Boiler Feedwater Treating Systems: Design Practices

ExxonMobil Proprietary
STEAM SYSTEMS Section Page

XXVI-A 1 of 96
BOILER FEEDWATER TREATING SYSTEMS
DESIGN PRACTICES December, 2003
Changes shown by ➧
CONTENTS
Section Page
SCOPE ............................................................................................................................................................4
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................................4
DESIGN PRACTICES .............................................................................................................................4
GLOBAL PRACTICES.............................................................................................................................4
COMPANY REFERENCES .....................................................................................................................4
OTHER LITERATURE.............................................................................................................................4
BACKGROUND...............................................................................................................................................4
DEFINITIONS ..................................................................................................................................................5
BOILER WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS ...............................................................................................8
EXTERNAL BOILER WATER TREATING PROCESSES...............................................................................9

GENERAL ...............................................................................................................................................9
CLARIFICATION ...................................................................................................................................10
COLD PROCESS SOFTENERS ...........................................................................................................11
HOT PROCESS SOFTENERS..............................................................................................................13
FILTRATION..........................................................................................................................................15
DEMINERALIZATION BY ION EXCHANGE .........................................................................................16
GENERAL ..........................................................................................................................................16
SODIUM ZEOLITE SOFTENING........................................................................................................18
HYDROGEN ZEOLITE SOFTENING .................................................................................................19
DEMINERALIZATION PLANT (CO-CURRENT REGENERATION) ...................................................21
MIXED BED UNITS ............................................................................................................................22
DEMINERALIZATION PLANT (COUNTER-CURRENT REGENERATION).......................................23
DEMINERALIZATION PLANT (PACKED BED DESIGN) ...................................................................25
REVERSE OSMOSIS............................................................................................................................26
FLASH EVAPORATION ........................................................................................................................28
DEAERATION .......................................................................................................................................30
CONDENSATE SYSTEMS....................................................................................................................32
CONDENSATE CLEANUP.................................................................................................................32
CONDENSATE TREATING................................................................................................................33
CHEMICAL FEED SYSTEMS ...............................................................................................................34
INTERNAL BOILER WATER TREATING .....................................................................................................35
APPENDIX A .................................................................................................................................................73
Section Page STEAM SYSTEMS
XXVI-A 2 of 96
December, 2003 DESIGN PRACTICES
CONTENTS (CONT)
SAMPLE PROBLEM PRIMARY DEMINERALIZATION (CO-CURRENT REGENERATION)......................80

APPENDIX B RELIABILITY CHECK LIST ...................................................................................................94
PURPOSE.............................................................................................................................................94
COMMON AREAS ................................................................................................................................94
GRASS ROOTS / MAJOR PROJECTS ................................................................................................95
REVAMP / SMALL PROJECTS ............................................................................................................96
COLD EYES REVIEW ..........................................................................................................................96
TABLES
Table 1 Boiler Drum Water Limits Non-Demineralized Operation...................................................................9
Table 2 Impurity Reduction for Various Water Treating Processes ..............................................................10
Table 3 Typical Cation Resin Capacities - Sodium Cycle (Co-Current Regen) ...........................................19
Table 4 Typical Weak Acid Cation Resin Capacities ....................................................................................20
Table 5 Acids Specification for Cation Regeneration....................................................................................21
Table 6 Typical Strong Acid Cation Resin Capacities (100% Sulfuric Acid) ................................................24
Table 7 Typical Performance of Strong Base Anion Resin Exchange Capacities and Silica Leakage as a
Function of Regenerant Level (100% Caustic) ..............................................................................................24
Table 8 Caustic Specification For Anion Regeneration.................................................................................25
Table 9 Qualitative Comparison Multiple Stage Flash and Multiple Effect Evaporation Systems ..............30
Table A 1 Standard Water Analysis Sheet.....................................................................................................73

