpowering; preventing the Department to say on behalf of the profession,
the quality of our own academic work, we are not admitting the stream of

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 people.

Another programme manager remarked that the tertiary institution does not limit them
in the selection process other than by regulating the admittance of equity candidates.

H: (translated): The only limitation at this stage is the equity.

Later in the interview the programme manager confirmed that the equity drive from
the university is serious, saying:

H: (translated): But now the university is also much equity driven.

Academic entry criteria were noted as an important admission requirement by all of the
programme managers. An academic average above 60% or 65 % (and in one instance
68%) for the honours degree was recorded as a pre-requisite for admission to the master’s
degree programme.

H: (translated): Yes, the sixty eight percent is our own regulation.

A programme manager also commented about the role of the HPCSA in the selection
of applicants. On a question about equity candidates, the programme manager
responded:

I: (translated): …the faculty has no requirements about that, but the professional
board does.

Although an academic average above 60%, 65% or 68% does not guarantee the
applicant admission to the programme, all the departments use academic average as
the first entry requirement in the selection process.

4.4.2.2 Sub-theme 2: Selection criteria

Compared to what is reported in postgraduate admission literature, the nine I-O

psychology departments reported similar selection criteria. After the thematic analysis
of the interview transcripts, 28 sub-themes were identified. (See Table 4.6) Only several
pivotal sub-themes will be highlighted as most of the departments are in agreement with
selection criteria, which were therefore not discussed individually. The analysis of how

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 the departments applied the criteria revealed interesting interpretations.

Table 4.6
Sub-themes related to selection criteria
Theme 2, Sub-theme 2: Selection criteria
Codes for Selection criteria Description
Abbreviated research proposal A research proposal attached to the
attached application form is a pre-requisite when
applying

Academic performance in honours Criteria for selection based on academic

degree performance in previous degree

Academic writing skill Criteria for selection based on the

demonstration of academic writing skill

Admittance from other universities Restriction on the number of students from

other universities

Age The age limit for selecting candidates to

enter the master’s programme

Assessment of competency profile fit Criteria for selection based on a

psychometric profile to fit the industrial
psychologist

Basic requirement A basic selection requirement

Bridging modules Allowing applicants to re-do modules to

obtain a higher percentage in order to get
admitted to the programme

Competency Criteria for selection based on

competencies required of the industrial
psychologist in industry

Credit for modules Applicants may apply for credits obtained

in modules already completed either in
other degree programmes or at other
universities

Equal opportunity Admitting students complying with

requirement for the diversity profile or equal
opportunity guideline of the university

Expiry of previous modules completed Module credit may become obsolete after
a certain number of years, especially when
the previous degree obtained was too far

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 back in the past

Group interaction Inclusion of any group activity in the

assessment of applicants during the
selection process; the way in which the
applicant conducts himself/herself in a
group session with peers

Gut feel Reference to a positive or negative feeling

of the selection committee or programme
manager about an applicant during the
selection process

HRM and/or IO-psychology in the The completion of an undergraduate

undergraduate degree degree in HRM or IOP emphasising HRM or
IOP background during the undergraduate
degree although the applicant presents an
honours degree in I-O-psychology

MCom and MA career paths The option to enter either a MCom degree
in I-O psychology or an MA degree in I-O
psychology

Numbers The number of applicants selected to enter

the Magister programme

Personal motivation The student's motivation as to why they

have applied for the master’s programme

Prerequisites Criteria for selection based on any set

prerequisites like academic background or
work experience

Presentation skills Evaluating presentation skills and public

speaking

Recognition of prior learning Criteria for selection based on previous work

experience

Preference to own students The preferred admittance of students from

the same university. Quota restriction?

Research knowledge Research knowledge prior to the entrance

to the master’s programme

Restriction of numbers Any action taken to restrict the number of

entrants to the programme

SAQA accreditation International students as well as students

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 from colleges in South Africa need to apply
for degree verification at the South African
Qualification Authority (SAQA)

Staff capacity The availability of staff to lecture on the

master’s programme

Statistical knowledge Prior knowledge of statistics. Level of

statistical reasoning prior to admittance to
the programme

Work experience Number of years’ work experience when

applying for the master’s degree as well as
the kind of work experience before entering
the master’s degree

To simplify the relatedness of the sub-themes, the researcher combined sub-themes

under two descriptive headings:

a) Selection criteria related to formal regulations of the tertiary institution or faculty

are:
 Academic performance in honours degree
 Bridging modules
 Credit for modules
 Equal opportunity
 Time expired since the completion of previous modules completed
 HRM and/or I-O psychology in the undergraduate degree
 MCom and MA career paths
 Recognition of prior learning
 Preference to own students

b) Selection criteria related to the department’s selection preferences are

 Abbreviated research proposal attached
 Academic writing skills
 Admittance from other universities
 Age
 Assessment of competency profile fit/competency
 Group interaction
 Number of students admitted
 Personal motivation

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  Presentation skill
 Research knowledge

The main selection criteria at all the departments were the academic average obtained
during the Honours programme as well as credit for an honours degree either in I-O
psychology or related to I-O psychology. Some of the programme managers reported
that applicants might be accepted to enter the master’s programme provided that they
completed an outstanding module which was a pre-requisite for admittance. Modules
like Statistics, Psychometrics during the honours programme and research modules were
mentioned. If applicants completed the honours degree longer than a certain number
of years ago or wanted to obtain better marks in order to comply with the academic
admission pre-requisite, bridging modules were required. Managers differed on the
possibility of repeating modules for better marks:

D: we can’t because it will just screw-up the entire logistics…and if, if they’ve
done it at the other universities they must go and repeat or improve their
marks at other universities and then come to us. There is no space in our
programme for repeating honours modules.

H: (translated) We allow them. They are not selected. They need to upgrade
the mark and may apply again. They are allowed to apply twice after which
they will not be allowed to apply for a third time.

Equal opportunity is addressed by all departments to make sure the diversity in the
master’s programme is representative as per tertiary institution requirements. One
programme manager replied in short:

B: And then we look at EE requirements.

R: Is it a requirement of the university?
B: Yes, and of the Board too.

No preference for applicants from other universities nor any restriction on their numbers
was noted. Predictably, most students selected are from the home university. Across all
universities, programme managers welcomed the inclusion of applicants who
completed their Honours degrees at universities other than the one they applied to for
admittance to the master’s degree. Applicant age was another criterion that did not
deny an applicant entry to the master’s programme in I-O psychology.

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 It seemed that all universities restricted the numbers of admitted applicants based on
the availability of supervisors to assist with the supervision of the research for the mini-
dissertation. Proof of this is found in comments like:

I: (translated): …and we based the number of students on our research

supervisory capacity. We calculate how many staff members will be
available to supervise.
and

E: I cannot accommodate more because of supervision capacity...so it is a

staffing issue.

4.3.2.1 Sub-theme 3: Elements of the selection process

A major objective of this research was to discover how departments plan and run the
selection process for the I-O psychology master’s programme. The complexity of this
process arises from the responsibility of the selection committee to select applicants who
will be able to comply with all the requirements of the tertiary institution, the professional
and regulatory bodies, and industry.

Sub-theme 3, selection process, explored how departments conduct the selection

process. The theme consists of 22 sub-themes. Table 4.7 is a summary of codes and
descriptions for the selection process sub-theme.

Table 4.7
Sub-themes related to the selection process
Theme 2, Sub-theme 3: Selection process
Codes related to the selection process Description

Alternative processes considered Consideration of alternative selection practices

Apply at university and department Dual and concurrent application process

applying for admittance or entrance to the
university as well as specific admittance to the
department

Assessment centre activities Activities included in an assessment centre for the

purpose of selection

Confirming of the selection outcome At the end of the selection process, the

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 committee responsible for approving the
selection outcome

Definition Refers to the sequential steps followed by

departments when selecting applicants to enter
a master’s degree programme in I-O psychology

Departmental application blank Reference to the completion of an application

blank when applying to the department

Group activities Assessment centre group activities evaluated

Interview evaluation Evaluation of the selection panel based on the

interview with the applicant

Limitations Any shortcomings in the programme as

evaluated by the programme manager

Motivation as part of the application Any written motivation as to why the applicant
wants to enter the master’s programme.
Submitted either as part of the application blank
or done as part of an assessment centre activity

Panel interviews Interviewing of applicants is done by a panel of

interviewers and not just one person

Paper-based selection Selection done only with the application blank

information presented either in the initial stages of
the selection process or the selection is done
solely based on the application blank and
supporting documents. No contact with the
applicant is made other than the information
obtained in the application blank

Phases Referring to the different phases of the selection

process and what it entails at the different
universities

Preliminary selection (conditional) Conditional selection takes place before the final
mark for Honours is available

Profiling of applications The process of summarising the information of the

applicant from submitted documentation like the
application blank, CV and academic transcripts

Psychometric assessment Any form of psychometric assessment, either

online or paper and pencil based

Ranking of applicants After summarising all the available information of

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 the applicant and assigning weighted average
to the different criteria, the values are sorted in
rank order

Selection committee role The involvement and role of an appointed

selection committee in the department of the
faculty at the respective universities

Shortlisting After the ranking of all applicants, the shortlisting

is done to establish who will be invited for either
interviews, assessment centre activities or
admitted to the programme without any further
selection requirement

Suggestions for future selection Suggestions for different and new ways of
practices selecting applicants for master’s programmes in
future

Writing exercise The inclusion of an academic writing assessment

as part of the selection process

The description of the selection process was one of the objectives formulated at the onset of
research and the exploration of selection processes at the universities was thorough and
lengthy. The selection process refers to the sequential steps followed by departments during
the process of selection.

The various elements (activities) of the selection process are discussed next.

4.3.2.2 Sub-theme 3, Code: Application blank

Contact with the applicant becomes formal the moment the application blank is
received. From the interviews it was concluded all departments receive two application
forms: a formal application form (online or in hard copy) from the tertiary institution and
as part of the formal postgraduate application procedure as specified by the tertiary
institution. Departments require a more in-depth application form where additional
information about the applicant is required.

All departments report that a dual application process is followed. Applicants apply at
the tertiary institution in hard copy or in e-format as well as to the department on a
separate departmental application form. The tertiary institution application form is

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forwarded to the department from the university admissions office via the faculty
admissions office or officer.

At one university, the departmental administrator has access to the tertiary institution’s
admission office and is able to track the number of applications received.

In answer to whether they see the application blank as a first phase of the selection
process, one programme manager said:

B: (translated): For sure. We look at the subjects, look at the marks and the
motivation.

E: And the rule in the Section has been if you do not fill in one of ours you are not
considered in the selection process. It is really controversial because people
miss it, they will apply centrally and it will go to the Faculty and we won’t
consider them because they have not done what we need them to do.

At some universities, the information obtained from the application blank provides
enough information to conclude the first paper-based selection to establish whom of
the applicants will be invited for an on-line assessment that will form part of the next
phase of the selection process.

One university has no further selection hurdles, however. Based on the information in the
application blank, a name list of candidates complying with the requirements for
admission is presented to the departmental selection committee. They discuss which of
the top ranking candidates will be nominated for admittance to the master’s
programme. The programme manager responded:

R: So, there are no interviews?

E: No
R: No assessment centre stuff?
E: No
R: No psychometrics?
E: No
R: Only your application form?
E: Ja…

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4.3.2.3 Sub-theme 3, Code: Competency profile fit

Four departments reported that the applicants complete an online assessment as part
of the selection process. After the paper-based selection, a name list of qualifying
applicants is provided to an external service provider who sends an e-link to the
applicants. Applicants have a few days to complete a verbal, numerical and
competency profile assessment after which a merit list with the results is sent to the
department.

One programme manager explains how they use competency fit in the selection
process at their department:

B: (translated): …online assessment, yes, of personality and abilities. We have

done a job analysis at two instances. The Work Profiling System. We analysed
the job of an industrial psychologist and the competencies which transpired
and identified from there and compared with the information we got from
American literature about the topic. So we look for what is important for the
industrial psychologist in industry. Not the master’s student or academic
person. The I-O psychologist. Our students are selected according to this.
The selection process includes these aspects.

However, not all departments use any competency profile fit measure. One programme
manager identified this as a limitation in their selection process.

A programme manager reports:

R: (translated):...and nowhere is there a competence based selection?

F: No, and this is a limitation for me we need to address.

4.3.2.4 Sub-theme 3, Code: Interviewing the applicants

It was important for the researcher to explore if departments conduct interviews with the
applicants. At some of the departments, interviews are part of the selection process.
Here are some replies from the programme managers:

B: (translated):…then they are invited for an interview.

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From another programme manager came the reply:

R: Only your application form?

and

E: Ja, and part of the reason about that is there used to be interviews for
honours and masters, but it was felt at the time that it is defenceless. You
know, we needed objective criteria that we could defend in a court of law
if somebody said you did not choose me.

And about interviewing the applicants the respective programme managers replied:

R: So, there are no interviews?

E: No
R: (translated): There are no interviews?

and

G: (translated): There is the possibility to invite the student for an interview but
that is something that rarely happens.

H: (translated): And then the interview. Individual interview. To the panel.

Structured questions yes, we have about six questions.

I: (translated): We have interviews and then try to rank.

Six of the nine departments who took part in the research project included a panel
interview as part of their selection process.

4.3.2.5 Sub-theme 3, Code: Assessment centre activities

Assessment centre activities form part of the selection process at some of the
departments. Several activities are included as part of an assessment day on location.
One of the departments provides the applicant with reading material to prepare for a
written test as the first activity on the assessment day. It is followed by a group discussion
as well as a panel interview. Panels include academic staff as well as industry partners.

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One department includes assessment centre activities as part of the selection process,
but the applicant’s performance does not influence the outcome of the selection as the
activities used in the assessment centre are not validated yet. The activities form part of
a longitudinal research project as an attempt to validate the assessment activities. It is
the fourth year running and according to the programme manager the results will
indicate whether the assessment centre will be included as part of the formal selection
process. This was confirmed by the programme manager during a follow-up discussion
to verify information from the interview.

I: (translated): … we let them do a writing exercise the morning before the

interview. We have an information session where I will say ‘here is an article.
Write an abstract for the article’ to see if they are able to string sentences in
a logical manner. So we look at their writing ability.

At one of the I-O psychology departments, a writing exercise is also included on the day
of the interview, but this department does not operate an assessment centre.

4.3.2.5 Sub-theme 3, Code: Selection committee review

None of the programme managers reported that they do the selection of applicants on
their own. Most programme managers together with an administrator do the initial
profiling of the applicants after which the selection committee discuss and review which
candidates will enter the next round of the selection.

In the departments where interviews form part of the selection process, selection
committee members are part of the interview panel.

After the completion of all the assessment centre activities, all the selection committee
members participate in the final decision on which applicants to nominate for the
master’s programme.

4.3.2.6 Sub-theme 3, Code: Finalisation and communicating the outcome

Programme managers do most of the selection administration, including ranking the

applicants who comply with all their requirements. This list is then presented to a
departmental selection committee for discussion and finalisation.

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 E: So, then I sit and calculate the averages and generate a spreadsheet and I
rank all the important information, their grades, their degrees…I circulate that
to a Postgraduate Selection Committee. […] we debate…so there is
accountability; there is transparency that I am not working on my own.

4.4 Summarising the selection process - a discussion

Table 4.8 provides a summary of the selection process at nine South African universities where
an accredited I-O psychology programme is offered. A fuller account of all the elements that
are included in the process is provided in the previous sections of this chapter.

Table 4.8:
A summary of the different elements included in the selection process at IO-psychology
academic departments
The different elements included in the selection process at I-O psychology departments
I-O psychology departments
Elements A B C D E F G H I
Academic average in honours degree         
Academic writing sample -    - - -  
Assessment centre  -  - - - -  
Attached research proposal  - - - - -  - -
Competency based selection -   - - - - -
Departmental application blank         
Group activity - -   - - -  -
Interview (panel)     - - -  
Motivation included in application blank     -   
On-line assessment    - -  -  
Presentation skills  - - - - 
Programme information available on website         
University application blank         
Written assessment (test) - -   - - - - 

Reviewing the findings from the interviews with programme managers, it is clear that the
academic departments that were included in the research project all have their own rationale
for the selection process they follow. It was interesting to note that even though all nine
universities are sure they are on the right track with selection, only four departments followed
a rigourous selection process, which includes assessment centre activities. Three other
departments recorded only some selection activities and two departments base their
selection of applicants for the master’s degree programme solely on academic performance
in the honours degree.

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However, it was clear from comments by the programme managers that they feel unsure how
to structure and execute the selection process. There are many role-players in this process and
the triadic character emanating from the discipline, the regulatory body and industry creates
the challenge to I-O psychology departments to select applicants who will be able to
withstand the pressure of the times and spaces where they operate.

Programme managers report that there is pressure from tertiary institutions to complete the
master’s degree within two years. The writing of a research dissertation, albeit a dissertation of
limited scope (a credit value of fifty percent of the master’s degree) implies a student being
able to express himself/herself in academic writing. For this reason, it is important to establish
the student’s level of academic writing on entry to the programme. A few of the departments
included the assessment of academic writing skills as an element of the selection process.

From responses like the following, it is evident that the selection of applicants for master’s
degrees in I-O psychology is experienced as a challenge:

H: (translated): …to tell you the truth, I would like to see a more structured
process where you can sift through the applications by applying several
filters… I have the responsibility to the discipline and the subject area. That is
my point of view. So I think our selection on master’s level is somewhat
unstructured. It is too easy to gain entry to the master’s programme.

And the same programme manager responds:

H: (translated): I think the limitation or the concern which we have, and it seems
to me I’m not the only one who is concerned about this, is the status of
industrial psychology at this stage in South Africa…what is the real difference
between a well-trained professional human resource practitioner and an
industrial psychologist? What can the industrial psychologist do that the HR
person cannot do? I will tell you there is not much, if any.

A different programme manager held this view:

F: (translated): At this stage of the game I have to say I do not know… one can
say ‘you are a psychologist, you work on a deeper level, you look with
another eye.’ But a well-trained, sensitive human resource practitioner with
a high level of emotional intelligence can do the same…Here is a
psychologist in the Statistics class and here is a human resource manager in

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 the Statistics class…he can do this research and this guy can do the same
research. The only thing the psychologist can do is the administration and
interpretation of certain tests.