Table A 2 Factors for Conversion From Parts per Million as the Substance to Parts per Million as CACO3 .74
Table A 3 Common Impurities Found in Water ..............................................................................................75
Table A 4 Typical Water Analysis of Rivers, Wells and Municipal Supplies...................................................76
Table A 5 Regenerant Chemicals Solutions ..................................................................................................77
Table A 6 Waste Generated by Various Water Treatment Processes ...........................................................78
Table A 7 Performance Specification - RO Membranes ................................................................................79
FIGURES
Figure 1 Water Treatment Flowplan with Fresh Water Supply......................................................................36
Figure 2 Water Treatment Flowplan with Salt Water Supply.........................................................................37
Figure 3 Sludge Contact Clarifier..................................................................................................................38
Figure 4 Parallel Plate Clarifier .....................................................................................................................39
Figure 5 Cold Lime Process Predicted Calcium and Carbonate Ions in Treated Water................................40
Figure 6 Hot Process Softener (Downflow Type)..........................................................................................41
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CONTENTS (CONT)
Figure 7 Hot Process Softener (Upflow Type)...............................................................................................42
Figure 8 Typical Hot Process Softening System ...........................................................................................43
Figure 9 Hot Lime Process Predicted Calcium and Carbonate Ions in Treated Water.................................44
Figure 10 Rectangular Gravity Filter .............................................................................................................45
Figure 11 Pressure Filter (Downflow Type)...................................................................................................46
Figure 12 Horizontal Pressure Filter .............................................................................................................47
Figure 13 Forced Draft Degasifier.................................................................................................................48
Figure 14 Typical Ion Exchange Vessel ........................................................................................................49
Figure 15 Typical Demin Plant Configurations ..............................................................................................50
Figure 16 Regeneration Steps for Mixed Bed Units ......................................................................................51
Figure 17 Typical Exhaustion Patterns with Multiple Beds (Co-Current and Counter-Current) and Mixed Beds
52
Figure 18 Counter-Current Regeneration of Ion Exchange Units.................................................................54
Figure 19 Packed Bed Ion Exchange Vessels ..............................................................................................55
Figure 20 Reverse Osmosis Systems ...........................................................................................................56
Figure 21 Reverse Osmosis Membrane Types.............................................................................................57
Figure 22 Membrane Performance Characteristics.......................................................................................58
Figure 23 Parallel Single-Staged RO System ................................................................................................59
Figure 24 Brine-Staged RO System..............................................................................................................60
Figure 25 Simplified Seawater RO Plant 10 Million GPD (37.850 m3/d) Capacity........................................62
Figure 26 Simplified Brackish Water RO Plant 5 Million GPD (18,900 m3/d) Capacity................................63
Figure 27 Thermal Distillation Process..........................................................................................................64
Figure 28 Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) Distillation (with Brine Recycle) ............................................................65
Figure 29 Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) (Vertical Tubes) ............................................................................66
Figure 30 Solubility of Oxygen in Water (as a Function of Pressure and Temperature) ..............................67
Figure 31 Deaerator Schematic (Spray/Tray Type)......................................................................................68
Figure 32 Vacuum Degasifier........................................................................................................................69
Figure 33 Electro Magnetic Filters ................................................................................................................70
Figure 34 Powdered Resin Filters .................................................................................................................71
Figure 35 Pre-Coat Filters.............................................................................................................................72
Revision Memo
12/03 Added a Reliability Checklist Appenbix B
XXVI-A 4 of 96
SCOPE
This section describes water treating processes which are commonly used to produce boiler feedwater for utility and waste heat
boilers. This practice does not cover water treating processes associated with once-thru steam generation or dirty steam
generation systems. These applications are very site and process specific and cannot be generalized. The EMRE STEAM
SYSTEM SPECIALISTS are available for consultation on specific requirements. A method is presented to select the process
which will produce boiler feedwater of the required quality from municipal water, well water, surface water or salt and brackish
waters.
Included are design criteria for specific water treating units and considerations for selecting an optimum system.
REFERENCES
DESIGN PRACTICES
Section II Design Temperature, Design Pressure and Flange Ratings
Section V Drums
Section IX Heat Exchange Equipment
Section X Pumps
Section XII Instrumentation
Section XIV Fluid Flow
Section XXII Storage Facilities
GLOBAL PRACTICES
GP 1-1-1 Drawings, Diagrams and Line Lists
GP 3-10-4 Plastic and Plastic-Lined Piping
GP-11-0-0 Water Treating Units
COMPANY REFERENCES
ExxonMobil, Refinery Construction Materials Manual, EMRE Manual No. EETD 028
Chemical And Mechanical Cleaning Guide
ExxonMobil, Water and Wastewater Design Guide, EMRE Manual No. TMEE 080
OTHER LITERATURE
1. New Guide to Boiler Water Treatment, ER&E Report No. EE.2E.86.
2. Polyelectrolite Guide, ER&E Report No. EE.20E.84.
3. Applebaum, Samuel B., Demineralization by Ion Exchange, New York and London, Academic Press, 1968.
4. Drew Chemical Corporation, Principles of Industrial Water Treatment, Boonton, NJ, Drew Chemical Corporation, 1977.
5. Betz Chemical Corporation, Betz Handbook of Industrial Water Conditioning, Philadelphia, PA, Betz Laboratories Inc.,
1991.
6. Aqua-Chem Inc., Process Selection Guide for Seawater Desalting, Technical Presentation 750-3550.
7. Bechtel Group Inc., Desalination Technology-Report on the State of the Art, San Francisco, CA; Bechtel Inc., 1983.
BACKGROUND
The main objective of boiler water treatment is to eliminate or minimize problems caused by impurities in the water and steam.
The problems include corrosion, scale, carryover, and caustic embrittlement.
Corrosion can affect deaerators, feedwater heaters, boilers, economizers, condensers, piping, etc. Scale reduces heat transfer
and causes overheating of boiler tube metal. Foaming and priming cause boiler water carryover with the steam, which results
in turbine mechanical problems, plus superheater and turbine deposits. Carryover may also foul catalysts in process units.
Caustic embrittlement or intercrystalline cracking of metal occurs when the boiler water has embrittling characteristics and is
capable of attacking boiler metal.
General principles are given for designing boiler feedwater treatment systems. However, these principles are presented as a
guide only, since it is virtually impossible to provide a complete design covering every aspect of water treatment. It must be
recognized that treatment requirements are contingent on raw water quality, boiler type and pressure, steam usage, etc.
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BACKGROUND (Cont)
Effective water quality control can involve several steps and require proper monitoring at all times.
The two general classes of boiler feedwater conditioning are external and internal to the boiler. Both treatments have an effect
on each other and must be integrated to provide a uniform treatment program.
The external treatment process involves the following:
• Treatment of make-up water to reduce suspended solids, dissolved solids and organics to an acceptable level.
• Treatment of return condensate streams to reduce iron, dissolved solids and trace organics to an acceptable level, and to
maintain the proper pH.
• Degasification and deaeration to reduce the amount of dissolved gases in the make-up water and condensate streams.
The internal treatment process controls boiler water quality via chemical addition and blowdown control. This is required to
prevent corrosion of the boiler system and to avoid foaming, scaling and carryover into downstream equipment (e.g., steam
turbines, letdown stations, heat exchangers, etc.).
DEFINITIONS
Alkalinity
Includes the total carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide ion concentration in the water expressed as ppm calcium carbonate
equivalent. Alkalinity is measured by double titration with acid and Phenolphthaline (P) and Methyl Orange (MO or M)
indicators. The MO alkalinity includes all carbonate, bicarbonate and hydroxil ions and the P alkalinity includes all hydroxil and
1/2 of the carbonate ions.
Anions
Negatively charged ions in the water (e.g., sulfates, chlorides, nitrates, bicarbonates, etc.).
Anion Exchanger
A vessel containing insoluble resin which is capable of exchanging one anion, usually hydroxide ions, for other anions in the
water (e.g., sulfates, chlorides, nitrates, etc.).
Backwash
The upward flow of water through a filter or fixed bed ion exchange unit to remove accumulated suspended solids and to
reduce compaction of the bed.
Bed
The depth of ion exchange resin or other solid media in a vessel.
Blowdown
The removal of a portion of water from the boiler drum to control the concentration of dissolved and suspended impurities in the
boiler water.
Brine
A solution of sodium chloride in water.
Calcium and Magnesium Hardness