The analysis of interview data revealed that every I-O psychology department at South African
universities offering an accredited master’s programme in I-O psychology has its own unique
process for selecting applicants to enter the programme. At this stage, there is no shared
guideline from either the HPCSA or SIOPSA about a unified set of criteria for the selection and
education of I-O psychologists in South Africa. One might ask whether a guideline for the
selection of master’s applicants really is needed within the I-O psychology environment of
South Africa. However, recent South African literature reflects the concern of leading scholars
about the role of a profession in the business environment of the modern South African
economy. A renewed focus on the selection of future I-O psychologists reflects an attempt to
strengthen the influence of the profession in industry. A set of guidelines for the selection
process would contribute to this.

4.5 Conclusion

The lack of certainty and direction in the selection processes for I-O psychology master’s
programmes at the nine selected South African universities obliged the researcher to go back
to both recent and historic literature to answer the questions raised in Section 4.6: are
guidelines for this selection process necessary and, if so, do they already exist?

These questions arose from the analysis of the interview data, and were not part of the stated
research question at the beginning of the study.

In summary, Chapter 4 discussed the data collected during the semi-structured interviews at
nine different I-O psychology and Human Resource Management departments offering an
accredited master’s programme in I-O psychology. Responses to questions by the researcher
were presented in two main sections namely, Theme 1, which focused on the background
information of the master’s programme, on the historical evolvement of the departments and
on whether these factors had an influence on selection practices. Theme 2 focused on the
selection process and described the selection practices at the different I-O psychology
departments.

In Chapter 5 the researcher reviewed literature to establish whether I-O psychology scholars
and references in historical literature gave any indication or direction about the selection of

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applicants for master’s degree programmes in I-O psychology. This was an attempt to clarify
the dilemma the researcher encountered after the analysis of interview data, namely the
absence of any guideline in I-O psychology literature as to what the main elements would be
to consider during the selection of applicants for I-O psychology master’s programmes.

_________________________________________

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“From time to time, researchers pause from their data collecting and analytical labors for the
purpose of pondering the nature of their scientific achievements… Conceptual models and
research methodology are subjects that are regularly reviewed. Less frequently, more
fundamental questions are posed regarding the past and future directions of the discipline,
the meaningfulness and utility of its discoveries, and the capabilities of its practitioners”

(Gordon, Kleiman & Hanie, 1978, p. 893)

_________________________________________

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CHAPTER 5
REVISITING THE LITERATURE IN SEARCH OF A SELECTION PROCESS

5.1 Introduction

Reviewing the literature after analysing the data was aimed at learning how selection
committees at academic institutions could structure the selection process to admit new
entrants to the I-O psychology profession. The specific focus was to establish if there is any
guideline found in literature to guide or assist selection committees with the selection of
applicants for master’s degree programmes. The resulting literature search, which at first
focused on I-O psychology in the South African context, gradually moved from the recent to
the earlier years of the profession in South Africa. It was also considered necessary to consult
international literature about admissions to I-O psychology programmes in search of any
guideline or direction for selecting applicants.

Enough has already been said about the history of the discipline (Berry, 1998; Muchinsky, 2006;
Muchinsky, Kriek & Schreuder, 2005). However, emphasising the raison d’être of the discipline
and the important role of the I-O psychologist in the work place will provide a re-focus on how
the core of the discipline is defined and how (if at all) that philosophy directs the selection of
new applicants for a career as I-O psychologist in today’s business world. For this purpose, the
evolvement of the profession over time as reflected in scientific international and South African
literature provides an abbreviated background and context for discussing the selection of
students to enter the profession. Placing the selection process in the context of the historical
development of the discipline could assist the researcher to clarify uncertainty about the
selection process and show how a suggested framework for selection could guide selection
committees.

The purpose of a follow-up literature review was then

to establish if I-O psychology literature addresses the importance of

guiding selection committees at tertiary institutions on how to select
applicants for I-O psychology master’s degree programmes;

if so, to establish what main points should be considered during the

selection process of applicants for I-O psychology master’s degree
programmes in South Africa

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Figure 5.1. The main topics addressed in Chapter 5.

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5.2 The historical past directs the discipline’s future

This phase of the literature study explores the evolution of I-O psychology in search of a basis
for directing the admittance of new entrants to the profession. The primary focus is not to
repeat the history of the I-O discipline but to summarise from existing literature how the
development and growth of I-O psychology shaped and directed the contemporary selection
and admission of new entrants to the profession. Exploring literature from an interpretivist
stance was directed by a systematic process of searching literature for traces of a
philosophical grounding. The follow-up review of literature was initially done from a deductive
perspective as the researcher searched for references to the selection and admission of I-O
psychology applicants for postgraduate programmes.

The discussion which follows will start with reporting from an international focus and then move
to South African literature. The report of the literature review is thus in reverse order to how the
follow-up literature review was done (see Section 5.1). Throughout the discussion that follows,
the researcher’s reflections aim to focus on indications or emergence of a clear philosophical
grounding of the discipline which specifically steered the admittance of entrants to the I-O
psychology profession. The idea is not to critique, but rather to search for an indication of how
to steer the selection of new applicants to the profession.

5.2.1 I-O psychology’s evolving philosophy through history: an international focus

Much has changed since the beginning of the 20 th century when the urge to apply
psychology research to practical everyday life at work became real. During the late
1800’s the application of psychology outside the laboratory was unthinkable. However,
the drive by psychologists to assist the business world with issues like immigration, growing
cities, industrialisation, and an expanding manufacturing sector created endless
opportunities to apply a new science to management and business challenges
experienced in the market (Benjamin, 1997). Spurred on by industrial engineers
researching improved human efficiency in the work place by doing time and motion
studies, a new psychology field of interest emerged early in the 1900’s (Muchinsky, 2006).
The business environment provided an opportunity for psychologists to apply psychology
concepts outside the formal boundaries of experimental psychology.

The first venture of psychology into the business arena is apparent when Harlow Gale
directed his psychology experiments towards advertising (1896) and Walter Scott

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 published his applied psychology to advertising in 1903. Mental tests9 happen to be
psychology’s first marketable product in industry and with this a “new breed of
psychologists emerged” (Van de Water, 1997, p. 489). The need to apply psychology
to increasingly complex organisations grew and the science of management tilted
towards increasing production and profits. It therefore seems that from the early stages
of this emerging discipline the drive existed to apply psychology in the business arena.
This could have been the first sign of a philosophy for the I-O psychology discipline.

The foundation for psychology in the work place was laid when Walter D. Scott wrote
Influencing men in business and increasing human efficiency in business in 1911 and
Frederick W. Taylor suggested payment according to work performance in his book The
principles of scientific management. By the time, Hugo Münsterberg published
Psychology and Industrial Efficiency10 in 1913, more attention was being paid to industrial
problems in the work place. I-O psychology as an applied field of psychology began to
gain momentum. Gradually the effect of using psychology in the work place was
reflected in the balance sheets of industry because more humane practices towards the
employee filtered into business and industry (Muchinsky, Kriek, & Schreuder, 2005).
Employers began to recognise the employee’s value in increasing productivity and
raising profit margins.

With the publication of the Journal of Applied Psychology (JAP) in 1917, the opportunity
was created to publish industrial psychology research. By the end of World War I (1914-
1918), this new applied psychology proved to have answers for practical problems in
industry. Walter Bingham’s Bureau of Salesmanship and James McKeen Cattel’s
Psychological Corporation, founded in 1921, initiated the era of industrial psychology
theory in practice. The foundation was laid for the scientist-practitioner model. Walter
Scott (with a PhD in psychology) advocated the idea of psychology of business and
used his Scott Company to offer personnel consulting to industry after World War I for a
period from 1919 -1923. (Berry, 1998; Van de Water, 1997). These formal structured
business entities provided industry with research expertise and ultimately required the
industrial psychologist to act as researcher-in-practice and to convert research into
practice. The industrial psychologist as consultant and entrepreneur emerged.

9 When 151 people were killed in a passenger steamship accident on 22 July 1907, Hugo Münsterberg was asked by
the director of the San Francisco and Portland Steamship Company to assist them in the selection of only officers who
were able to make decisions during crises. Münsterberg then developed a decision-making ability test for ship
captains ‒ an early example of the marketing of psychology as science to the business world (Van de Water 1997)

10 Psychology and Industrial Efficiency in German (1910) and in English (1913) (Landy, 1997)

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 Landy (1997) considers Münsterberg, Cattel, Scott and Bingham to be the four
(American) anchors for the beginning of I-O psychology as an applied psychology
during the era from 1895 - 1920. During the period leading up to World War I, dynamic
forces from society led to the creation of the scientific and practical field of I-O
psychology. Katzell and Austin (1992) argue that the science of mind and behaviour
during that period was one of the forces that led to the establishment of I-O psychology.
In addition, a secure base for this growing new science was provided by the
combination of functionalists emphasising the utility of science, capitalism resulting in a
drive for efficiency in the workplace and mounting industrialisation. This might be
another early indication of the emerging philosophy11 for the science of I-O psychology.
From the early stages of industrial psychology, the focus was to apply psychology
research to employee issues in the workplace. The gradual move towards the
psychology of organisations added the ‘O’ to I-O psychology during later years.

During the period 1919-1940, between the two world wars, work psychology bureaus
provided research-based interventions to industry in an attempt to promote the
usefulness of psychology in industry. Many of the techniques and programmes were
developed during the years of war and filtered to the post-war industrial world. The
growth and prosperity of industry after the war created several opportunities for applying
psychology in the work place. The well-known Hawthorne studies, a series of experiments
starting in 1924 at the Hawthorne Works (Illinois, USA) of the Western Electric Company,
focused attention on factors other than the basic ergonomic features (working
conditions) which influenced human behaviour and sensitised psychologists to the effect
work has on the psychological well-being and productivity of the employee. Apart from
this well-reported study linked to I-O psychology, other applied psychology research
focusing on personnel selection, measurement of work performance and assessment of
vocational interest contributed to the growth of I-O psychology in the years after World
War I (cf. Katzell & Austin, 1992; Muchinsky, 2006; Muchinsky, Kriek, & Schreuder, 2005).

Industrial psychologists had no formal organisational structure at that stage where they
could exercise and establish themselves as a true division of psychology. The
emergence of the Association of Consulting Psychologists (ACP) in the 1930’s provided
that platform, followed later by the American Association for Applied Psychology
(A.A.A.P.) (Benjamin, 1997). This constituted the first formal structures for discourse

11Philosophy defined as the study of the theoretical basis of a particular branch of knowledge or experience
(http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/philosophy downloaded on 30 August 2015)
versus
An academic discipline or field of study is a branch of knowledge that is taught and researched as part of higher
education (https://www.google.com/search?q=academic+discipline&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8 retrieved on 11 September
2015)

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concerned with the standing of industrial psychology as a deserving scientific field of
study. This discourse took place despite the APA leadership strongly advocating against
the use of psychology outside the laboratory, saying it was inappropriate and
unconstitutional (Benjamin, 1997). Nevertheless, the way for applying psychological
principles outside the laboratory and focusing on the work place was paved by the
endless opportunities presented by prosperous industries of the day, the emerging
business world and of course the modern warfare of World War I.

The ongoing debate about the relevance of I-O psychology as applied psychology
never ceased being a topic of discussion. One of the earliest indications (1936) of an
enquiry about the scope of I-O psychology is a questionnaire sent to psychologists in
industry asking their opinion about various issues surrounding the practice of I-O
psychology. Indicative of the quest for recognition was a question about the status of
the psychologist in industry. In addition to several findings, the most prominent
suggestion was that psychology could contribute to government, industry and the
business environment (Benjamin, 1997).

Reading the history of the late 1930’s it is obvious that the industrial and business
component of psychology as a specialised field of psychology defined the basis of
objectives that are still part of I-O psychology today. Highlighted was the promotion of
business and industrial psychology research and publication; the formulation of minimum
training requirements; promoting a period of internship as part of the preparation for
industry; formulating minimum standards of practice; and encouraging the public to be
critical towards the application of psychology in business, industry and the public service.
(A.A.A.P., 1938). The fact that the debate about the intent of the discipline is still a topic
of discussion today is positive and leads to the continuous questioning of the core
business of I-O psychology and reflecting on it.

With the beginning of World War II in 1939, industrial psychologists were tasked to assign
recruits to the various different divisions of the military. They were also gradually being
called upon to assist with expert advice in staffing civilian companies, reducing
absenteeism, assessing worker attitudes and providing training. The role of psychometric
testing during the war period emphasised not only the important role of correct selection
and placement of personnel in key positions but also the importance and need of
industrial psychology expertise in industry (Benjamin, 1997; Bergh & Geldenhuys, 2013).

In 1946, shortly after World War II, the American Psychological Association (APA) initiated
the new Division 14 of Industrial Psychology. This step in the historical development of

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the profession marked the official recognition of I-O psychology as an applied science,
although it seems that the acceptance of this new field of psychology was not without
turmoil in the psychology community (cf., Landy, 1997; Reports of the A.A.A.P., 1938).
The period that followed created the opportunity for researchers and industry partners
to experiment with work psychology in the workplace and several fields of speciality
came into being. The blurring of boundaries between disciplines of engineering
psychology, sociology, social psychology and industrial psychology during the post war
period contributed to attempts to address complex areas of research (Muchinsky, Kriek,
& Schreuder, 2005).

Although the evolvement of the I-O profession is mainly emphasised in the history of the
profession in the United States of America, the struggle for recognition of the new I-O
psychology profession was not limited to the USA. On all continents, the new psychology
in the workplace gained recognition and could influence the philosophy of this branch
of psychology. The influence that the evolvement of the profession on other continents
had in directing admittance to this new profession is summarised in the discussion that
follows.

Early in the Russian history of the profession, the mechanistic management style of
Frederick Taylor coalesced with the views of Karl Marx. Much effort was devoted by
early industrial psychologists to counter this kind of exploitation and advocate the
protection of the worker against the mechanistic drive of Taylorism (Schultz & McFarland,
1935).

In Canada, the profession struggled to be recognised as a distinct field of psychology.

Webster (1988) reports that the role of the industrial psychologist was mostly ignored in
that country during WWII. Even in the selection and interviewing of candidates for
wartime positions, clinical psychologists rather than industrial psychologists were
consulted for their opinion. It went so far as not to include industrial psychologists in a
research panel of the Canadian Psychological Association shortly after WWII ended.

The United Kingdom saw the legal establishment of the National Institute of Industrial
Psychology (NIIP) in 1921 with the primary objective of applying the science of
psychology and physiology to business. At first the contribution was of an advisory
nature, focusing on work and motion studies (physiological and cognitive aspects) in the
manufacturing sector, emphasising the efficiency of the worker and removing stressors
causing fatigue. Respect for people later steered the NIIP not to take part in more time
and motion research because of their accepted value of not exploiting workers in

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industry (Kitson & Dexter, 1921; Kwiatkowski, Duncan, & Shimmin, 2006). In the following
years much research was done on vocational guidance which, according to
Kwiatkowski et al. (2006), contributed to the desperate state of the NIIP’s financial status.
After WW II several investigations in industry led to research and guidance to personnel
departments on topics such as selection tests and attitude surveys (Frisby, 1971).

From New Zealand, Cooper-Thomas and Wright (2008) report that although the discipline
has been known in their country since the1920’s, industry has limited knowledge of the
contribution the discipline could make in the workplace. The establishment of a
professional identity and serious efforts to introduce the role of the profession to business
leaders were themes that emerged from the study. Cable (2013) maintains that the
perceived lack of understanding about what the profession could offer industry leads to
the conclusion that the marketing of I-O psychology as a profession in New Zealand is
still a concern.

The debate about the newly established field of applied psychology continued during
the 1950’s on different continents. In Europe, where psychological experiments had
been conducted since 1879 in the Leipzig laboratory of German born Wilhelm Wundt,
different (and new) nuances about industrial psychology surfaced at universities and at
conferences (Lunt, 1998). Communication, supervision and morale motivation were the
kinds of topic areas being addressed then. The expansion of industrial psychology to the
respective continents established international collaboration and the opportunity for
comparative research.

According to Paulik (2004), political and ideological transformation in eastern European

countries provided multiple opportunities for Work and Organisational (W-O) psychology
(as I-O psychology is named in European countries) to prove its worth in industry after a
period of economic depression and political limitations during the 1950’s. Unfortunately,
economic conditions in Europe during that period halted much of the W-O psychology
interventions in European industries.

Another important change in the field appeared early in the first half of the 1960’s when
labour unrest and the civil rights movement in Europe diverted the attention of the
industrial psychologist from the individual to collective employment relations and the
rights of the employers versus employees. This created a new role for the I-O psychologist
and opened a new field for research (Katzell & Austin, 1992; Stagner, 1982; Van de Water,
1997). It seems that at first historical literature does not add much to the discussion about
the philosophy of the discipline. In the early stages of the discipline, the focus was mostly

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on the establishment of the discipline on the different continents and the positioning of
the emerging field among other professions. The relevance debate surfaced only at a
later stage when researchers started to reflect on the contribution of the discipline in
commerce and industry in the respective countries.

In the nineties, Dunnette (1998) reflects on the growth of the profession since the middle
seventies and expresses his optimism in stating the “fruitful blending of aspects of the
science and practice of this field” (p.129) will inspire new methodologies and a higher
quality of research in industrial psychology in the years ahead. He shows through the
analysis of articles published in two leading international psychology journals how
research in industrial psychology literature in the early eighties at first only emphasised
individual issues in the workplace. Gradually the focus shifted to organisational matters
(adding the ‘O’ to I-O psychology) and in the nineties addressed organisational
changes, the nature of the workforce and the worker-organisation interaction. Coetzee
and Schreuder’s (2012) analysis of literature published in leading South African journals
during the corresponding period confirmed this observation by Dunnette (1998).

In the years since, the profession went through waves of focused research interest as
demanded by world industries caught up in economic highs and lows (Cascio & Aguinis,
2008a; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2012; Coetzee & Van Zyl, 2013, 2014a; Flanagan &
Dipboye, 1981; Loignon et al., 2013; Piotrowski, 2012). Research brought new knowledge,
theory and application. Each of these studies indicated the path the discipline followed
through history. Industry needs steered the discourse, the research and eventually the
future direction of the discipline ‒ once again emphasising the adaptability (and agility)
of the discipline.

References in historical literature reveal little about how the philosophy of the discipline
exerted any influence on the admittance of new entrants to the I-O psychology
profession. However, the importance of the profile-fit of the I-O psychologist with the
requirements of the modern global business world is a topic of recent literature and will
be addressed later in the chapter.