The concentration of calcium and magnesium ions in the water, expressed as ppm calcium carbonate equivalent.
Cations
Positively charged ions in the water (e.g., calcium, magnesium, sodium, etc.).
Cation Exchanger
A vessel containing insoluble resin which is capable of exchanging one cation, usually hydrogen or sodium ions, for other
cations in the water (e.g., calcium, magnesium, etc.).
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DEFINITIONS (Cont)
Caustic or Caustic Soda

The chemical compound sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
Coagulation
A process whereby suspended and colloidal particles, which cause turbidity and color in water, are combined by physical
means into masses sufficiently large to be settled.
Colloid
A substance made up of very small, insoluble particles less than one micron in size. These particles are small enough so that
they remain suspended in a liquid without settling to the bottom.
Concentrate
The waste (high dissolved solids) water stream from a membrane system (eg. Reverse Osmosis, Electrodialysis, etc.).
Conductivity
The ability of water to conduct electricity due to the presence of ionized material within the solution. Conductivity is expressed
in micromhos (or micro Siemens), and is in direct proportion to the amount of dissolved matter in the water.
Degasification / Decarbonation
The process of removing dissolved gases other than air from water. Air from a blower comes into intimate counter-current
contact with the water droplets and scrubs out the gases. Degasification in boiler water treatment usually has as its aim the
removal of carbon dioxide.
Demineralization
The removal of dissolved ionic matter from water.
Dissolved Solids
Normally salt impurities which are present in the water in solution, usually as ionic material.
Dolomitic Lime
Lime containing 30 - 35 wt% magnesium oxide.
Filtration
The process of passing water containing suspended matter through a suitable porous material in such a manner as to
effectively reduce the concentration of suspended matter in water. The suspended matter is normally reduced to less than one
NTU of turbidity.
Free Mineral Acidity

The presence of acids such as sulfuric, nitric, and hydrochloric in the effluent of a cation exchanger, expressed as ppm calcium
carbonate equivalent.
Hardness Alkalinity
The concentration of calcium and magnesium bicarbonate and carbonate salts in water, expressed as ppm calcium carbonate
equivalent.
Hydrate Alkalinity
The free hydroxide ions in water, expressed as ppm calcium carbonate equivalent.
Ion
Electrically charged particle formed when a molecule dissociates into positive and negative particles in water (e.g., salt into
sodium + and chloride - ions).
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DEFINITIONS (Cont)
Lime, Slaked
The chemical compound calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2. Slaked lime is also called hydrated lime.
Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU)

Turbidity of a sample of water, measured by light reflection.
Osmosis
A natural process where pure water flows from a dilute saline solution, through a membrane, into a more concentrated solution.
Osmotic Pressure
The pressure (head) of a solution which is a function of its impurities (salt concentration).
Permeators
Membrane units which are used in the desalination of water. The most widely used permeators are either “spiral wound" or
“hollow fiber" type units.
Permeate
The product (pure) water stream from a permeator or RO System.
Raw Water
Water which has not yet been processed by the water treating plant.
Regeneration
The process of replenishing the ion exchange capacity of an ion exchange resin.
Reverse Osmosis
A process which uses pressure energy to separate water from its contaminants. Pressure is applied externally to overcome the
osmotic pressure of the fluid. This allows the passing of “pure" water (permeate) through a membrane while retaining the solids
rich residual (concentrate).
Resin
A term referring to ion exchange material used in a water treating process.
Silica
An impurity present in water sources, expressed as reactive SiO2.
Softening
The process of removing calcium and magnesium ions from water.
Soda or Soda Ash

The chemical compound sodium carbonate (Na2CO3).
Sodium Zeolite
A cation resin capable of removing calcium and magnesium ions from water by exchanging the calcium and magnesium ions
with sodium ions.
Suspended Solids
Finely divided insoluble matter present in water. The suspended solids are normally inorganic material, such as clay, rock, silt,
etc.
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DEFINITIONS (Cont)
Total Hardness
See Calcium and Magnesium Hardness.
Total Solids
The sum of the suspended and dissolved solids in water.
Train
Two or more vessels operating in series.
Treated Water
Water which has been processed by the water treating plant to reduce the level of suspended and dissolved impurities.
Turbidity
A term referring to the lack of clearness in a water due to the presence of suspended or colloidal matter and expressed in
Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).
BOILER WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS

The allowable concentration of impurities in boiler water determines the type of boiler feedwater treatment required. Operating
experience with new boilers throughout the ExxonMobil circuit has shown that serious carryover problems have resulted when
boiler water treatment is designed for the maximum total solids concentration that used to be permitted by the American Boiler
Manufacturer's Association (ABMA). Wide fluctuations in steam load, high heat flux rate and small steam drums on modern
boilers increase carryover, which result in loss of superheater tubes and excessive turbine blade deposits. To avoid these
problems, ExxonMobil based its designs on limits which were about 50% lower than the ABMA limits.
In recent years, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) developed a Consensus on Operating Practices for the
Control of Feedwater and Boiler Water Quality in Modern Industrial Boilers. ER&E's New Guide to Boiler Water Treatment
(Report No. EE.2E.86) incorporates these new standards. The following simplified tables are extracted from the EE Guide and
can be used for planning purposes. Consult with the WATER TREATING DISCIPLINE SPECIALIST regarding specific design
requirements.
Tables 1A&B lists the Boiler Drum Water limits for Non-demineralized and Demineralized Operations, respectively.
In general, boiler blowdown rates of less than 5% require demineralized water. In addition, boiler operating pressure ranges
determine the type of make-up water treatment required for trouble free and economic operation.
BOILER PRESSURE RANGES

psig (bar) TYPE OF MAKE-UP WATER TREATMENT
< 500 (35) Softening
500 - 1000 (35 - 69) Demineralization or Softening
> 1000 (> 69) Demineralization
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BOILER WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS (Cont)

Table 1
Boiler Drum Water Limits
Non-Demineralized Operation
Table 1A
BOILER PRESSURE, psig (barg)

PARAMETER 0 - 150 151 - 300 301 - 450 451 - 600 601 - 750 751 - 900
(0 - 10) (10 - 21) (21 - 31) (31 - 41) (41 - 52) (52 - 62)
Conductivity at 25°C
< 1750 < 1500 < 1250 < 1000 < 750 < 625
(77°F) (µS/cm)
Total (M) Alkalinity
< 350 < 300 < 250 < 200 < 150 < 125
(ppm as CaCO3)
Free Hydroxyl Alkalinity (2P-M)
< 175 < 150 < 125 < 100 < 75 < 60
(ppm as CaCO3)
Silica (ppm SiO2) < 125 < 90 < 50 35 < 20 <8
Chloride (ppm Cl) < 250 < 225 < 200 < 175 < 150 < 50
Suspended Solids (ppm) < 15 < 15 < 10 <8 <6 <4
Table 1B
Boiler Drum Water Limits
Demineralized Operation
BOILER PRESSURE, psig (barg)

PARAMETER 450 - 600 601 - 750 751 - 900 901 - 1200 1201 - 1500 1501 - 2000
(31 - 41) (41 - 52) (52 - 62) (62 - 83) (83 - 103) (103 - 138)
< 300 < 200 < 175 < 150 < 100 - - - - - - - - >
Conductivity at 25°C
(77°F) (µS/cm)
< 35 < 20 <8 < 2.5 < 1.0 < 0.5
Silica (ppm SiO2)
< 50 < 10 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -> <5 <2
Chloride (ppm Cl)
<8 <6 <4 <2 <1 —
Suspended Solids (ppm)
Note: For planning purposes, multiply conductivity by 0.75 to obtain ppm TDS for raw water. For Demineralized water, divide
conductivity by 2.25 to obtain ppm TDS.
EXTERNAL BOILER WATER TREATING PROCESSES

GENERAL
Selection of an appropriate water treating scheme depends primarily on the raw water source and the required treated water
quality. However, there may be several parallel paths which could provide similar treatment and satisfy plant requirements. An
optimum configuration typically requires some economic analysis reflecting both investment as well as operating costs. In the
case of expansion projects, the existing BFW treating configuration may dictate the design. Some processes require mainly
utilities (e.g., power or steam) while others are high chemicals consumers (e.g., acid or caustic). Periodic replacement of filter
media or cartridges, membranes or ion exchange resin also have to be considered. Additionally, water losses, fuel
consumption (a function of blowdown rate) and disposition of waste streams (e.g., sludges) can influence the selection of the
most appropriate water treating scheme. Table 2 shows a listing of several water treating processes and their ability to reduce
water impurities.
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EXTERNAL BOILER WATER TREATING PROCESSES (Cont)

Raw water sources are either fresh water or salt water and within those categories there may be significant differences which
require special treatment attention. Fresh water could be purchased municipal water; or it could be surface water from a lake
or river; or it could be well water. Salt water could be pumped from a sea water intake station or from a sea water well located
on land.
Figure 1 - Water Treatment Flow Plan with Fresh Water Supply, shows the various treatment alternatives and resulting
impurities reduction possibilities when the make-up water source is fresh water. The figure also shows typical steam
condensate impurities and deaerator effluent qualities.
Figure 2 - Water Treatment Flow Plan with Salt Water Supply, shows alternative treatment paths with salt water supply.
Table 2
Impurity Reduction for Various Water Treating Processes
TOTAL METHYL
WATER TREATING TOTAL DISSOLVED ORANGE
PROCESS HARDNESS SOLIDS SILICA ALKALINITY TURBIDITY
Clarification X
Cold Lime Softening X X X X
Hot Lime Softening X X X X X
Filtration X
Sodium Zeolite Treating X
Hydrogen/Sodium Zeolite Treating X X X
Demineralization X X X X
Evaporation X X X X
Reverse Osmosis (Membranes) X X X X
Note: X - Indicates reduction of Listed Water Impurity by Water Treating Process
CLARIFICATION
Clarification reduces the colloidal and suspended matter found in many raw water sources. This is often the first step in a water
treating process and is typically followed by filtration.
The clarification process incorporates coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation. Each is a distinct procedure which
mandates certain requirements to insure the desired results.
Alum or iron salts have generally been used as primary coagulants. However, as sludge disposal becomes more stringent,
other coagulants are often used. These include aluminate and organic polymers. Refer to Report No. EE.2E.86 (New Guide to
Boiler Water Treatment) and Report No. EE.20E.84 (Polyelectrolite Guide) for more details.
The two most commonly used designs are sludge-contact clarifiers and tilted-plate (or parallel plate) clarifiers. Sludge-contact
clarifiers are more forgiving to fluctuations in raw-water quality and flow rates than tilted-plate clarifiers and for this reason they
are utilized in typical ExxonMobil designs. However, tilted-plate clarifiers require less space, are less costly, and function well
enough for some applications.
Most ExxonMobil designs utilize the sludge-contact type clarifier to produce best possible effluent quality. The tilted plate unit
may find application in retrofit designs where space is limited. A sludge-contact clarifier is shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4
depicts a parallel plate type clarifier unit.
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Clarifiers are available in a wide variety of shapes. They can be square or rectangular, circular or box type construction (e.g.,
parallel plate type units). The most common type is the circular unit and following are some considerations and design
parameters:
• Clarifiers (and filters) are normally included upstream of demineralization plants with surface water sources. Municipal
water is normally clarified water.
• Clarifiers are used when the turbidity in the raw water is > 50 NTU.
• Water retention time should be more than one hour.
• Clarifier effluent turbidity is in the 3 to 10 NTU range and normally requires filtration prior to use or subsequent treatment.
• Maximum rise rate should be limited to 1.0 gpm/ft2 (0.7 L/s/m2).
• Sludge concentration should be in the 2 to 5 wt% range.
• Flow changes should be < 10% per hour.
• Flow rates should be kept in the 40 to 100% range to avoid excessive carryover.
• Installation is typically above ground for hydraulic considerations.
• For cold weather locations, winterization can be provided via housing enclosure or roof / dome.
• Sludge disposition may require special attention to meet local environmental regulations.
COLD PROCESS SOFTENERS

Cold process softening is one step beyond clarification because of the added benefit of total solids reduction. When lime or
soda ash is added to the water at ambient conditions, the process is known as Cold Lime Softening. Most raw waters contain
calcium and magnesium bicarbonate hardness which is often referred to as carbonate or temporary hardness. Hardness may
also exist as sulfate or chloride salts and this is often called non-carbonate or permanent hardness.
When hydrated lime is added to the water, the following reactions occur:
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 = 2CaCO3 + 2H2O