5.2.2 The emerging philosophy of I-O psychology from a South African

perspective

In the post-war South African business environment, the rebuilding of the economy and
the return of soldiers to industry brought the opportunity for the establishment of industrial

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psychology in South Africa. The evolvement of I-O psychology as a discipline in South
Africa started in earnest with the establishment of the National Institute for Personnel
Research (NIPR) in 1946 under the guidance of Simon Biesheuvel as director (Kruger,
1987; Schreuder, 2001). The NIPR contributed to the popularisation of the discipline within
the South African business environment (cf., De Kock, 2016).

In the academic environment, as early as 1943 industrial psychology as an academic

module was presented at the University of Stellenbosch (US) as part of the psychology
degree. In 1949, a commerce degree in industrial psychology could be obtained at the
US (Augustyn, Raubenheimer, & Van Biljon, 1978). The motivation for introducing
industrial psychology as an academic subject at tertiary level was to provide the
scientific grounding and theory to optimise the performance of the worker in industry.
Years later Orpen (1977) warned that industrial psychology should not be treated as a
useful tool in business, but as a scientific and academic discipline among the sciences.
The value of industrial psychology in the business setting lies in the scientific study and
empirical testing of behaviour. Later Veldsman (1984) identified “science” as one of the
building blocks of the profession’s philosophy. For this reason, research ability should be
one of the critical selection criteria to be considered for admittance to master’s degree
programmes.

After the early 1960’s several South African universities started to present industrial
psychology as an academic module first as part of other degrees (Psychology, Personnel
Management, Business Administration) and later as full independent degrees in industrial
psychology. The realisation that industry provided the opportunity for the discipline to
enhance worker performance and efficiency in the workplace encouraged the
scientists at universities to introduce interventions to solve work-related problems (Bergh
& Geldenhuys, 2013). It seems that up until then no mention was made of any special
requirements for admission to these degree programmes other than the academic
requirements stated by the respective tertiary institutions.

The institution of the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) in 1964 contributed to
research done in the area of psychology and specifically to the development and
validation of psychometric assessment instruments utilised by several disciplines
[Retrieved from http://www.hsrc.ac.za/en/about]. The Psychological Association of
South Africa (PASA) was established in 1982. Political transformation led to the
replacement of PASA by the Psychological Society of South Africa (PsySSA) in 1994 with
provision for the interest subgroup, namely industrial and organisational psychology. This
provided an official platform for the discipline in South Africa to formalise, discuss and

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debate the discipline’s standing in the industry. Gradually I-O psychology gained
prominence in the South African business landscape. The human effort in the work
environment was recognised and industry increasingly acknowledged the role of the I-
O psychologist to assist and develop this vulnerable but valuable asset (Bergh &
Geldenhuys, 2013; De Kock, 2016; Schreuder, 2001).

The profession had a secure international identity, was well known and the debate about
the scope of the discipline focused on the application of psychology in the work place.
Nationally the profession grew steadily and industrial psychology as an academic
degree was offered at all major universities in South Africa. With the gradual realisation
of the need for industrial and organisational psychology in the business world, the drive
from South African tertiary institutions to make the profession more scientific was
intensified. During the late ‘70’s several authors engaged in discourse about the training
of industrial and organisational students in South Africa (Augustyn et al., 1978; Botha
1977; Kampfer, 1977; Langenhoven, 1977; Raubenheimer, 1982; Schoeman, 1978; Vlok,
1977). The intended focus of these studies was on the content of academic
programmes, the status of the programmes at universities and the increasing numbers of
students in undergraduate and postgraduate programmes. The selection and
admittance of students to I-O psychology programmes do not seem to be mentioned in
literature yet. At this stage, the marketing and popularising of the discipline in South
Africa were important, and rightly so.

The profession was established in the South African business sphere. However, Van der
Merwe (1981) raised the important issue that the scientific and professional value of the
profession in South African businesses was still in question years after Augustyn (1977)
concluded that the industrial psychologist finds it difficult to justify his role within industry
even though the scientific base of the profession is solid. Early in the 1980’s
Raubenheimer (1982) reported that the awareness of the I-O psychology profession had
increased. The positive attitude towards I-O psychology could be attributed to the status
awarded to the profession due to the handling of human resource issues in industry. A
few years later, however, Pietersen (1986) contends that Industrial Psychology still does
not have the impact on management within the domain of South African business. He
reasons that a clear identity and a sound unifying scientific grounding are needed. And
so the debate about the relevance of the I-O psychology discipline in South Africa is
underway.

Veldsman (2001a) describes the core identity of the I-O psychology profession as a field
of enquiry, a discipline and a domain of practice. From a psychosocial perspective, I-O

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psychology generates and utilises theory to understand the world in which people work.
He identifies the philosophy of I-O psychology and the history of the discipline as building
blocks of the discipline and profession. The profile of I-O psychology comprises the body
of knowledge, the roles (namely, conceptualist, methodologist, consultant and
technologist), the action modes (diagnosis, advocacy, building of capacity and
intervention) and competencies, combined with the community of practice. For
Veldsman (2001b), these building blocks all need to receive the equal attention of the
future I-O psychologist as he maintains that the roles of consultant and technologist do
not receive attention during academic and professional training (cf., Veldsman, 1984,
1986, 1987).

This debate continued and years later Rothmann and Cilliers (2007) argue that the
empowering of Industrial Psychology lies in focussing on the philosophy underlying
organisation as and the psychology of work. They propose a renewal of perspective
and the integration of knowledge as paramount to avoid a crisis in subject identity. For
any collaborative action with researchers and practitioners from other disciplines to be
successful, they recommend that I-O psychology solve its identity issues. The profession
practices an applied science, which focuses on the well-being of the human being in
the work place and beyond (refer to the definition of I-O psychology, p. xii). Van Zyl et
al. (2016) echo this sentiment and urge the extension of I-O psychology to include
“community” and/or “society” in a more holistic focus on its professional domain (Van
Zyl, et al. 2016).

Similarly, Van Vuuren (2010) doubts whether the profession has succeeded in adjusting
adequately to stay relevant and do what it is intended to do. As a specialised field within
the broader scope of psychology, the profession focuses on the workplace and the
application of general psychology principles in industry and organisations (Strümpfer,
2007). Other national scholars voice their concern on the same topic and offer
suggestions as to how the discipline and profession in industry could contribute to
organisational effectiveness. These suggestions include for example, to clearly define
the role of I-O psychologists in industry; define the value of the I-O psychology in the
business-world discourse; communicate and emphasise general I-O psychology
concepts in business conversations; define I-O psychology’s identify; a focus on the
philosophy underlying I-O psychology; a focus on assessment methods in a multicultural
context; to investigate the different levels of intervention to promote individual, group,
organisation and community effectiveness (Barnard & Fourie, 2007a, 2007b; Rothmann
& Cilliers, 2007).

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 Important to note is the emphasis on the scientist-practitioner model throughout I-O
psychology literature (Strümpfer, 2007; Van Vuuren, 2010). The dualistic character of the
model adds to the advantage of the discipline because this balance promotes the role
of I-O psychologist in industry. The scientific knowledge of the discipline adds to the
understanding of human behaviour in the context of the workplace and explains the
reciprocal interaction between human and organisation. As practitioners, the I-O
psychologist is able to convert theoretical knowledge to practical interventions to the
benefit of the employee and the organisation. Being relevant with a scientist-
practitioner mind-set is increasingly expected of the I-O psychology professional in
industry. However, being relevant in a globalised business environment means being
responsive to changes (Van Vuuren, 2010; SIOP, 2017); solving people-related business
issues (Augustyn & Cillié, 2008); considering and assisting with the health and well-being
of the world’s workforce (Gloss et al., 2015); being counsellor, therapist, mentor and
coach in the world of work and surrounding community (Van Zyl et al., 2016) and being
brand advocate for the I-O psychology profession in an industry with like-minded
adjacent professions competing for a share in the marketplace (Nolan et al., 2014).

5.3 I-O psychology: the professional identity and relevance debate

The objective of the literature review is to search for guidelines to direct selection committees
during the selection process for the admission of new entrants to the I-O psychology profession.
By addressing the professional values, it was reasoned that they might provide direction to
selection committees. Lefkowitz (2013) is concerned about what the absence of values
suggests about the profession. He points out that in addition to the relevance and identity
debate, the role of professional values influences the recognition of the profession in industry.
Professional values form the core of what a profession teaches its students. How they conduct
themselves, what they choose to react to, how they evaluate their work and by what
standards the incumbents of the profession make all-important decisions need to be
established. If the base for the decision-making process is not fundamentally ingrained in the
thinking and conduct of the professional, the shared identity of the profession lacks grounding
and leaves the professional confused and without a platform from which to operate with
assertiveness and vigour. According to Lefkowitz (2005), the scientist-practitioner model is the
closest I-O psychology comes to defining shared values. He reasons that the profession does
not have explicit published values. From a historical perspective, the values of the profession
can be inferred by noting which issues to address and which to ignore and by doing so, the
values of the profession are established. He advocates a scientist-practitioner-humanist model
that will provide the deep-rooted professional identity the profession needs (Lefkowitz, 2010).

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This should be taken into account during the selection and admittance of new entrants to the
I-O psychology profession.

It is not the idea to digress into a discussion about the identity of the I-O psychology profession,
but rather to focus the discussion on the importance of admitting applicants who will be
competent to address uncertainty about the identity and relevance of the profession in the
work place. To persuade and influence management with objective facts requires from I-O
psychology professionals exceptional communication and interpersonal skills combined with
sound scientific reasoning in a business context as to why a decision should be altered or not.
Therefore, it is necessary from time to time to step back, evaluate the existence of the discipline
and determine how its direction needs to be adjusted in order to contribute to the competitive
advantage of the specific industry in which it functions (Brutus, Gill, & Duniewicz, 2010; Gordon
et al., 1978). These reflections are particularly pertinent for master’s degree programme
managers and selection panels involved with the admittance of new entrants to train for the
I-O psychology profession.

Although the I-O psychology discipline emerged more than 120 years ago, the identity and
relevance of the discipline still seems to be an important topic in dispute. Table 5.1 addresses
some of these concerns spanning an extended period of time. The complexity of the modern
business environment provides numerous opportunities for the I-O psychology discipline, but if
the relevance of the profession in the business environment is questioned, issues of
marginalisation and justification are raised (Strümpfer, 2007). As organisations change, so the
profession needs to adapt. Prominent leaders in the field have commented about the
relevance of the discipline throughout the years and voiced their concern in literature about
the impact of the profession in organisations. Table 5.1 notes several concerns by I-O
psychology scholars about the relevance of the I-O psychology discipline.

Table 5.1
Several concerns by prominent I-O psychology scholars about the relevance of the I-O
psychology discipline.

Author Quote
Thornton, 1969, p. 437. “When executives have been asked over the past 20 years if
they consider it desirable to have a professionally trained
psychologist in the company, an affirmative answer has been
given by virtually the same percent of respondents: 1946 - 53%;
1956-54.5%; 1962-66% and 1967-53%. Even though 50% think it
would be desirable to employ an industrial psychologist, only
11% do so” and “Industrial Psychologists have made
advancements in understanding in many areas, but it seems
these have gone unrecognized or have not been successfully

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Campbell, 1970, p. 404.
Raubenheimer, Calitz, De
Villiers, & Augustyn, 1976, p.
2.
Augustyn, 1977, p. 1.
Kwiatkowski et al., 2006, p.
195.
Augustyn & Cillié, 2008, p.
70.
Van Vuuren, 2010, p. 4.
Ployhart, 2012, p. 63.
Aguinis, Bradley, &
Brodersen, 2014, p. 299.
applied to personnel problems.”
“Industrial Psychology faces a period of change. Unless some
fundamental modifications are made in the role models and
training of industrial psychologists, the field may decline and be
supplanted by those trained in business or professional schools
[…] A good beginning would be clarification of what we mean
by professional psychologist and recognition of the importance
of training people for this role.”
The uncertainty that sometimes exists about the relationship
between Industrial psychology and other “mother” or “sister”
sciences reflects the lack of a unanimous orientation which will
ultimately lead to a weakening of Industrial psychology itself.”
(Free translation from Afrikaans)
“The growth of Industrial psychology to a fully-fledged scientific
discipline was further hampered by, on the one side, as
undervalued or, on the other, over theoretical, within the
practice where it tried to find its home. (We as Industrial
psychologists did not always use the opportunities we had to
add value.) Disagreement often developed about what the
contents of the subject matter should be and sometimes we just
observed how other parties treated our field of study in an
inferior way.”
(Free translation from Afrikaans)
“…we as a professional group do not generally understand or
use the influence and, hence, the political power that we could
have” and “…we, as a profession, may actively be losing
ground to others not so reticent to claim knowledge or
expertise.”
“It is fair to ask whether industrial psychology has done any
better during the past 15 years. It does not seem so: industrial
psychology might even have lost ground.”
“There seems to be a disjunction or tension in what industrial
psychology can potentially contribute to and the contribution
it does make.”
“…I-O psychology needs to expand its perspective and
demonstrate how our research and practice offer strategic
value to organizations” and “There is no question that I-O
psychology is relevant to organizations, but it is an open
question whether we are as relevant as we could be.”
“...[I-O psychologists] are often lower on the totem pole than
the other areas of psychology because they are the least likely
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 to bring in grant money, which is highly valued and even
required by some psychology programs for tenure. In addition,
as the majority of the most productive and influential
researchers continue to migrate to business schools, there will
be less respect for I-O psychology from other subfields within
psychology.”

It is important to evaluate these comments in the context of the main discourse during that
period only since 1969 and beyond as noted in Table 5.1. However, the on-going and
repetitive questioning whether the discipline has an impact in the business world after so many
years could still indicate uncertainty among I-O psychologists about their professional identity
and the contribution of the discipline in industry today. The researcher submits that this
discourse about the relevance of the profession in the world of work is necessary for the
profession to re-align in the event of straying outside the scope of professional practice and to
act on new opportunities as industry expands into new territory where I-O psychology can
contribute to the competitive advantage of the specific industry. It follows that the I-O
psychology applicant for a master’s programme needs to be able to adapt and respond to
change in industry, be creative, display innovative thinking, make informed decisions and
apply entrepreneurial expertise to unpredictable changes in the needs and expectations of
industry.

In addressing the collective and individual identity of I-O psychologists, Ryan and Ford (2010)
argue that despite interesting research and activity in the I-O psychology profession, it is more
important to increase the relevance and visibility of the profession in the workplace. All
individuals who affiliate with the I-O psychology profession should be protectors of identity.
According to them, the profession is “at a tipping point in its collective professional identity”
(p. 241) and although they hold that the profession is vibrant, they are alarmed about its
vulnerability. In reaction to the so-called uncertainty about the identity of the I-O psychology
profession, Muchinsky’s (2006) concern is focused on the scientific contribution of the I-O
psychologist in industry. He contends that interdisciplinary research and collaboration with
other disciplines will be the distinctive contribution of the I-O psychology profession to both
science and practice. He prefers to focus on the quality of the I-O psychology voice rather
than on the identity of who is “singing”.

In their seminal article, Albert and Whetten (1985) define the three criteria of organisational
identity as claimed central character, claimed distinctiveness and claimed temporal
continuity. According to Ryan and Ford (2010), this could also be applied to professions. Each
of these criteria has to answer to specific questions. The central character of the

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organisation/profession has to be distinguished by being important and by having a “claimed
distinctiveness” that makes it essentially different from other organisations or professions. Lastly,
it is important to sustain the organisation/professional identity over time. The central, enduring
and distinctive (CED) attributes (cf., Albert & Whetten, 1985) defining the identity of
organisational psychology are, according to Ryan (2003), the emphasis on psychology (see
also Strümpfer, 2010), a scientific approach to interventions, operating in a multilevel
framework, a focus on organisational effectiveness and care for individual well-being in the
organisation. To claim professional identity, the skill to generate new knowledge, the
possession of expert knowledge and the refusal to imitate competencies distinguishes the I-O
psychology from other occupations. Ryan and Ford (2010) say that the identity of the I-O
psychology profession is not clear enough because of the absence of a unique distinctiveness
from other professions associated with organisational behaviour, such as human resources
management. Referring to the remark about the role of mental models in forming professional
identity, note that changes in professional identity might occur when it is at odds with the work
being performed. This, according to Ryan and Ford (2010), is another reason for the new
entrant’s identity confusion. They customise or adapt their professional identity if they
experience that their distinctive competencies for the I-O psychology do not lead to a unique
identification with the profession.

When the selection of applicants to enter the profession of I-O psychology commences, the
assumption is that the applicant identifies with the profession and therefore chooses to be
included in the domain of the discipline. The individual identity of “who am I?” coalesces with
the professional identity of the I-O psychologist of “who are we?” According to Adams and
Crafford (2012), this results in the negotiation of tension between the self and the demands of
the work, in this case the I-O psychology profession. Being a representative of the I-O
psychology profession imparts a shared sense of belonging to a value system congruent with
the individual’s mental model of the profession. Haslam and Ellemers (2005, p. 43) conclude
that the “positive distinctiveness” associated with defining them as “we” rather “I” results in the
distinction between “we” as opposed to “them”. That is what makes people feel good “about
who they are and what they do” according to the authors. This mental model is shaped by
different elements during the individual’s preparation to enter the profession. The role of the
training institution and contact with I-O psychology scholars during the years of preparation to
enter the world of work help to shape the shared social identity of the I-O psychology
professional (Page, 2015).

Cunningham (2010) argues that the uncertainty about I-O psychology’s unique distinctiveness
and identity confusion arises because it is unsure of its own boundaries rather than because it
is worried that other disciplines will enter the domain of the employee in the workplace. He is

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convinced that its professional identity will improve if it teaches knowledge and skills, and
practises what it knows, instead of focusing on what it is not. Muchinsky (2010) concludes that
I-O psychological knowledge will endure and says, “...our value to society is not who we are
but the good we can provide” (p. 270). The core of the profession’s identity lies in the unique,
inimitable competencies needed to distinguish work psychology from the other psychologies
emphasising psychology. To be able to recognise the need of employer, employee and
organisation requires a special kind of professional who is competent to act in this kind of
environment. In a focal article, Byrne et al. (2014) points out modifications needed in future of
I-O training and education because of changing global economic trends and how this
influences what industry is requiring from the worker’s experience and skills in industry.