Temporary
Lime Sludge Water
Hardness
Mg(HCO3)2 + 2Ca(OH)2 = Mg(OH)2 + 2CaCO3 + 2H2O
Temporary
Lime Sludge Sludge Water
Hardness
Hydrated lime may also react with magnesium salts associated with sulfates and chlorides. In these reactions, insoluble
magnesium hydroxide sludge is produced. This precipitate is removed by sedimentation and filtration. However, the soluble
by-products of calcium sulfate and calcium chloride are also formed and the result is that there is no reduction in dissolved salts
as shown by the following equations:
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 = Mg(OH)2 + CaSO4

Permanent
Lime Sludge Salt
Hardness
+ Ca(OH)2 = Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2
MgCl2
Permanent
Lime Sludge Salt
Hardness
For improved hardness reduction, soda ash may be used. It reacts with the non-carbonate calcium hardness as follows:
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 = CaCO3 + Na2SO4

Soda Ash Sludge
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 = CaCO3 + 2NaCl

Soda Ash Sludge
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The non-carbonate magnesium hardness reduction requires added lime:
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 + Na2CO3 = Mg(OH)2 + CaCO3 + Na2SO4

Lime Soda Ash Sludge Sludge
MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 + N2CO3 = Mg(OH)2 + CaCO3 + 2NaCl

Lime Soda Ash Sludge Sludge
Therefore, the combined use of lime and soda ash effectively removes noncarbonate hardness but the total dissolved solids
content of the water is not reduced due to the formation of soluble sodium salts.
Typically, the effluent from a cold lime softener will fall in the following range:
Hardness 10 - 100 ppm as CaCO3
Alkalinity 40 - 100 ppm as CaCO3
Turbidity 5 NTU
Free Carbon Dioxide NIL
pH 10.2
The methodology for predicting the effluent quality from a cold lime softening unit is as follows:
1. Using a standard Water Analysis Sheet (Table A-1), list the concentrations of all known impurities in the raw water. With
the exception of iron, free carbon dioxide and silica, all dissolved solids concentrations are to be reported as ppm calcium
carbonate equivalent.
2. The sodium, sulfate, chloride, and silica values will be unchanged.
3. Lime will be added, in sufficient quantity to obtain a 5 ppm as CaCO3 hydroxide ion residual in the treated water. Show pH
at 10.2, turbidity at 5 NTU.
4. If the magnesium concentration in the raw water is greater than 70 ppm, enter 70 ppm magnesium in the treated water
analysis. If magnesium concentration in raw water is less than 70 ppm, enter 90 percent of the actual value.
5. Use Figure 5 to determine the concentration of calcium and carbonate (as CaCO3 equivalent) in the lime treated water.
Example:
Total Hardness (TH) 270 ppm, Methyl Orange Alkalinity (MO) 150 ppm, Magnesium (Mg) 90 ppm.
From the Figure:
TH − MO + (70 − Mg) = 270 − 150 + (70 − 70) = 120
From the curve Ca = 75 ppm, CO3 = 20 ppm
Hardness reduction can be maximized with a minimal increase in alkalinity by the continuous addition of 55 ppm of soda ash or
caustic (both expressed as CaCO3). The effect of this addition will be a reduction of calcium to 34 ppm, an increase in
alkalinity to 34 ppm, and an increase of sodium by 55 ppm (all expressed as CaCO3). All other impurities remain the same.
The cold lime softener is similar to the clarifier in terms of operation and controls (sludge blanket/recirculated sludge/chemical
feeds) and physical appearance (Figure 3). However, the cold lime softener forms a heavier sludge from precipitating the
hardness in the feed water; and therefore may be operated at higher flowrates than clarifiers with the same diameter.
XXVI-A 13 of 96

Cold process softeners accomplish clarification and softening in the same vessel. Design guidelines / parameters are as
follows:
• Minimum water retention time should be one hour.
• Maximum rise rate should be limited to 1.25 gpm/ft2 (0.85 L/s/m2).
• Underflow (Blowdown) slurry concentration should not exceed 5 wt%.
• An example of typical cold process softener performance for an assumed raw water analysis is shown in the following
table.
COLD PROCESS SOFTENING