Closer to home, Rothman and Cilliers (2007) and Van Vuuren (2010) argue that the identity of
I-O psychology is in jeopardy when the lines between industrial psychology and related
disciplines in the management sciences, philosophy, education and sociology become
blurred and permeable. The multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary character of the I-O
psychology discipline broadens the scope of the profession to enter the workplace with
scientific rigour and solutions to minimise deep-rooted dilemmas and promote employee and
organisational well-being.

Confirmation of the relevance and scientific contribution of the I-O psychology discipline
came after Schreuder and Coetzee (2010) analysed the I-O psychology research trends in
leading I-O psychology journals from 1950-2008. The socio-economic complexities in the
business environment demand of I-O psychology to keep pace with emerging challenges to
organisations and employee experience. They note that researchers should reflect critically
on the relevance and benefit of their research to practical and pertinent issues experienced
in the work place. The value of I-O psychology should not flavour the side of management
only. Applicants selected to enter the profession should be aware of the current discourse
about professional identity. Several questions come to the mind of the researcher. How
competent will they be to counter arguments about identity and relevance in industry? Do
selection committees select I-O applicants with the potential to steer the future of the
profession to more visibility and relevance? Do selection committees consider applicants who
could be brand ambassadors for the I-O profession when they select new entrants to master’s
programmes?

The researcher believes that the prominence given to the branding and visibility of the
profession in industry in recent I-O psychology literature (Gerard, 2014; Rose et al., 2013; Rose
et al., 2014) should influence the selection of new entrants to the I-O psychology profession.
Admitting new applicants to the profession who will be able to be brand ambassadors cannot

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be predicted with certainty during the selection process. However, it would be an advantage
to the profession’s brand image to select an applicant with the potential to communicate
what the discipline can contribute to the solution of work related issues or explain how research
results indicate the need for intervention or persuade and influence decision makers. The
blurring of discipline boundaries and the competition from other disciplines who also comment
on work-place behaviour influence the stabilisation of a brand awareness of I-O psychology
as a discipline among other disciplines in industry. The brand must reflect the core of the
discipline and external audiences should know exactly how the profession could support them.
Cant and Van Heerden (2013, p. 227) define brand awareness as the extent “to which
consumers are aware of a product, service, company or brand. It plays a significant role in
the attitude towards the product and has a value attached to the brand”. The more powerful
the brand and the greater the influence of the brand in industry, the bigger the positive
association with that particular brand will be. Identity is thus rooted in how I-O psychologists
address work place issues, how they approach the issue and what they use as the scientific
base for their action (Rose et al., 2013, 2014).

People are significantly less aware of I-O psychology than business administration or human
resource management even though, according to the United States of America (USA) Bureau
of Labor Statistics (2014), I-O psychology is the fastest growing profession in the United States
of America (USA). According to Nolan et al. (2014), brand awareness is a necessary condition
for forming brand images and positively influencing consumer behaviour. Results from their
study indicate that although I-O psychology researched employee selection throughout its
history, the perception is that the I-O psychologist is less capable of making employee selection
choices than professionals with a business school background.

I-O psychologists are the custodians of their brand and should be able to reflect the basic
essence of the discipline when they promote the brand to external audiences. When
admitting the I-O psychology applicant to the profession, the entrant must be able to
communicate the values of the profession and contribute to the unique brand image of the
profession. The question is whether this should be one of the areas of competence to be
included in the selection process.

5.4 The dilemma faced by selection panels

No conclusive evidence of a guideline or framework for the selection of applicants for master’s
programmes in I-O psychology is evident in either the literature studies, both historical and
recent, or in the data gathered in interviews and reported in Chapter 4. This applies equally

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to the I-O psychology environment internationally and in South Africa. The uncertainty about
the profession’s place in industry and the role it shares with other professions in the work place
leaves selection panels uncertain about what to consider and account for when they select
applicants for I-O psychology master’s degree programmes.

Van Zyl et al. (2016) make an important observation about the identity of the profession which
could influence the way in which selection panels in higher education institutions decide
about the admittance of I-O psychology applicants for master’s programmes. The inaccuracy
of definitions of I-O psychology results in confusion about a universally clear description of the
discipline and profession. The absence of a designation distinguishing the profession from
other related professions leads to uncertainty about role definition in organisations. The
nebulous lines of the domain of the I-O psychologist blurs its boundaries with other professions
and this does not guarantee distinctiveness to the profession.

In addition to the profession’s relevance and identity discourse, Van Vuuren (2010) argues that
I-O psychology should not be limited only to organisational boundaries but should instead play
a broader role in society. This argument is also acknowledged by Van Zyl et al. (2016) as they
include an integrated and holistic community perspective to their conceptualisation of I-O
psychology and by doing so broaden the domain of the I-O psychology. They (Van Zyl et al.,
2016, p. 9) define I-O psychology as

both a discipline and a profession which relates to optimising individual,

group, organisational and societal potential through developing or applying
scientific theories, processes, methods, paradigms and principles of
psychology at work in order to facilitate sustainable improvements in
performance, productivity, well-being and general health.

Community involvement with competencies related to community involvement, brings a new

dimension to take note of during the selection of new entrants to the profession.

Although the Regulations defining the Scope of the Profession of Psychology (South African
Government Gazette, GG34581 of 2 September 2011) were declared invalid on 14 November
2016 (suspended for two years) the researcher considers the Scope of Practice (SoP) for
Industrial Psychologist (discussed in paragraph 2.3.1) to be the current formal guideline
directing the selection of applicants for master’s degree programmes in I-O psychology (Laher,
2017). Related competence and competencies apply to the SoP for the I-O psychologist and
should be read in conjunction with the SoP. SIOP (2016) provides a guideline for the education

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and training of I-O psychologists focused on a scientist-practitioner model and a competency
approach. These competencies are listed in the Table 5.2 and Table 5.3

Table 5.2
HPCSA Scope of Practice for Industrial Psychologists

Acts within the Scope of Practice for Industrial Psychologists

1. Planning, developing, applying paradigms, theories, models, constructs and principles
of psychology in order to understand, modify and enhance individual, group, and
organisational behaviour;
2. Administer psychometric and other assessments to determine potential and/or
suitability for training, development and employment;
Determine individual, group, organisational effectiveness;
Refer clients for assessment, intervention;
Design, develop, standardise, and implement assessment tools and procedures to the
work environment.
3. Facilitate individual and group processes for effective organisational functioning;
Design and implement training programmes for effective organisational functioning;
Develop interventions to improve poor work performance;
Design and implement ergonomically correct interventions;
4. Advise on the development of policies based on psychology theory and research;
Design, manage and evaluate Industrial Psychology intervention
5. Train, supervise other registered industrial Psychology practitioners
6. Abide by Ethical Rules of Conduct for Practitioners registered under the Health
Professions Act, 1974;
Adhere to the Scope of Practice
7. Design, manage, conduct, report, supervise industrial psychology research
8. Provide expert evidence and or opinion
Note. Retrieved from the HPCSA website at http://www.hpcsa.co.za/Uploads/editor/UserFiles/downloads/psych
/sept_promulgated_scope_of_practice.pdf

In Table 5.3, the SIOP (2016) identified competence areas are compared to the SIOPSA (2014)
competencies12

Table 5.3
Typical behaviour competencies required by the I-O psychologist.

SIOP recommended areas of competence SIOPSA behavioural competencies

(2016) (2014)
General knowledge and skills Solving problems
Ethical, legal Analysing
International diversity issues
Fields of psychology Learning and researching
History and systems of psychology Writing and reporting
Professional skills: communication, Creating and innovating
business/research proposal development,
consulting, project management skills

12 See Chapter 2, Section 2.2.3 for a discussion about competence and competencies

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 Research methods Influencing people
Statistical methods; data analysis Presenting and communicating information
Core content Relating and networking
Attitude theory, measurement and change Persuading and influencing
Career development Supportive approaches
Criterion theory and development Adhering to principles and values
Groups and teams Adapting and responding to change
Human performance Coping with pressures and setback
Individual assessment Delivering results
Individual differences Entrepreneurial and commercial thinking
Job evaluation and compensations Planning and organising
Job, task, work analysis; competency Meeting client and stakeholder expectations
modelling and classification
Judgment and decision making
Leadership and management
Occupational health and safety
Organisation development
Organisation theory
Performance appraisal/management
Personnel recruitment, selection and
placement
Training: theory, delivery, program design
and evaluation
Work motivation
Related areas of competence
Consumer behaviour
Human Factors
Note. Adapted from SIOP (2016) and SIOPSA (2014)

SIOP states in the Guidelines for Education and Training in Industrial-Organizational Psychology
(2016) that the expectations and requirements should already be clearly communicated to
applicants during the recruitment of new entrants to the I-O psychology programmes. Their
take is that new entrants in addition to the formal training in class should take responsibility for
their own career planning and development by networking and participating with
professionals in the field and communicating with professional peers. It is for this reason that
they do not refer to competencies but to competence areas instead.

It was not an objective of this research project to identify which competence areas and
competencies to include or to direct the selection process followed by selection panels at
I-O psychology departments. However, the reference to Table 5.2 and Table 5.3 combined
with the argument about the relevance and identity of the profession in the business world,
emphasise the importance of including a competency-fit in the selection process of I-O
psychology applicants for master’s degree programmes.

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5.5 Conclusion

Data-analysis reveals that selection panels admitting students to master’s degree programmes
in I-O psychology do not follow a selection process based on a scientific guideline as proposed
by professional societies or on scientific reasoning about the relevance and identity of the
profession. One of the objectives of the research was to suggest a framework for the selection
process at tertiary institutions in South Africa, but the absence of clear guidelines grounded in
scientific reasoning raised the question if recent or historical literature provided any guideline
for the selection of applicants for I-O psychology master’s degree programmes. This led to the
revisiting of literature and the report of findings in Chapter 5.

Historical references relating to the evolvement of I-O psychology over time reveal no clear
guidelines about a basic premise when the selection of applicants for master’s programmes is
considered. Recent SIOP guidelines (2016) suggest new entrants should be aware of
competence areas and be responsible for their own career planning and development. It is
the task of education and training institutions and curriculum developers to offer the related
developmental experiences in such a way that the entrant has the opportunity to develop the
identified competency.

The suggested framework for the selection of applicants for postgraduate programmes that
follows in Chapter 6 is tentative, offering guidelines for selection panels to adapt according to
individual departmental preferences.

_______________________________________________________

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“Failure to convey impressions or images that are consistent with one’s social role not only
diminishes one’s effectiveness in that role but may also cause the individual to lose the right
to enact the role.”

(Ibarra, 1999, p. 764)

_______________________________________________________

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CHAPTER 6:
A FRAMEWORK FOR SELECTION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

6.1 Introduction

The final objective to be addressed in the report is a suggested framework for the selection
process of applicants for master’s degree programmes in I-O psychology. Informed by
personnel selection literature in general and information from the interviews with programme
managers, the suggested framework presented in this chapter is a summative representation
of elements and constructs which could be included in the selection process. The framework
is a guideline only. Additional elements such as admission requirements and strategic nuances
as required by the discipline, regulatory bodies, professional society, the academic
department and the tertiary institution could be added as deemed necessary.

Early in the 80’s Marks, Watt and Yetton (1981) noted that selection for admission to tertiary
education has become more than just an administrative decision about who to include or
exclude from postgraduate programmes where limited places are available. In years to come
authors from other than the I-O psychology discipline contributed to the discourse about the
admission requirements for postgraduate programmes (Edwards, Elam, & Wagoner, 2001;
Pelech, Stalker, Regehr, & Jacobs, 1999). The challenge facing I-O psychology admission
committees is to look for more than the potential to successfully complete the academic
degree as required by the tertiary institution: admittance to an I-O psychology master’s degree
extends beyond to the entrance to a profession too.

The first part of Chapter 6 borrows selection ideas from personnel selection literature in general
and links back to the discussion in Chapter 2, Section 2.2.2. A suggested framework for the
selection of I-O psychology master’s programmes follows in the second part of the chapter. In
the final part of Chapter 6, limitations of the research are identified and recommendations
and suggestions for further research are made. Final comments conclude the report. Figure
6.1 summarises the different sections of Chapter 6.

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 Figure 6.2 Phases of the selection process

Figure 6.1. Main topics addressed in Chapter 6.

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6.2 Selecting applicants for postgraduate programmes

The selection of applicants for postgraduate degrees poses challenges for departmental
postgraduate selection panels faced with the conflict between the high demand for
postgraduate education and the limited available places and resources (Powis, 2015;
Subramaniam et al., 2014). Admission policies addressing selection criteria for postgraduate
programmes are left to the respective higher education institutions where policies are based
on the requirements for master degrees in general as stipulated by the CHE in the South African
higher education environment. What complicates the selection of applicants for a
postgraduate programme in I-O psychology is that admittance to an academic programme
in the I-O psychology discipline implies entry to a profession where certain KSAOs and
competencies are required to operate and contribute to the competitive advantage of
businesses.

It will become clear in this chapter that the reliability, validity and legal implications of the
elements in the proposed framework for selection have been subjected to scrutiny. There is
no published evidence that this has been done at the nine academic departments in this
study. The validity of admission decisions seems to be an issue for discussion and further
exploration. In this regard Holmström and Taylor (2008) point out that admission processes
could predict which applicants would be at risk if valid and reliable admission processes were
applied from the start of the selection process. Prediction of the successful completion of a
master’s degree has economic implications for the tertiary institution and reflects positively on
supervisors’ research output and on their required deliverables for performance evaluation.

Guidelines for the selection and admittance of applicants for I-O psychology postgraduate
programmes in South Africa seem to be limited. From the analysed data it was clear that
admission criteria and selection processes differ between I-O psychology departments at
academic institutions in South Africa. In addition, it could not be established if any of the
selection committees has validated their selection elements yet. These observations confirm
the need for rethinking and for engagement with master’s degree programme managers
about selection processes for I-O psychology master’s programmes in South Africa.

In the absence of an optimal selection method or guidelines for admission committees, it

seems appropriate to borrow from personnel selection literature. However, while the main
outcome of personnel selection in general is job performance, that of selection for
postgraduate programmes is academic performance (Niessen, Meijer, & Tendeiro, 2017).

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References in literature13 about selection and admission elements for postgraduate
programmes other than the I-O psychology discipline provide suggestions for which elements
could be included in the selection phases. Ployhart and Schneider (in Schmitt, 2012)
emphasise the importance of placing personnel selection in the context of constructs and
processes at a higher level than the individual. The authors argue that context exerts a direct
influence on performance. Keeping in mind that the selection of applicants in this research is
mainly aimed at admittance to a postgraduate academic programme, the combination of
work context assessment with academic prerequisites forces the postgraduate selection
committee to integrate the admittance standard to postgraduate programmes with entry
requirements to the profession.

In the absence of selection guidelines, by enriching the assessment process for selecting
deserving applicants, selection committees will be able to make more fully informed decisions
about whom to admit while research to establish the validity of the selection elements
continues. Decisions about which elements to include in the battery of assessment techniques
lie with selection committees, depending on their stated objectives for either selecting “in” or
selecting “out” (cf., Melton & Duke, 2015). Selection committees could determine the aim of
the selection process to be which applicants will be the most successful candidates in the
programme or which applicants show the best student-program fit. Niesen et al. (2017) refer
to the first aim as “selection” and to the second as “matching”.

An aspect not addressed elsewhere in the report is that most references to the selection
procedures and admittance of applicants to postgraduate programmes are done from the
perspective of the admission committees. However, Niessen et al. (2017) foreground the
applicant/student perception of admission to higher education programmes by applying
organisational justice theory as the basis for their discourse. Selection committees should be
aware of the other side of the selection procedure, namely the applicants’ experience and
perceptions of it, and adjust their selection processes accordingly. Given the competition to
enter psychology programmes, where admittance to master’s programmes is restricted by
compliance with pre-requisites and the limitation of available places, the applicant’s
perception of not being included in the selected group of admitted master’s students has to
be taken into account. Apart from revealing the objective and transparent reason why
access to a postgraduate programme is denied, the knowledge about what to reason might
be and how to improve future applications, is interpreted as a positive emotion and motivates
the applicant to continue with future applications (Niessen et al., 2017; Ryan & Ployhart, 2000).

13 Refer to Chapter 2, Section 2.2.2 and onwards in Chapter 6

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6.3 A suggested framework for selection

One of the objectives of the explorative questions during the semi-structured interviews was to
establish which selection elements are included in selection processes. What follows is a short
discussion about the different phases of the selection process with several elements for
inclusion in a suggested framework for the selection of applicants for master’s degree
programmes in I-O psychology. These elements are also presented in table and a figure as a
summary of the discussion.

The suggested framework includes marketing and research as Phase 1. However, the
marketing of I-O psychology programmes by academic departments and the targeted
recruitment of applicants for I-O psychology master’s programmes in South Africa did not form
part of this research.

Selecting applicants for postgraduate degree programmes can be complex and time-
consuming. By utilising a selection framework, selection committees will be able to make
selection decisions based on procedural fairness and justify a transparent final admission
outcome.

The framework is structured into selection phases that are described below in terms of their
elements and constructs.

6.3.1 Phase 1: Marketing of the degree programme and recruitment

This study included a few exploratory questions about the marketing of the master’s
programme and recruitment strategies applied in the selection process. This phase falls
outside the scope of this study, however, and is mentioned here only as a possible topic
for future research.

6.3.2 Phase 2: The formal application and documents included

The submission of the application form is the first formal notification of an applicant’s
intention to enter the programme. Other documents that could be included are
academic transcripts, different kinds of writing samples, letters of recommendation and
a curriculum vitae or resumé.

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6.3.2.1 The application form and weighted application blanks

Most South African universities require the completion of a centrally based on-line
application form containing general biographical/demographic identification
details and information about school and tertiary academic performance in order
to establish compliance with university admission requirements.

This section focuses on the next stage in the process: a departmental application
form which includes specific information requested by the departmental selection
panel. This is the first formal indication from a potential student to confirm interest
in enrolling for a master’s programme after the initial enquiry or request for more
information about the programme, usually by telephone or email. The information
that will be extracted and summarised from it reflects the objectives of the
selection committee and introduces the applicant to them by way of a profile. An
introductory section clearly stating instructions to the applicant is an indication of
how seriously the selection committee values the useful and valid information
obtained from this first formal screening tool. However, the open availability of
item content on the application blank at an early stage in the application process
raises concerns about item security and possible cheating, according to Reynolds
and Dickter (in Farr & Tippens, 2010).

Gatewood et al. (2008) define the application form as a series of questions

designed to provide information about the suitability of the applicant for the job
or the position for which they are applying. The choice of questions included
needs to provide enough information about the applicant to allow the panel to
make a selection for the next round of screening. As a guideline on the
appropriateness of questions in an application form, Gatewood et al. (2008)
suggest questions that could guide the construction of application form content.
Their questions are captured in Table 6.1

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Table 6.1
Questions to ask in examining the appropriateness of application form questions
Question
1. Will answers to this question, if used in making a selection decision, have
an adverse impact in screening out members of a protected group?
2. Is this information really needed to judge an applicant’s competence or
qualifications for the job in question?
3. Does the question conflict with employment guidelines or any labour
law restriction?
4. Does the question constitute an invasion of privacy?
5. Is the information available that could be used to show that responses
to a question are associated with success or failure on a specific job?
Note. From Gatewood et al., 2008, p. 364.

Questions relating to the following items on the application form used by

Holmström and Taylor (2008) are also worth replicating: gender, age, elapsed
time since the last academic study, previous subjects studied and completed,
inclusion of work related references in the application form and the number of
previous applications for the degree programme.

Informative items could be grouped in clusters such as

biographical/demographic information, previous academic qualifications
obtained at which institutions, work history and experience, written motivation
including career aspirations, reference to community involvement and any
indication of exposure to leadership and/or entrepreneurial endeavours up till the
time of application for the master’s programme (Gable, Hollon, & Dangello, 1992;
Gatewood et al., 2008). Hoefer and Gould (2000) are of the opinion that the
admission criteria of graduate programmes should require applicants to provide
both quantitative and qualitative detail. Biographical data and a curriculum
vitae make provision for both kinds of detail whereas requiring a sample of the
applicant’s own writing is qualitative only, requiring subjective evaluation.

The inclusion of biographical data (biodata) will provide more information for the
initial screening process by programme managers and administrators but the
scoring of biodata included in the application form raises issues about reliability
and legal requirements not to expose the applicant (Enslin, Button, Chakane, De
Groot, & Dison, 2006; Mumford, Barret, & Hester (in Schmitt, 2012)). Chamorro-
Premuzic and Furnham, (2010) suggest that biographical data requested from the
applicant and any written statements and reference letters assisting with the
profiling of an applicant should be technically and statistically sound. For them it

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is important to correlate the biographical information with desirable job
requirements or characteristics and if biographical data is scored it should be
according to methods that are empirical (items which predict future performance
based on previous behaviour), factorial (reducing data to fewer general factors)
and rational (meaningful items related to the job). Levashina, Morgenson, and
Campion (2012) suggest a response elaboration technique (RET) which requires
applicants to reflect upon past experiences by ‘returning’ to the event, analyse
what happened and re-evaluate the experience and outcome. Supporting
information provides justification for written answers and interview questions. This
technique will also allow selection panels to detect response distortion or faking
(cf., Bliesener, 1996; Breaugh, 2009; Enslin, et al., 2006; Kuhnert & Russel, 1990;
Rothstein, Schmidt, Erwin, Owens, & Sparks, 1990).

In evaluating these and all other components of an application, selection

committees should note the warning by Gatewood et al. (2008): interpreting
applicant detail from the application form may result in discriminatory selection
practices if unrelated application detail is used to judge the applicant’s ability to
perform the job or, if applied to this context, performance in the degree
programme. It is therefore important that the design and content of the questions
included in the application form comply with basic legal standards and are not
discriminatory in any way.

Weighting of application form items can be understood as the weighting of one

applicant against the others in terms of their responses during the selection process.
The basic premise of the weighted application blank is that the items included and
the criteria used to weigh applicants against each other should be non-
discriminatory and legally sound. Weighting also refers to the weighting of one item
or aspect or question against others to reflect the relative importance the selection
panel gives to the various components (cf., Cucina, Caputo, Thibodeaux, &
Maclane, 2012).

The use of a weighted application blank is a way to ease the administrative

screening process provided that the items included in the application form are
targeted at eliminating applicants who present themselves untruthfully (Kaak,
Feild, Giles, & Norris, 1998). Most of the programme managers reported that the
high number of applications poses an administrative burden on them and
administrators. The design (referring to the layout, attractiveness and ease of use)
and content of the application form should be justifiably in line with the academic

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programme for which the applicant is seeking entry (Gatewood et al., 2008). That
said, the layout and basic structure of the form should facilitate the evaluation of
written content and the ready emergence of a picture of the applicant.

6.3.2.2 Academic transcripts included

In addition to the formal identification detail in the application form, the GPA
provides the detail of academic achievement in previous degrees. Most of the
programme managers interviewed stated that the average mark of 60-65%
obtained for the Honours degree was a key admission requirement by the
academic department, faculty or university.

Results from a recent study by Hammond et al. (2015) suggest that previous
academic performance (referring to GMAT quantitative, verbal and writing) and
GPA could predict performance in postgraduate programmes but that other
factors such as quality of work experience, the maturity of the applicant, quality of
references and success in previous graduate studies should be considered as well.
De Swart and Marx (2013) found a positive correlation between academic
performance in previous degrees (in this instance undergraduate modules) and
postgraduate academic performance, but not between background variables
such as age or gender and postgraduate academic performance. Hoefer and
Gould (2000) report that although previous academic performance might be the
best predictor of future academic success, a lot of the variation in performance is
not explained. By including qualitative measures during the selection process, this
variation may be explained, they say.

Powis et al. (1988) also pay attention to non-cognitive data of applicants, agreeing
with other authors that the intellectual ability of (medical) students should not be
the only criteria for selection to enter medical school. They advocate “choosing
candidates with qualities appropriate for further development rather than
selecting students without these qualities and subsequently trying to develop
them.” (p. 765). From their research, Swanepoel and Moll (2004) found that
academic performance in master’s degrees is influenced by many factors other
than earlier academic achievement and include the role of the supervisor as
mentor, language proficiency and reasoning skills.

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Findings on previous academic performance as a predictor of successful
performance in postgraduate degrees vary between different research
populations. I-O psychology selection committees may benefit from studying
them (Hoefer & Gould, 2000; Siegert, 2008), but greater clarity would be provided
by results from an I-O psychology context per se.

6.3.2.3 Different kinds of writing samples

Written goal statements, a motivation for applying for the master’s programme
and writing samples could form part of the application form and initial phase of
the selection process. This writing assessment could either be included as part of
the initial application requirements or form part of one of the phases of the
selection process (for example as part of assessment centre activities). In addition
to the formal application blank, some of the departments in this research project
require a written statement of motivation as to why the applicant is applying for a
master’s degree. A writing exercise is also included in the assessment activities on
the day of the interviews at universities A and C. At one university, applicants
receive the body of an article and are required to add a title, an abstract and a
conclusion as part of a writing sample. A writing exercise at University D requires
an integrative summary of two (or more) articles.

Literature suggests that different kinds of writing exercises can be included as part
of the selection process for admission to postgraduate programmes. Newton and
Moore (2006) include a written goal statement as part of the application blank to
assess the quality of writing (QOW). They reason that the QOW in master’s degree
education is indicative of the applicant’s ability to communicate both orally, as
well as in writing. Acknowledging the limitations of the study within nursing
education, their finding supports the significance of evaluating preadmission
writing abilities of applicants for master’s degree programmes. Spector (in Schmitt,
2012) describes the value of self-reports in which the applicants share information
about their background, interests, personality and values with the selection panel.
These self-reports could be in qualitative or quantitative format. Deception during
the application process may be common, according to the author, especially
when information about the applicant is difficult to verify.

The inclusion of a page-restricted research proposal as an attachment to the

application form may serve two purposes, namely, as an indication of research

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interest and the display of academic writing skill (taking into consideration that it
might not be the applicant’s own work). Offering a convincing research argument
demonstrates the applicant’s level of critical reasoning and provides background
information in preparation for the selection interview should the applicant be
invited to the next phase of the selection process. The research proposal may also
be used to establish a fit for departmental expertise areas and to identify a possible
supervisor for the applicant’s research project.

A disadvantage of including a writing sample in the application process is the

uncertainty as to whether it reflects the applicant’s own work. To counter this, a
further writing exercise can be added when the applicant is invited for an on-site
assessment of competency, where the applicant’s own input can be monitored.
The weight attached to the significance of the writing sample would depend on
how genuine it was known to be.

6.3.2.4 Letters of recommendations/references

Should any of the information in the application form need verification, the
inclusion of references provides the opportunity not just to verify facts, but also to
assist with the final inclusion or exclusion of the applicant in the next phase of the
selection process. The recommendations of managers, subordinates or peers who
had contact with the applicant in prior academic study or within the work context
are recorded subjective experiences and should form part of a battery of
measures or elements to be included in the selection process. The purpose of a
reference check or letter of recommendation would be to verify information noted
in the application form or to uncover information not revealed in the application
form (Gatewood, et al., 2008).

Although using reference checks is a common and popular method to verify

information (Briihl & Wasieleski, 2004), the reliability and validity of reference data
are still unsure (Gatewood et al., 2008; Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2010).
Letters of recommendation can vary from unstructured (the referee’s own
structure and written statement of experiences of the applicant’s character, ability
and competence) to a highly structured and/or confidential report, sealed and
mailed/e-mailed to the academic department of the applicant’s choice
(Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2010). One of the universities included in the

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 research project used the option of structured communication with referees
named in the application form.

6.3.2.5 Curriculum vitae/resumés

A curriculum vitae (CV) is an extension of the application form and can be

requested separately from it as a valuable source of information about the
applicant at an early stage of the selection process. Proença and De Oliveira
(2009) contend that in the absence of a clear reason for including a CV or the use
of systematic criteria for analysing the CV, interviewers use intuition and implicit
knowledge instead. They do not provide criteria for the analysis of CV’s, but
appropriate criteria would offer an additional opportunity to the selection
committee to predict future success by combining a structural and rational
dimension with an informal dimension of analysis, including tacit knowledge,
emotion and intuition.

Cole, Rubin, Field, and Giles (2007) emphasise the importance of a CV or resumé
as the additional information may lead to the inclusion or exclusion of the
applicant in the next phase of the selection process. The subjective evaluation
and weighting of the information provided by the items in a resumé influence the
rating of the applicant’s suitability by members of the selection panel.

An example of an application form is included in Appendix C.

6.3.3 Phase 3: Pre-interview assessments

Competency assessment may be done before a selection committee meets the

applicant or it could be included in the battery of assessment activities as part of
a formal assessment centre exercise. Three of the nine departments included in
the study ask applicants to complete an online-assessment to establish a profile-fit
with the I-O psychology profession. Programme managers at these departments
stated explicitly that the outcome of the online assessment alone does not
influence the final selection of applicants. There is risk in using assessment
outcomes to make a final decision for admittance to an I-O psychology master’s
programme when assessment instruments are not validated (Refer to the
Employment Equity Amendment Act, No. 47 of 2013; Theron, 2007).

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 Test or assessment scores need to translate into information needed to make an
informed selection decision. Unless the validity of assessment exercises is
established and confirmed, selection tests and any other competency assessment
activity should be handled and evaluated with caution.

6.3.4 Phase 4: Individual interviews

From the analysed data, it was noted that all the selection committees included
panel interviews in the selection process even though some programme managers
only activated an interview session if the selection committee needed to clarify
uncertainties with an applicant. The composition of the panels differed. Some
interview panels included industry partners or colleagues from other departments.
Most interview panels consisted of in-house departmental staff members. At one
university, it is policy to formally include a member of the faculty’s Employment
Equity Committee as an observer during the selection process.

Within personnel selection literature, information about interviewing and interview

techniques is abundant (Barclay, 2001) and it remains a common selection
technique (Moscoso, 2000). After an extensive literature review on structural
components of the selection interview Campion, Palmer, and Campion (1997)
report the components of the structured selection interview can be divided into
those influencing the content of the selection interview and those having an
influence on the evaluation of findings. Irrespective of the applicability of these
components to the context of the structured interview, the same components
need to be applied to the interview with all postgraduate applicants in order for
the selection interview to be reliable and valid. The components are summarised
in Table 6.2. If a structured interview (with either a behavioural or a situational
focus) (Barclay, 2001) forms part of the selection committees selection process,
these components could act as a guideline on how to elicit positive user reactions
and how to ensure that the selection interview is reliable and valid.

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Table 6.2.
Components of structured interviewing and how to establish reliability, validity and user
reactions
Components to include in a structured Questions to ask to ensure reliability,
interview validity and positive user reactions
Base questions on job analysis 1. Six types of reliability
Ask the same questions to each applicant Test-re-test reliability
Limit prompting, follow-up questioning Interrater reliability
and elaboration on questions
Use better type of questions (situational-, Candidate consistency
past-behaviour-, background-, job
knowledge type of questions)
Length of the interview/ more questions Interviewer-candidate interaction
Control ancillary information Internal consistency
Allow questions from the applicant at the Interrater agreement
end of the interview
Rate each answer/Use multiple scales
Use detailed anchor scales 2. Three types of validity
Take detailed notes Job-relatedness
Use multiple interviewers Reduced deficiency
Use the same interviewer across all Reduced contamination
applicants
Do not discuss applicants or their answers
between interviews
Provide extensive interviewing training 3. Three types of user reactions
Use statistical rather than clinical Reduced employment equity bias
prediction
Applicant reactions
Interviewer reactions
Note. Adapted from Campion et al., (1997).

Interviewing applicants who completed an undergraduate or honours degree at

the same university might be influenced by pre-interview information available to
some panel members (Barrick et al., 2012). Turner and Turner (2000) concluded
their research, which focused on admittance of graduates to the Postgraduate
Certificate in Education (PGCE), convinced that interviews confirmed which
candidates would not be suitable for admittance even though they qualified for
admittance on paper. Panellists responsible for the interviewing of applicants
should be aware of the role of initial impressions or what Miles and Sadler-Smith
(2014) refer to as the role of intuition in employee selection. The authors conclude:

…if a pool of candidates is identified as equally competent through

objective means, an intuition-based approach in a face-to-face
interview may be the one way, and sometimes the only way, of

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 distinguishing between equally well-qualified and capable
candidates, especially when a choice has to be made and
additional data are not readily available (Miles & Sadler-Smith, 2014,
p. 622).

These opinions agree with Maree’s (2002) finding that students found it almost
impossible to be accepted by a university other than the one where they
completed their previous degree/s.

Interviews as part of the selection process for available places in postgraduate

programmes can take on various forms. Oyler, Smith, Elson, Bush, and Cook (2014)
suggest that the inclusion of multiple mini-interviews (MMI) which focus on non-
academic attributes in the selection process could provide valuable applicant
information to selection panels. An MMI protocol consists of different ‘interview’
stations where non-academic attributes are explored, according to the authors.
The attributes they include in the MMI process are critical thinking, teamwork,
ethical reasoning, integrity, communication and interpersonal skills. The authors
reason that if structured interviews for postgraduate applicants (in this case,
pharmacy resident) are repeated every year, the questions later circulate among
applicants, giving them time to rehearse a well-formulated answer. Perkins, Burton,
Dray, and Elcock (2012) also conclude that the favourable rating of the MMI
protocol contributes to both applicants’ and interviewers’ positive experience of
an interview setting for admittance to academic programmes.

The types of questions to include in the interview should clearly identify what the
panel wants to assess, for example the applicant’s motivation, self-presentation
and social and verbal skills.

6.3.5 Phase 5: Assessment Centre (AC) activities

The AC is one of the aids selection panels can utilise to make fair, just and reliable
selection decisions. The International Taskforce on Assessment Centre Guidelines
(2015) defines an AC as a “standardized evaluation of behaviour based on
multiple inputs” (p. 6) whose major purpose is to predict future behaviour and to
identify development needs and behavioural constructs. According to
Schlebusch and Roodt (2008), one of the types of assessment utilises specific
activities in order to select the applicant most suitable for a position or a

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 programme. Different exercises are included in an assessment battery and
multiple trained assessors observe and evaluate participants against pre-
determined competencies providing a rich source of information (Meiring &
Buckett, 2016; Schlebusch & Roodt, 2008).

According to the International Taskforce on Assessment Center Guidelines (2015)

AC programmes must reflect 10 essential elements, namely job-related
behavioural constructs derived from job analysis and competency modelling;
assessed behaviours classified or mapped according to behavioural constructs 14;
multiple assessment components; a link between behavioural constructs and AC
components; multiple observation opportunities; diverse multiple assessors;
thorough training for assessors; systematic recording and scoring of observed
behaviour by assessors; the integration of ratings based on consensus discussion
and, lastly, standardisation of the administration of all assessment procedures and
the same opportunity provided to all assessees.

An in-depth discussion of ACs is not part of this report. However, the assessment
techniques for the selection of applicants for master’s degrees should be reliable
and valid. Although they should cover job-related behavioural competencies
required in the future work place of the I-O psychologist, the main aim here is the
selection of applicants for a postgraduate degree programme. The successful
applicant should be able to perform at an exceptionally high academic level,
grasp statistics, critically analyse the literature and debate scientific theories in the
I-O psychology field.

One of the basic aims of the AC is to provide information to selection panels to

make informed selection decisions. Programme managers recommend the
following activities to include in an assessment AC: group orientated tasks for
determining leadership potential and ease within a group context; in-basket
exercises to establish prioritising, decision making and the ability to structure the
immediate work environment; compiling an executive summary from different
related documents to test scientific writing ability; and role play situations to enact
solutions for workplace-related crises and presentations to a panel of judges to
assess verbal presentation skills. Krause, Rossberger, Dowdeswell, Venter, and
Joubert (2011) note a range of exercises or simulations to include in assessment
centre activities, namely in-baskets, presentations, background interviews,

14Meiring and Buckett (2016) refer to behavioural constructs as critical competencies and suggest that between
four – six competencies for each behavioural simulation exercise should be assessed and mapped.

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 situational interviews, role playing, case studies, fact finding and planning
exercises, group discussions, psychometric assessment (personality tests, skill or
ability tests) and sociometric devices.

At the conclusion of the AC a data integration process follows. Responses by

assessors are registered (either individually or by consensus), statistical aggregation
is done and the outcome of the AC is communicated to the selection panel.

Including an AC in the selection process is an expensive and time-consuming

exercise. The AC component could be outsourced if the academic department
has funding to compensate a consultant or to engage qualified staff and industry
partners to assist with observations and the recording of behaviour. The scientific
rigour and reliability of ACs as utilised by an academic department need to be
matched against the 10 essential elements identified by the International
Taskforce on Assessment Center Guidelines (2015).

In Table 6.3, (Phase 4) different assessment components, which could be included

in the AC are noted.

6.3.6 Phase 6: Evaluation of assessment results and nomination of selected

applicants

The final phase in the selection framework is the review of all submitted
documentation and the evaluation of assessment results. Members of the
selection committee are responsible for the discussion and final decision on which
applicants to nominate for admission to the programme. This is done either by
consensus or by the final calculation and ranking of applicant scores.

The name list of selected applicants is submitted to a faculty admission committee

to confirm the nomination and formally communicate the selection result to
applicants in writing.

6.3.7 Summary of the phases and elements in the suggested framework for selection

Table 6.3 provides a summary of the different phases and assessment components
that could be included in the different phases of the selection process. The main
phases include several options with suggested literature references.

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Table 6.3
The phases of the selection process
Content Literature reference for
Assessment components
explanation/suggestions/comment more detail
Phase 1: Marketing and recruitment (not included in the study)
Phase 2: Formal application with included documents
2.1 Application form Personal identification detail Bliesener, 1996; Breaugh,
or including name, surname, contact 2009; Chamorro-
weighted detail Premuzic & Furnham,
application blank 2010; Cucina et al., 2012;
(online and/or Biographical data Enslin, et al., 2006;
paper based) Gable et al., 1992;
Work experiences and references Gatewood et al., 2008;
Hoefer & Gould, 2000;
Holmström & Taylor, 2008;
Kaak et al., 1998; Kuhnert
& Russel, 1990; Levashina
et al., 2012; Mumford et
al., (in Schmitt, 2012);
Reynolds & Dickter (in
Farr & Tippens, 2010);
Rothstein et al., 1990.

2.2 Academic Marks obtained in previous De Swart & Marx, 2011;

transcripts or degrees/diplomas/certificates Hammond et al., 2015;
module results Hoefer & Gould 2000;
Explanation of what Powis et al., 1988; Siegert,
grades/symbols mean should be 2008; Swanepoel & Moll,
included. 2004; Van der Merwe &
De Beer, 2006.

2.3 Writing samples Written goal statement Newton & Moore, 2006;
(Personal motivation and Spector, (in Schmitt,
dedication to enter the 2012).
programme)

Written motivation
(Reason for applying for admission
to the programme)

Preliminary research proposal

(Critical reasoning and interest in
specific area of research)

2.4 Letters of Attached to the application form Briihl & Wasieleski, 2004;
recommendation or requested by selection panel in Chamorro-Premuzic &
writing or verbally from academic Furnham, 2010;
or industry references Gatewood et al., 2008.

Structured or unstructured form

2.5 Curriculum Summary of main life and career Cole et al., 2007;
Vitae/Resumé highlights Proença & De Oliveira,
2009.

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Phase 3: Assessment prior to interview or assessment centre
3.1 Admission (paper Administered online using for Theron, 2007.
or computer example Qualtrics or Survey
based) Monkey
assessment after
paper selection Time limited
but before
invitation for an Reading bundle forwarded to
interview and applicants to prepare for
participation in assessment
assessment centre
Questions related to quantitative
and qualitative research concepts;
basic I-O psychology case-study
related questions; case-study
scenarios related to practical
industry issues

Phase 4: Individual interviews

4.1 Panel interviews Interview without any other
assessment centre components
Panel interview
Structured or unstructured
Behavioural or situational focused
Alonso, Moscoso &
Salgado, 2017;
Bangerter et al., 2014;
Barclay, 2001; Barrick et
al., 2012; Campion et al.,
1997; Lievens & Coetsier,
2002; Macan, 2009;
Maree, 2002; Maurer,
1997; Miles & Sadler-
Smith, 2014; Moscoso,
2000; Oyler et al., 2014;
Perkins et al., 2012; Turner
& Turner, 2000.

Phase 5: Multiple Assessment Centre components (on site)

5.1 Paper or Numerical and verbal reasoning Carless, 2009; Krause et
computer based al., 2011; Schlebusch &
psychometric Personality Roodt, 2008; Theron,
assessment 2007; Thornton &
Aptitude Gibbons, 2009.

5.2 Assessment of See 3.1 in this table Krause et al., 2011;

general I-O Schlebusch & Roodt,
psychology On invitation for the next phase, 2008.
knowledge provide literature for assessment of
quantitative and qualitative
knowledge

Mini case studies with multiple

choice type answers

I-O psychology work place

scenarios and request solutions

5.3 E-assessment of Provide statistics reader on Krause et al., 2011;

basic statistical invitation to attend the next phase Schlebusch & Roodt,
knowledge of the selection process 2008.

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 E-assessment of basic statistical
knowledge needed on entry to the
master’s programme

5.4 In-basket exercise Related to I-O psychology issues in Krause et al., 2011;
the work place Schlebusch & Roodt,
2008.

5.5 Case study I-O psychology work place related

case study with requested solution

Could also be assessed as a

sample of academic writing skill

5.6 Situational Measure of contextual job-related Chan & Schmitt (in Evers
judgment test knowledge focused on routine et al., 2005; Whetzel &
(SJT) tasks or tasks where the applicant McDaniel, 2009.
needs to continually adapt

5.7 Role play exercise Exercise could focus on either work

related issues and/or academic
related issues the applicant might
encounter during the programme
(for example, supervisor-student
incompatibility; group work with
fellow students on the programme
and how to deal with interpersonal
relationships within the group;
family related matters and
academic stress during peak times
in the programme)

5.8 Presentation to I-O psychology related topic

selection panel
Applicant has time limit to prepare
a short presentation

5.9 Writing exercise Writing of integrated executive

summary of 2/3 articles;

Adding a title, execution summary

and discussion and conclusion to
an article (as being done by
University C and D)

Answer questions about two or

three articles provided

To assess critical reasoning,

integration of information, ability to
present an argument, assessment
of logical synthesis, quality of
writing and academic writing skill

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 5.10 Interview with Panel interview Alonso et al., 2017;
selection panel Bangerter et al., 2014;
Structured/unstructured Barclay, 2001; Barrick et
al., 2012; Campion et al.,
Behavioural or situational focus; 1997; Lievens & Coetsier,
2002; Macan, 2009;
Multiple-mini-interviews; story-telling Maree, 2002; Maurer,
1997; Miles & Sadler-
Smith, 2014; Moscoso,
2000; Oyler et al., 2014;
Perkins et al., 2012; Turner
& Turner, 2000.

Phase 6: Selection Committee evaluate applications and assessment results

6.1 Evaluation of Selection committee compiles Born & Scholarios, (in
submitted summary of all scores /evaluations Evers et al., 2005).
documentation Rank applicants
and assessment Compiles list of selected applicants
results
6.2 Nomination of Selection committee forwards
selected names of successful applicants to
applicants Faculty Admission Committee

The phases and elements for a selection process are presented in Figure 6.2.

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Figure 6.2. Suggested phases and elements for a selection process.

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6.4 Addressing the limitations of the study

Brutus et al. (2010) note that limitations reported by the researcher offer a valid and context
sensitive evaluation of the research endeavour, and several limitations are indeed evident in
this study of selection practices at South African universities.

6.4.1 Follow-up data collection after a period of time elapsed

Asking the programme managers to complete formal questionnaires based on the

findings of the semi-structured interviews after time elapsed is identified as a
limitation of the study. Being able to compare selection processes after a period
could have given an opportunity for a refinement of selection processes by I-O
psychology academic departments because of identified shortcomings in the
selection process. The impact of the new and improved selection process could
be indicative of a better profile-fit with the I-O psychology profession. However,
investigating this would have led to a longitudinal research project spanning years
and that was not the objective of this study from the onset. This limitation thus
becomes a recommendation for future research.

6.4.2 Competency-based selection criteria

On the commencement of the research, comparing competency-based

selection with traditional job-analysis was not an objective. Although some
questions about competency-based selection were included in the interviews with
the programme managers, this was not a focus area for the researcher. As the
research progressed, however, and reflecting on the content of interview data,
the inclusion of questions about competency-based selection criteria transpired
to be of serious importance. This was not pursued during the interviews and only
during the data-analysis phase did the researcher realise that it could have
strengthened the search for I-O psychology applicant-profession fit. Although it
was addressed in the literature overview of Chapters 2 and 5, I-O psychology
competency-based selection criteria transpires as a possible topic for validation in
future research.

The need exists for a clear job analysis for the I-O psychologist in the South African
business environment. Reference was made to the different entry routes
(academia, industry, consultancy and government) available to the I-O

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 psychologist. A clear job analysis will ensure clarity during the decision process
which route will provide the best job-competency fit to the I-O psychologist.

6.5 Recommendations for further discussion and research

6.5.1 With seemingly no guideline for the selection of applicants for master’s degree
programmes in I-O psychology in South Africa, the most important
recommendation (suggested as an outcome of this research), is the creation of a
discussion forum for master’s degree programme managers where the selection
and admittance of I-O psychology applicants for master’s degrees in South Africa
could be discussed. The pooling of research findings and the sharing of
knowledge, experience and ideas will provide the platform for programme
managers to debate, test, research and benchmark selection and admittance
criteria across the board in South Africa. A unified stance with nuances to allow
for academic departments’ special fields of expertise could provide a more
secure basis for postgraduate selection committees at I-O psychology academic
departments and equip them to select applicants who would be brand
ambassadors for the I-O psychology profession in the world of work.

From Section 6.4 it follows that continuous contact with master’s degree
programme managers sharing changes in the selection process at their respective
I-O psychology academic departments, would keep the discourse about the
admittance of applicants to master’s programme alive and assist in the
benchmarking of the selection process for I-O psychology master’s programmes
not just nationally but also internationally.

6.5.2 The validation of admission criteria for postgraduate academic programmes

needs to be undertaken and it is suggested that this research could be a
collaborative effort between all I-O psychology academic departments in South
Africa.

6.5.3 It is suggested as a matter of urgency that a work/job analysis of I-O psychology in

the South African industry context be undertaken to establish the specific KSAOs
required for I-O psychologists in industry, government, consultancy and academia.

6.5.4 The validation of competency-based selection criteria for applicants for I-O
psychology master’s degree programmes, based on the findings of the study

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 suggested in 6.5.3, is recommended for research and discussion. The input from
SIOPSA as professional society could contribute to the depth of such a study. In
this regard, the SIOP Career Study15 during 2014 and 2015 about identified
competencies for an I-O psychology career in academia, industry, government
and consulting refers.

6.5.5 What the role of professional identity of the I-O psychologist would be in the
selection process is a further recommendation for future research. If it could be
established what the I-O psychologist believe is central, enduring and distinctive
of the profession, admission committees panels could explore the presence of
latent competencies in this regard.

6.5.6 Not included in this study was the recruitment of I-O psychology applicants for
master’s degree programmes. Although questions about recruitment were
included in the semi-structured interviews with programme managers, marketing I-
O psychology master’s programmes was not identified as an urgent need. Space
on master’s programmes is limited and supervisory capacity at academic
departments is restricted. However, perhaps it is time to reconsider the targeted
recruitment of I-O psychology applicants. This implies a dedicated marketing
campaign of the I-O psychology profession not only to prospective I-O psychology
applicants but also to industry as confirmation and affirmation of the role I-O
psychologists’ play in the sustained economic growth of businesses through
improving worker well-being on individual, organisational and community levels.

6.6 Conclusion

Many I-O psychology scholars have commented about the justification of the I-O psychology
profession in industry since the very beginnings of the profession (cf. Chapter 2 and Chapter
5). After more than 100 years, the justification of I-O psychology should no longer be an issue
for this discipline and profession. The brand of this profession will be cared for by allowing
applicants to enter the profession after completing a high level end degree in I-O psychology
fitting the competencies required to enter the profession at various entry-levels.
The outcome of this qualitative research project was a suggested framework to assist selection
committees at South African I-O psychology academic departments with a guideline to adapt
to the circumstances at the respective departments. In the end, all I-O psychology students

15Zelin, Lider, Doverspike, Oliver, & Trusty, 2014; Zelin, Doverspike, Oliver, Kantrowitz, & Trusty, 2014; Zelin et al., 2015a,
2015b, 2015c, 2015d.

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enter the I-O psychology profession irrespective of the academic route through faculties of
Humanity or Commerce. However, who enters the I-O psychology master’s programme and
eventually the profession must remain guarded. The contribution of this research is a focus on
the importance of applying a rigourous selection process based on reliable and validated
selection components.

This attempt to emphasise the importance of selecting only the best-suited applicant for
admission to postgraduate academic programmes in I-O psychology is just what it says: an
attempt. It is an attempt to initiate discourse about the way forward for the brand and identity
of the profession, the success of academic departments and the selected few who are
afforded the opportunity for personal and professional growth within the I-O psychology
discipline and profession.

_______________________________________________________

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Appendices

Appendix A

A.1 Clarification of confusing research terms

Literature on selection policies and procedures in higher education can be confusing (are
there so many different ways of doing research?) until one achieves clarity on the array of
terms encountered there. Here are the terms in question: research paradigm, research
approach, research design, research methodology, research method, research strategy,
strategies of inquiry and research process.

What helps to distinguish between them is being able to group together those that include the
distinction between quantitative and qualitative research. Approach, design and
methodology all include this distinction.

Fouché and Delport (in De Vos et al., 2009) name two broad research approaches, namely
quantitative and qualitative. A third research approach mentioned by Mason (2007) is a
dialectical or an abductive research approach where the researcher works back and forth
concurrently between theory and explanations of occurrences.

Research design offers greater complexity. Creswell (2009) identifies three types of research
designs: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods. Depending on the research question
and the creativity of the researcher, the use of different methods and procedures in
combination may ensure solutions to intricate research problems (Babbie & Mouton, 2001). Yin
(2009) explains research design as a logical sequence connecting the empirical data to the
research question and the conclusion. He includes in his explanation four problems constituting
the main markers of a research design, namely, what questions to study, what data are
relevant, what data to collect and how to analyse the results. The alignment of the research
question and methodology within a research framework or paradigm should form a coherent
research design (Wagner et al., 2012). The research design has the final (or end) product in
mind while the research methodology provides the researcher with the different tools, tasks
and steps to reach a conclusion.

According to Creswell (2009), research methodology is a synonym for strategies of enquiry

(modes of enquiry, according to Maree (2009), which he identifies as quantitative, qualitative
and mixed methods. Other writers see research methodology as one of the building blocks of

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research design, and Wahyuni (2012) describes it as the model to use within an identified
research paradigm.

In the broad design of qualitative research, Fouché (in De Vos, 2009) agrees with Creswell
(2010) who describes five main strategies of inquiry within the qualitative research approach,
namely biography, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, and case study.
Research strategy, on the other hand, refers to the distinction between, for example,
ethnographic approaches, case study approach, a grounded theory approach, interpretivist
approaches, historical approaches, action research, comparative research and cross-
sectional research (Nieuwenhuis in Maree, 2009).

This leaves research paradigm at a higher conceptual level and research method and
research process at the practical level. The research paradigm provides the parameters of
research done by like-minded researchers. According to Donmoyer (2008), communities of
like-minded researchers gather to discuss specific ways to investigate certain phenomena. The
unique contribution of these research fellows is to aid the community’s members with new
ways of thinking about the phenomena, offering different choices of methodology to study
complexities in the real world and to engage in discourse about their shared views of finding
solutions for intriguing research dilemmas. The paradigm provides an enclosed and safe
environment for the researcher to freely associate with the interpretation of the reality of real
world occurrences and decide what action should be taken to deal with this reality. Avramidis
and Smith (1999) rightly note how difficult it is to identify the different paradigms directing
research due to a lack of purity in the paradigm. For the purpose of this research, the research
paradigm is thus the theoretical framework within which the research is positioned. Within the
parameters of this perspective, reality (ontology) is described as the subjective perception of
the researched reality in the mind of the researcher and other participants. Acceptability of
knowledge or the epistemology within this framework refers to the presentation of knowledge
in a narrative format as interpreted by those respondents involved in the study. As the
researcher is part of the interpretive study, it is important to note that the research process and
interpretation of results will be bound by the researcher’s view of values in research (axiology).

Within the overarching design of the research, a research process is followed, which is the clear
and systematic planning of how to proceed with investigating the identified problem. Babbie
and Mouton (2011) say the research process has a standard logic. Leedy and Ormrod (2010)
describe it as cyclical and Wagner et al. (2012, p. 12) define it as an “orderly series of steps”.
Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2009) suggest that these steps in the research process may not
be that straightforward and revisiting the steps during the research process might be necessary
to refine ideas and other issues. They also describe the research process as whether the

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researcher follows a deductive or an inductive approach throughout the research process. As
for deductive reasoning, from theory a hypothesis is formulated, examined through inquiry
and, if necessary, the theory will be modified. Unlike deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning
involves collecting data responses and establishing the different theories or explanations fitting
the findings. Irrespective of the qualitative or quantitative research approach, there is a certain
sequential logic in the research process.

The steps followed for this project were identifying the topic of interest (Chapter 1); formulating
a research question (Chapter 1); reviewing the literature (Chapter 2 and 5); deciding the
theoretical approach (Chapter 3); research methodology (Chapter 3); selecting the sample
(Chapter 3); collecting and analysing the data (Chapter 3); reporting the findings (Chapter 4)
and making recommendations (Chapter 6).

_______________________________________________________

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Appendix B

Table B.1. Summary and definition of all sub-themes and related codes as transpired from data analysis

THEME
SUB-THEME*
CODE CODE DEFINITION
(alphabetically)
Benchmarking Benchmarking_academic international Input or collaboration with international universities,
Codes (4): departments, researchers in HRM and IOP.
Quotation(s): 30
Benchmarking_academic national Input or collaboration with universities, departments,
researchers in HRM and IOP in South Africa.

Benchmarking_industry international What industry on international level expect from newly

graduates.

Benchmarking_industry national What industry on national level expect from newly graduates.

Communication Communication_post selection successful Correspondence with and to the successful applicant.
Codes (4) applicants
Quotation(s): 44 Communication_post selection unsuccessful Correspondence with and to the unsuccessful applicant.
applicants
Communication_recruitment phase Correspondence with and to the enquiring applicant.

Communication_selection phase Communication.

History History_evolvement of Department The historical background of how the academic department
Codes (3): evolved over time.
Quotation(s): 79
History_evolvement of programme The historical evolvement of the master's degree programme
over time.

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 History_HRM and IOP split Explanation of how the Department handles the split between
HRM and IOP.

Industry involvement Advisory Committee / Industry input Any Advisory Committee or industry input: experts form
Codes (7) industry.
Quotation(s) 62
Benchmarking_academic international Input or collaboration with international universities,
departments, researchers in HRM and IOP.

Benchmarking_academic national Input or collaboration with universities, departments,

researchers in HRM and IOP in South Africa.

Benchmarking_industry international What industry on international level expect from newly

graduates.

Benchmarking_industry national What industry on national level expect from newly graduates.

Internship_master's level General information about the structure, administration of the

internship programme.

Internship_psychometric Honours level The psychometric internship during the Honours year to register
as Psychometrist.

Philosophy Philosophy_academic throughput Referring to the completion of the maters degree in the
Codes (9): minimum allowed time period.
Quotation(s): 119
Philosophy_general Any reference to a training philosophy not associated or linked
to any of the other philosophy codes.

Philosophy_gutt feel A philosophy based on a subjective feeling of what should be

taught in the programme.

Philosophy_industry orientated The fundamentals of what industry experts from the Industrial
psychologist.

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 Philosophy_personal development of student Actions taken in the programme has the focus to develop the
student and foster personal, emotional and professional
development.

Philosophy_research orientated Content of the master’s programme is focused on the quality

of the research output of the students.

Philosophy_scientist-practitioner mind-set Any reference to training stemmed to a dual exposure to a

scientist - practitioner mind-set.

Philosophy_subsidy driven Fundamentals of training is based on numbers for maximum

subsidy received.

Philosophy_theory based Groundedness of the programme.

Selection criteria Selected group_numbers The number of applicants selected to enter the Magister
Codes (28): programme.
Quotation(s): 329
Selection criteria_abbreviated research A research proposal attached to the application form is a pre-
proposal attached requisite when applying.

Selection criteria_academic performance in Criteria for selection based on academic performance in

Honours degree previous degree.

Selection criteria_academic writing skills Criteria for selection based on the demonstration.

Selection criteria_admittance from other Restriction on the number of students from other universities.
universities
Selection criteria_age The age limit for selecting candidates to enter the Magister
programme.

Selection criteria_assessment of competency Criteria for selection based on a psychometric profile to fit the
profile fit Industrial Psychologist.

Selection criteria_basic requirement A basic selection requirement.

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Selection criteria_bridging modules Allowing applicants to re-do modules to obtain a higher
percentage in order to get admitted to the programme.

Selection criteria_competency

Selection criteria_credit for modules Applicants may apply for credits obtained in modules already
completed either in other degree programmes or at other
universities.

Selection criteria_equal opportunity Admitting students complying with requirement for the diversity
profile or equal opportunity guideline of the university.

Selection criteria_expiry of previous modules Module credit may become obsolete after a certain number
completed of years. Specially when the previous degree obtained was
too long back in the past.

Selection criteria_group interaction Inclusion of any group activity in the assessment of applicants
during the selection process; The way in which the applicant
conducts himself/herself in a group session with peers.

Selection criteria_gut feel Reference to a positive or negative “feeling” of the selection

committee or programme manager about an applicant
during the selection process.

Selection criteria_HRM and/or IO-psychology in The completion of an undergraduate degree in HRM or IOP
the undergraduate degree emphasising HRM or IOP background during the
undergraduate degree although the applicant present a
Honours degree in I-O psychology.

Selection criteria_MCom and MA career paths The option to enter either a MCom degree in IO-psychology or
a MA degree in I-O psychology.

Selection criteria_personal motivation The student's motivation as to why they apply for the Masters
programme.

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 Selection criteria_prerequisites Criteria for selection based on any set prerequisites like
academic background, work experiences.

Selection criteria_presentation skill Evaluating presentation skill and public speaking during
selection process.

Selection criteria_recognition of prior learning Criteria for selection based on previous work experience.

Selection criteria_reference to own students The preferred admittance of students from the same university.
Quota restriction?

Selection criteria_research knowledge Research knowledge prior to the entrance to the master’s
programme.

Selection criteria_restriction of numbers Any action taken to restrict the number of entrants to the
programme.

Selection criteria_SAQA accredited International students as well s students from colleagues in

South Africa need to apply for degree verification at the South
African Qualification Authority (SAQA).

Selection criteria_staff capacity The availability of staff to lecture on the master’s programme.

Selection criteria_statistical knowledge Prior knowledge of statistics. Level of statistical reasoning prior
to admittance to the programme.

Selection criteria_work experience Number of years work experience when applying for the
master’s degree as well as the kind of work experience before
entering the master’s degree.

Selection policy Selection policy_Departmental requirements Requirements and prerequisites set by the academic
Codes (4): Department where the master's degree is presented.
Quotation(s): 58

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 Selection policy_Faculty requirements Academic requirements and prerequisites set by the Faculty
where the Masters degree is hosted.

Selection policy_HPCSA requirements The requirements set by the HPCSA for being a registered
Industrial Psychologist.

Selection policy_Tertiary institution requirements The requirements set by the tertiary institutions for entry in a
postgraduate programme.

Selection process Selection process Refers to the sequential steps followed by departments when
Codes (22): selection applicants to enter a master’s degree programme in
Quotation(s): 379
I-O psychology.

Selection process_academic performance in Academic performance in the Honours degree used as

Honours degree predictor of success in the Master's degree.

Selection process_alternative processes Considering of alternative selection practices.

considered
Selection process_apply at university and Dual and concurrent application process applying for
department admittance or entrance to the university as well as specific
admittance to the department.

Selection process_assessment centre activities Activities included in an assessment centre for the purpose of
selection.

Selection process_confirming of the selection At the end of the selection process, the committee responsible
outcome for the approving of the selection outcome.

Selection process_departmental application Reference to the completion of an application blank when

blank applying to the department.

Selection process_group activities Assessment centre group activities evaluated.

Selection process_interview evaluation Evaluation of the selection panel based on the interview with
the applicant.

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Selection process_limitations
Selection process_motivation as part of the
application
Selection process_panel interviews
Selection process_paper based selection
Selection process_phases
Selection process_preliminary selection
(conditional)
Selection process_profiling of applications
Selection process_psychometric assessment
Selection process_ranking of applicants
Any shortcomings in the programme as evaluated by the
programme manager.
Any written motivation as to why the applicant wants to enter
the master’s programme. Submitted either as part of the
application blank or done as part of an assessment centre
activity.
Interviewing of applicants are done by a panel of interviewers
and not just one person.
Selection done only with the application blank information
presented either in the initial stages of the selection process or
the selection is done solely based on the application blank
and supporting documents. No contact with the applicant is
made other than the information obtained in the application
blank.
Referring to the different phases of the selection process and
what it entails at the different universities.
Conditional selection takes place before the final mark for
Honours is available.
The process of summarising the information of the applicant
from submitted documentation like the application blank, CV
and academic transcripts.
Any form of psychometric assessment, either online or paper
and pencil based.
After summarising all the available information of the applicant
and assigning weighted average to the different criteria, the
values are sorted in ranked order.
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 Selection process_selection committee role
Selection process_shortlisting
Selection process_suggestions for future
selection practices
Selection process_writing exercise
Structure of the Structure of the programme
programme
Codes (19):
Quotation(s): 287
Structure of the programme_block week basis
Structure of the programme_clear distinction
between HRM and IOP
Structure of the programme_completion rate
Structure of the programme_duration
Structure of the programme_evening classes
Structure of the programme_examination in
modules
Structure of the programme_examination of
mini-dissertation
The involvement and role of an appointed selection
committee in the department of the faculty at the respective
universities.
After the ranking of all applicants, the shortlisting is done to
establish who will be invited for either interviews, assessment
centre activities or admitted to the programme without any
further selection requirement.
Suggestions for different and new ways of selecting applicants
for master’s programmes in future.
The inclusion of an academic writing assessment as part of the
selection process.
The way in which the master’s degree programme is structured
regarding modules, duration, research component/s, logistics,
examinations.
Academic modules are presented in block weeks.
HRM and IOP programmes are either separate or share some
modules.
The time it takes to complete the master’s degree.
The time it takes to complete the programme.
Course work modules are presented in the evening to
accommodate working students.
Written examinations for course work modules.
Examination of the mini-dissertation is done by reviewers either
externally or internally.
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Structure of the programme_focus on Psychology modules are included in the course work of the
psychology degree programme (e.g., counselling, psychopathology).

Structure of the programme_full dissertations The department also offer an MPhil degree in Organisational
MPhil Psychology/ Human Resource Management.

Structure of the programme_full time Master’s degree programme is presented on a full-time basis
with class attendance during the day or evening. The
programme duration is limited to 12 months.

Structure of the programme_mini-dissertation It is compulsory to submit an article as part of the degree. The
with expected article mini-dissertation is either presented in the format of an article
or the article is submitted separately from the dissertation.

Structure of the programme_modular The presentation of the course work is in modular format and
at completion, the student sits for an examination.

Structure of the programme_part-time The programme is also presented over a longer period
providing the student to opportunity to distribute the modules
and research over an extended period.

Structure of the programme_positive outcome The research report completed as part of the Honours degree
of the Honours research report is an indication of the applicant’s research ability and
academic writing skills.

Structure of the programme_research Supervisor is assigned to the student for the research
component of the programme component which forms 50% of the degree.

Structure of the programme_research supervison Refers to supervision by a lecturer assigned to the student for
the duration of the identified research project which forms a
50% part of the degree.

Structure of the programme_year one is course The course component of the degree needs to be completed
work in one year. The number of modules differs at the respective
universities.

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Supervision Programme manager_coaching, mentoring The role of the programme manager includes acting as a
Codes (11): guidance in general coach, mentor to all the students on the master’s programme
Quotation(s): 131 assessing their progress and providing emotional support and
encouragement in general.

Supervision_assigning of a supervisor The research interest of the student is matched with the
research expertise of a lecturer of the department.

Supervision_coaching and mentoring role The role of the specific supervisor as coach, mentor not just for
the research project but includes emotional support on
personal level as well as in preparation to enter the profession.

Supervision_group Research supervision is done with a group of students, mainly

the students under the specific supervisor’s control.

Supervision_individual Supervision is done on individual basis as per request of the

student or as per schedule as negotiated with the student by
the supervisor.

Supervision_intensity of supervision Depending on the need of the student or the concern of the
supervisor, supervision sessions will be scheduled as needed.

Supervision_memorandum of agreement The written and signed (also informal) agreement between the
supervisor and student assigned to the supervisor for the
duration of the research project.

Supervision_number of students per supervisor Reference to the (limited) number of students per supervisor.

Supervision_preparation for research proposal Guidance to the student while preparing a research proposal
for approval from a departmental postgraduate committee.
Supervision_progress reports Progress reports either needed by Faculty or the programme
manager to monitor the progress of the student.

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Table B.2. Matching the English translation with the original Afrikaans quote from the
respective interviews
English quotation/translation
C: “we (are) positioned in Psychology and
that is where we feel at home, we are
Psychologists”
H: (translated): “the universities merged
and all the Industrial Psychologists became
part of the BA Psychology group in
Humanities”
A: (translated): “our MCom Human
Resource Management degree was
recognised by the HPCSA for all these years”
C: (translated): “…Human Resource
Management as a separate degree and
Industrial psychology as a separate
degree…were share staff“
R: (translated) “Then Human Resource
Management is separate, Industrial
Psychology is separate and Labour
Relations?
C: (translated) “they share subjects which
they attend together. But Industrial
Psychology does the psychometric
assessment and the practicals separately.
Human Resource Management also has
their own practicals separately. They will also
be taught about psychometric assessment
but the focus will be from a HRM
perspective”
D: “But there is a Human Resource Honours
and Masters programme…in the School of
Economic and Business Sciences”
A: (translated): “We had a training
philosophy but it was informal in each panel
member’s mind. It was an informal process.
So, if you had an all rounder and he
achieved well, you could see he had a
practical inclination, was a logical thinker,
was clued-up, could take the theory to
Afrikaans quotation
H: “die universiteit het gemerge en toe het al
die Bedryfsielkundiges dadelik oorgekom en
(is) deel gemaak van die BA
Sielkundegroep…in Humanities”
A: “ons MCom Menslikehulpbronbestuur is al
die jare deur die Beroepsraad van Sielkunde
erken”
C: “Menslikehulpbronbestuur as aparte
graad en Bedryfsielkunde as aparte
graad…ons deel personeel”
R: “dan is Menslikehulpbronbestuur apart,
Bedryfsielkunde is apart en julle
Arbeidsverhoudinge?
C: “Daar is vakke wat hulle deel, wat hulle
saam loop. Maar dan is daar soos die
psigometriese toetsing en prakties en so aan
wat dan Bedryfsielkunde apart loop. Maar
die MHB het ook, ook hulle eie prakties wat
hulle apart loop. En ons gaan hulle wel vir
hulle leer oor psigometriese toetse, maar vir
hulle gaan ons ‘n ander fokus gee meer die,
vanuit die MHB veld uit”
A: “Ons het ‘n opleidingsfilosofie
gehad, maar elke ou het dit maar in
sy kop gehad. Weereens was dit ‘n
baie informele proses gewees. So, as
‘n ou ‘n all rounder is en hy presteer
mooi en jy kan sien hy het ‘n praktiese
ingesteldheid, is ‘n logiese denker, kan
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 practice, it was clear he is the good Industrial die kloutjie mooi by die oor bring, hy
Psychologist”. kan teorie na die praktyk toe vat, dan
is dit uiteindelik die goeie
Bedryfsielkundige.”

H: (translated): “…our philosophy is to train H: “…ons filosofie is om future fit people

future fit people practitioners who are practitioners op(te)lei wat
professional industrial psychologists and professioneel Bedryfsielkundiges is wat
scientists. So, scientists and practitioners”. ook scientists is. So scientists and
practitioners.”

A: (translated): “The university has a negative A: “Die Universiteit het ‘n baie

influence in the sense it has a certain subsidy
formula. It subsidises students who come in
and go out very quickly. Secondly, it
subsidises only articles”.
negatiewe invloed in die sin dat hy het
‘n bepaalde subsidie formule. En hy
subsidieer net studente wat blitsig kan
inkom en uitgaan. Tweedens subsideer
hy net artikels”

G: (translated) “So the selection is directed G: “So, die keuring is afgestem op

towards academic achievement and not on akademiese prestasie en nie
performance in practice.” praktykprestasie nie
”
E: “…we are asking very serious educational
questions about doing it in that time.
Because they struggle [to complete within
one year].”

E: “The University is the employer, they grant

the degrees and it is a constant battle
managing the demands of the profession
and the University demands when they
clash…if you want to graduate with a
Master’s degree you graduate
demonstrating competencies16 in research.”

E: “...so our philosophy is it is an academic

masters and those are the cut-offs.”
[referring to the academic average]

G: (translated): “The selection is currently G: “Die keuring is (tans) ons Achilles

our Achilles heel. And there is unease by
everyone about the selection. In the nineties
we had an extensive selection programme
with psychometric assessment and 16PF and
deductive reasoning and conceptual
reasoning tests, leaderless group discussions,
an interview. That was all part of the
hiel - en daar’s is by almal ‘n gevoel
van ongemak met die keuring. Ons
het in die negentiger jare ‘n baie
omvangryke keuringsprogram gehad
waar ons psigometriese assessering
gedoen het en 16PF en deduktiewe
redenerings en konseptuele

16 Competency as a selection criteria is discussed in paragraph 4.xx on page x

Page | 166
selection programme. But when we looked redeneringstoests, leierslose
at the logistics and the predictive validity groepsbesprekings, ‘n onderhoud. Dit
and other predictors, it was a shocking was alles deel van die
discovery to realise the only valid predictor keuringsprogram en toe ons egter na
was undergraduate academic die logistiek kyk a) en b) na die
performance.” voorspellingsgeldighede van die
verskeie voorspellers, toe was dit ‘n
skokkende ontdekking dat die enigste
werklike geldige voorspellers was die
voorgraadse akademiese prestasie.”

H: (translated): “…our philosophy is to train H: “…ons filosofie is om future fit people

future fit people practitioners who are practitioners op(te)lei wat
professional industrial psychologists and professioneel Bedryfsielkundiges is wat
scientists. So, scientists and practitioners”. ook scientists is. So scientists and
practitioners.”

H: (translated): “At this stage we strive to
train students we know will be able toprovide
in the need of the market or be able to
foresee the changes in the market.”
H: “Op hierdie stadium mik ons daarna
om regtigwaaar studente op te lei wat
ons sweet wat aan die behoeftes van
die mark kan voorsien of in die
verskuiwings in die mak kan voorsien.”

A: (translated): “we want to send effective A: “Ons wil Bedryfsielkundiges na die praktyk
Industrial Psychologists to practise.” toe stuur wat effektief funksioneer.”

D: We see ourselves as Psychologists. We

see ourselves very firmly as Psychologists
even though more often than not our interns
do Human Resource work. We still see
ourselves as Psychologists and I think uhm (.)
that why it is important for us that it is based
here in this School opposed as the Business
School or in, in Commerce.”

D: “…it is part of our programme that our

students are compelled to think on their own
a lot, but at the same time while we instil all
those kind of skills in them I also want them to
have some of the hands on experiential
knowledge before they go out to work…We
don’t want our students to be
dependant…We try to foster as much
independence…We want to encourage
independent thinking…We are doing a lot of
critical reasoning, analytical thinking,
abstract reasoning etcetera…”

C: (translated): “He has his calendar and C: “Hy het sy kalender hy weet

Page | 167
knows when class is. They have to inform us
then if they will be full-time or part-time.
Which subjects they are taking so we have
an idea about the distribution throughout
the year.”
wanneer hy klas het. Hulle moet ook
dan reeds vir ons sê of hulle deeltyds of
voltyds gaan wees. Watter vakke hulle
gaan neem dat ons ‘n goeie idee het
van die verspreiding deur die jaar.”

D: “…it is technically a one year course. It is

a full time course… they cannot hold down
a full time position. Every now and again
then there is a person in Honours who has
been working in a full time position and
somehow managed to have done well, but
we advocate against it. It is full time hard
work and 99% of the time our students are
not working” and also “We start in the
beginning of February and the hand in date
is the end of January (the next year). So it is
an intense year. It is a very demanding
year.”

E: “We work with working individuals with

huge discipline issues related to time
management. We have a very tightly
managed programme because it is a year
you have to be in the class and if you miss a
certain number of classes you are out of the
programme because our commitment to
the education is we offer them a year. We
throw massive amounts of resources at it. It
is intensive but if you are not in class once it
is a huge percentage of the amount of
classes you going to skip…. We got a very
well refined system and processes and
structures. By the time the students get
invited into the programme, they get the
calendar for the next year and it all goes out
in December. So they know what they are
contracting into. So we have orientation the
week before formal lecture start (in
February)…they attend the classes
sometimes three times a week … and that is
from five to seven.”

E: “…choose your supervisor by this date.

Everything is blacked out in advance that
they get. And one of the first steps is that
they have a topic choice. So all of that is
mapped out in documentation that goes
out and it maps unto their programme…”

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H: (translated): “So, we provide them with a
(research) focus area early in December.
They have the opportunity to think what they
want to do and at the end of January they
are assigned a supervisor.”
C: (translated): “…our first class is the end of
November. During that class the study
leaders and their projects are introduced. In
February when they start with class, they
must have a study leader already.”
E: “The University is the employer, they grant
the degrees and it is a constant battle
managing the demands of the profession
and the University demands when they
clash… The pressure from the University is to
increase Masters students, because that’s
what’s generating funding for them. There is
pressure from the University (to) increase
subsidy generation, research output. That is
what they are interesting in… Those are the
University messages where as our
profession’s messages are train and skill
professionals in the scope of practice”
G: (translated): “But there is without doubt
pressure you experience that says when you
do not select students you need to present a
very good reason why you do not select
them.”
G: (translated): “There are too many
students who do not belong here. But then
when it come to the selection, the bigger
figure of authority is so overpowering;
preventing the Department to say on behalf
of the profession, the quality of our own
academic work, we are not admitting the
stream of people.”
H: (translated): “The only limitation at this
stage is the equity.”
H: “So, ons gee vir hulle (die) eerste
week in Desember al ons fokusarea en
dan kan hulle gaan sit en dink wat is dit
wat wil hulle graag doen. Ons gee vir
hulle moontlike topics…en aan die
einde van daai eerste week in
Januarie (kry hy sy studieleier).”
C: “…ons eerste klas is einde November.
Tydens daardie klas word al die studieleiers
bekend gestel met hulle projekte.”
G: “Maar daar is sonder twyfel ‘n
voortdurende druk wat mens ervaar
wat sê as jy studente afkeur moet jy ‘n
baie, baie goeie rede hê hoekom jy dit
doen.”
G: “Daar is te veel studente wat eintlik
nie hier hoort nie. Maar dan wanneer
dit kom by die keuring dan word hierdie
groter gesagsfiguur se wens is so
oorweldigend dat die Departement
eintlik nie so ver kan kom, twyfelagtig
dan vir hulle dan kan sê, nee, ons gaan
ter wille van die professie van ons eie-,
die kwaliteit van ons eie akademiese
werk gaan ons die stroom mense nie
toelaat nie.”
H: “Die enigste beperking op hierdie
stadium is die equity.”
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H: (translated): “But now the university is also
much equity driven.”
H: (translated): Yes, the sixty eight percent is
our own regulation.”
I: (translated): “… the faculty has no
requirements about that, but the
professional board does.”
D: “we can’t because it will just screw-up the
entire logistics…and if, if they’ve done it at
the other universities they must go and
repeat or improve their marks at other
universities and then come to us. There is no
space in our programme for repeating
Honours modules…”
H: (translated) “We allow them. They are not
selected. They need to upgrade the mark
and may apply again. They are allowed to
apply twice where after they will not be
allowed to apply for a third time.”
B: “And then we look at EE requirements.”
R: “is it a requirement of the university?”
B: “Yes and of the Board too.”
I: (translated): “…and we based the
number of student on our research
supervisory capacity. We calculate how
many staff members will be available to
supervise.”
E: “I cannot accommodate more because
of supervision capacity…. so it is a staffing
issue.”
A: (translated): “It starts with the application
form. Begins with an enquiry from outside.
There is no recruitment, advertisements in
newspapers.”
H: “Maar nou is die universitiet ook baie
equity gedrewe.”
H: “Ja, die agt en sestig persent is ons
eie regulasie.”
I: “…die fakulteit het nie vereistes
daaoor nie, maar die Beroepsraad.”
H: “Ons laat hulle toe. Dan kan hulle-,
hulle kry nie die keuring nie. Hulle moet
dit eers gaan doen en dan kan hulle
weer aansoek doen. Hulle mag twee
keer aansoek doen, na die tweede
keer mag hulle dan nie weer aansoek
doen nie.”
B: “En dan kyk ons wel na, soort van, EE-
vereistes.”
R: “Is dit ‘n vereiste van die Universiteit?”
B: “Ja,on:s, en van die Raad ook.”
I: “En ons basseer ons getalle wat ons
inneem op navorsingsupervisiekapasiteit.
So…dan tel ons hoeveel van ons kan
supervise.”
A: “Dit begin met die aansoekvorm.
Begin met ‘n navraag van buite
af…daar is geen werwingsaksie, daar is
nie advertensies in koerante nie.”
Page | 170
E: “So what’s keeping me busy is this kind of
dealing with queries. So what keeps you busy
I think is contact? I don’t want to lose the
good ones. I don’t want to lose the talented
students. I will phone back if I cannot email
the answers because I want talented
students to come unto my programme
because not only are they in a professional
stream, they are also doing research and we
hope to publish with or along with.”

I: (translated): “…I do not know where they I: “…ek weet nie waar hulle oral
market (the programme). We never have a bemark nie. Ons het dit nooit vreeslik
need for it because we receive a lot of nodig nie want ons kry altyd baie
applications.” aansoeke.”

B: (translated): “For sure. We look at the B: “Verseker. Ons kyk na die vakke, kyk
subjects, look at the marks and the na die punte en die motivering.”
motivation.”

E: “And the rule in the Section has been if

you do not fill in one of ours you are not
considered in the selection process. It is
really controversial because people miss it,
they will apply centrally and it will go to the
Faculty and we won’t consider them
because they have not done what we need
them to do”

R: “So, there are no interviews?”

E: “No”

R: “No assessment centre stuff?”

E: “No”

R: “No psychometrics?”

E: “No”

R: “Only your application form?”

E: “Ja…”

B1: (translated): “…online assessment, yes of B1: “…online assessment ja, van
personality and abilities. We have done a persoonlikheid en abilities. (…). Ons het
job analysis at two instances. The Work nou al by twee geleenthede ‘n job
Profiling System. We analysed the job of an analysis gedoen. Die Work Profiling

Page | 171
Industrial Psychologist and the system. We analysed the job of an
competencies which transpired and Industrial Psychologist en die
identified from there and compared with the competencies wat daaruit gekom het
information we got from American literature en geidentifiseer is het ons weer
about the topic. So we look for what is vergelyk met wat ons in die
important for the industrial psychologist in Amerikaanse literatuur gekry het
industry. Not the master’s student or daaroor. So ons kyk na wat is belangrik
academic person. The I-O psychologist. Our vir ‘n Bedryfsielkundige buite in die
students are selected according to this. The veld. Nie ‘n M-student of akademiese
selection process includes these aspects”. persoon nie. ‘n IO Psychologist. En ons
studente word daarvolgens gekeur.
Die keuringsprogram sluit daardie
aspekte in.”

R: (translated): “...and nowhere is there a R: “…en nêrens is daar ‘n competency

competence based selection?” based selection nie?”

F: “No, and this is a limitation for me we need F: “Nee, dit is vir my ‘n groot leemte wat
to address.” ons moet aanspreek.”

B: (translated): “…then they are invited for B: “…dan word die studente genooi vir ‘n
an interview.” onderhoud.”

R: “Only your application form?”

E: “Ja, and part of the reason about that, is

there used to be interviews for Honours and
Masters, but it was felt at the time that it is
defenceless. You know, we needed
objective criteria that we could defend in a
court of law if somebody said you did not
choose me.”

R: “So, there are no interviews?

E: “No”

R: (translated): “There are no interviews?” R: “Daar is niks onderhoude nie?”

F: (translated): “We have no interviews.” F: “Ons het geen onderhoude nie.”

G: (translated): “there is the possibility to G: “Daar is die moontlikheid om die

invite the student for an interview but that is student te nooi vir ‘n onderhoud maar
something that rarely happens.” dit is iets wat baie selde opgeneem
word.”

H: (translated): “and then the interview. H: “En dan ‘n onderhoud. Individuele

Individual interview. To the panel. Structured onderhoud. Voor die paneel.
Gestruktureerde vrae yes, ons het so

Page | 172
questions yes, we have about six questions.”
I: (translated): “We have interviews and
then try to rank.”
I: (translated): “… we let them do a writing
exercise the morning before the interview.
We have an information session where I will
say ‘here is an article. Write an abstract for
the article’ to see if they are able to string
sentences?? in a logical manner. So we look
at their writing ability”.
E: “So, then I sit and calculate the averages
and generate a spreadsheet and I rank all
the important information, their grades, their
degrees…I circulate that to a Postgraduate
Selection Committee. […] we debate…so
there is accountability; there is transparency
that I am not working on my own.”
H: (translated): “…to tell you the truth, I
would like to see a more structure process
where you can sift through the applications
by applying several filters… I have the
responsibility to the discipline and the
vakgebied?. That is my point of view. So I
think our selection on master’s level is
somewhat unstructured. It is to easy to gain
entry to the master’s programme.”
H: (translated):“I think the limitation or the
concern which we have, and it seems to me
I’m not the only one who is concerned about
this, it the stand? of industrial psychology at
this stage in South Africa…what is the real
difference between a well trained
professional human resource practitioner
and an industrial psychologist? What can
the industrial psychologist do what the HR
person cannot do? I will tell you there is not
much, if any?”
ses vrae.”
I: “Ons het onderhoude en dan probeer
mens rank.”
I: “…ons laat hulle ook ‘n skryf-
oefening doen die oggend voor die
onderhoud. Ons het ‘n inligtingsessie,
dan sale k se hier vir vir jou ‘n artikel,
skryf die abstrak wat by die artikel hoor
om bietjie te kyk of hulle sinne
aanmekaar heg in ‘n min of meer
logiese manier. So ons kyk bietjie na
hulle skryfvermoë.”
H: “…om jou die eerlike waarheid te sê
ek sou ‘n meer gestuktureerde proses
wou sien waar ons die poel van
aansoeke sif deur hulle deur
verskillende filters te gooi…ek het ‘n
verantwoordelikheid teenoor die
dissipline en vakgebied. Dit is maar my
standpunt rondom dit. So, ek dink ons
keuring is op hierdie stadium wat die
Magistervlak aanbetrek bietjie te
ongestruktureerd. Dis te maklik om in
die Magisterprogram in te kom.”
H: “Ek dink ‘n leemte wat ons wat ons het, of
‘n bekommernis wat ons het en dit klink vir
my of ek nie die enigste een is wat daaroor
bekommerd is nie, is die stand van
Bedryfsielkunde op hierdie stadium in Suid-
Afrika…Wat is die werklike wesenlike verskil
tussen ‘n goed opgeleide professionele
Menslikehulpbronpraktisyn en
Bedryfsielkunde? Maar wat is daar wat ‘n
Bedryfsielkundige kan doen wat ‘n HR ou nie
kan doen nie? Dan sê ek vir jou, ek dink nie
daar is veel nie, indien enige.
Page | 173
F1: (translated): “At this stage of the game I
have to say I do not know… one can say
”you are a psychologist, you work on a
deeper level, you look with another eye??
but a well-trained, sensitive human resource
practitioner with a high level of emotional
intelligence can do the same…here is a
psychologist in the Statistics class and here is
a human resource manager in the Statistics
class…he can do this research and this guy
can do the same research. The only thing
the psychologist can do is the administration
and interpretation of certain tests.”
F1: “Op hierdie stadium van die wedstryd
moet ek vir jou sê ek weet nie…mens kan
seker sê “jy is ‘n Sielkundige, jy werk ‘n dieper
vlak, jy kyk op ‘n ander oog”, maar ‘n goed
opgeleide, sensitiewe mannekragpraktisyn
met ‘n hoë vlak van emosionele intelligensie
kan dieselfde doen. …hier is ‘n Sielkundige
wat ‘n Statistiekklas sit en hier is ‘n personeel
ou wat in ‘n Statistiekklas sit. Hy kan hierdie
navorsing doen en hierdie ou kan dieselfde
navorsing doen. Die enigste ding wat ‘n
Sielkundige nou kan doen is die administrasie
en interpretasie van sekere toetse.
”
Page | 174
Appendix C

Table C.1. Example of an application form

EXAMPLE OF AN APPLICATION FORM

INTRODUCTION
University/Department logo

20--
Application form
MA/MCom Industrial-Organisational Psychology

You are considering an application to enter a master’s degree programme presented by

the Department A of the University of A.

We offer you the opportunity to become an Industrial-Organisational (I-O) psychology

scholar and to be part of a network of academics and industry partners striving for
excellence in research and practice.

It is our aim to assist you in becoming a life-long learner of the I-O psychology discipline and
to prepare you for entering the I-O psychology profession after the successful completion of
the Master’s degree in I-O psychology at our University. It is also our intention to act as the
supervising institution (in collaboration with a registered I-O psychologist in industry) during
the prescribed I-O psychology internship period of 12 months thereafter.

We look forward to receive your 2018 application for the MA/MCom Industrial-
Organisational Psychology.

Prof ABC
Programme Manager
MA/MCom Industrial-Organisational Psychology

Page | 175
INSTRUCTIONS TO APPLICANTS

1. Please provide all the information requested on this form and ensure that it is correct.
All information will be verified.

2. Attach the following documents to your Departmental application form

2.1 Full academic record/transcripts with results (add explanation of grading
system/grading codes of the respective tertiary institutions where you
completed your previous degrees) Table 6.1
Phase 2
2.2 Copy of Identity document/ passport 2.5 Curriculum
vitae/Resume
2.3 Comprehensive Curriculum Vitae
2.4 SAQA confirmation of degrees obtained

3. Applicants living outside South Africa or abroad should comply with all XX entry
requirements before starting the application process. Familiarise yourself with South
African visa requirements and study permits. Access the webpages of the XX
international office for more information about the XX application process and closing
dates for application (link to the webpage for international students)

4. The completed departmental application form and supporting documents can be

submitted in hard copy to xx, (address) or scanned (all documents combined as one
scanned document) and mailed to xx@xx.ac.za

Page | 176
 Table 6.1
Phase 2
APPLICATION FORM17 Formal application
MA/MCOM INDUSTRIAL-ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
20--
CLOSING DATE FOR DEPARTMENTAL APPLICATION IS --

Current registration at a University? Yes No

Name of the University
Student number Table 6.1
Alumnus of which university? Phase 2
First time applicant for this degree? Yes No2.1 Identification detail/
Biographical detail
Application reference number
1. BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
Title
Name and Surname
Date of birth
ID/Passport number
Population group
Nationality
Specify any disability
Physical address
Postal address
Mobile number
E-address
Home language
Language proficiency. Name the Write
Speak Read
languages below
Table 6.1
1. Phase 2
2. 2.2 Academic history
3.
2. ACADEMIC HISTORY
* Include academic transcripts of degrees and explanation of symbols
2.1 Highest academic degree obtained to date
Name of degree
University
Student number
Year of first registration
Year of completion
Topic of research report (if applicable)

2.2 Other degrees obtained

Name of degree
University
Student number
Year of first registration
Year of completion
Topic of research report (if applicable)

17Apart from the official application for admission to the tertiary institution which need to comply with all legal
requirements and confidentiality clauses, the departmental application form is an additional form

Page | 177
2.3 Other degrees obtained
Name of degree
University
Student number
Year of first registration
Year of completion
Topic of research report (if applicable) Table 6.1
Phase 2
2.3 Writing sample

2.4 Other qualifications obtained

Name of the qualification
Institution
Student number
Year of first registration
Year of completion
Topic of research report (if applicable) Table 6.1
Phase 2
2.4 Letters of
recommendation

3. WORK EXPERIENCE
Current job
Job title
Company
Duration/period
Main responsibility/ies
Reference to contact at the company
Title, name and surname
Designation
Mobile number
E-address
Previous job 1
Job title
Company
Duration/period
Main responsibility/ies
Reference to contact at the company
Title, name and surname
Designation
Mobile number
E-address
Previous job 2
Job title
Company
Duration/period
Main job responsibility/ies
Reference to contact at the company
Title, name and surname
Designation
Mobile number
E-address
Other work experience/s the selection committee should take note of. Tell the selection
committee about it.

Page | 178
4. PROFESSIONAL REGISTRATION OR MEMBERSHIP OF PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS
*Please indicate registration at any professional work-related association/society

Table 6.1
Phase 2
2.3 Writing sample
5. MOTIVATE YOUR INTEREST IN THE MASTER’S DEGREE PROGRAMME

6. RESEARCH INTEREST FOR A MASTER’S DEGREE PROGRAMME

6.1 Indicate three I-O psychology research topics of interest to you (Indicate with )
 Organisational change
 Psychometric assessment
 Employee wellness
 Cross-cultural psychology
 Employee relations
 Other
6.2 Formulate a title for a research topic of interest in any of the three areas you have
indicated above

6.3 Which research approach do you think will answer your research question the best:
qualitative, quantitative or a mixed method approach? Motivate your answer

7. ANY OTHER COMMENT/INFORMATION YOU WOULD LIKE TO BRING TO THE ATTENTION OF

THE SELECTION COMMITTEE

 I declare that the information in this application form is correct

 I accept the final outcome of the selection process
Name in print
Signature
Date
CHECKLIST
Did you attach the following documents in support of your application? Indicate with 
1. Did you complete all the sections of the application form?
2. Did you include certified copies of all your academic transcripts?
3. Did you include an explanation of symbols and grades?
4. Did you include all contact details for work references?
5. Curriculum vitae?
6. SAQA certificate
7. Copy of identification document

_______________________________________________________

Page | 179
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_______________________________________________________

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