PARAMETER
RAW LIME LIME AND
WATER ONLY SODA ASH
Total Hardness (as CaCO3), ppm 250 145 81
Calcium Hardness (as CaCO3), ppm 150 85 35
Magnesium Hardness (as CaCO3), ppm 100 60 46
“P" Alkalinity (as CaCO3), ppm 0 27 37
“M" Alkalinity (as CaCO3), ppm 150 44 55
Silica (as SiO2), ppm 20 19 18
pH 7.5 10.3 10.6
• Additional calculation procedures for cold lime softening units performance are covered in Report No. EE.2E.86. They
include:
– Effects of metal coagulants on raw water analysis.
– Predicting effluent quality from cold lime softening units.
– Calculation of chemicals requirements for cold lime units.
• Design of lime slurry feed systems requires special attention to avoid plugging of lines and equipment.
• Thickeners are typically an integral part of this system to concentrate the waste lime sludges from 5 to 25 wt%.
HOT PROCESS SOFTENERS

The hot process softener, also commonly called the hot lime softener, works on similar principles as the cold lime unit with
regard to clarification and hardness removal.
The hot process softener also removes carbon dioxide and oxygen from the water. In addition, silica is reduced via adsorption
on the magnesium hydroxide precipitate (sludge).
There are basically two types of units: the downflow type as shown in Figure 6 and the upflow type as shown in Figure 7. The
upflow unit is more effective in reducing silica by passing the water through a large sludge blanket.
Hot process softeners are usually followed by pressure filters and hot sodium zeolite units. Since the filters require frequent
backwash (at least once every 24 hours), adequate storage of filtered backwash water should be an integral part of the system.
A typical hot process softening system is shown in Figure 8.
A typical effluent from a hot process softener will have the following analysis:
Hardness 10 - 100 ppm as CaCO3

Alkalinity 20 - 50 ppm as CaCO3
Silica 1.0 ppm as SiO2
Turbidity 5 NTU
Free Carbon Dioxide Nil
pH > 10.2
XXVI-A 14 of 96

The methodology for predicting the effluent quality from a hot lime softening unit is as follows:
1. Using a Standard Water Analysis Sheet, list the concentration of all known impurities in the raw water. With the exception
of iron, free carbon dioxide and silica, all dissolved solids concentrations are reported as ppm calcium carbonate
equivalent.
2. From Figure 9, determine the dilution factor resulting from the condensate forming from the steam required to heat the cold
raw water.
3. The sodium, sulfate, chloride, and chloride values in the lime softened water will be the amount shown in the Water
Analysis Sheet multiplied by the dilution factor.
4. Lime will be added, in sufficient quantity to obtain a 5 ppm as CaCO3 hydroxide ion residual, a pH at 10.2, turbidity at 5
NTU and magnesium at 5 ppm as CaCO3 in the lime treated water.
5. Using Figure 9, determine the concentration of calcium and carbonate (as CaCO3 equivalent) in the lime treated water.
Example:
Lime Softener Operating Pressure - 10 psig
Raw Water Temperature - 60°F
From the Figure, the dilution factor equals 0.84. Sodium, sulfate, and chloride values shown in the raw water analysis are
multiplied by the dilution factor 0.84.
Total Hardness - 300 ppm, Methyl Orange Alkalinity - 200 ppm.
Raw Water Total Hardness - Raw Water Alkalinity times a dilution factor (300 − 200) 0.84 = 84.
From the curve, using the value of 84, Ca++ (calcium) = 100 ppm, CO3 − (carbonate) = 16 ppm.
• Additional procedures for hot lime softening units performance are covered in Report No. EE.2E.86. They include:
– Determination of Soda-Ash or Caustic requirements for calcium non-carbonate hardness reduction.
– Silica reduction with hot lime softening.
– Predicting effluent silica content from hot lime softener units.
– Calculation of chemicals requirements for hot lime units.
• As in the case for cold lime units, design of chemical feed and sludge disposal systems require special attention.
Design guidelines/parameters for hot process softeners are as follows:
• Vessel capacity shall provide a minimum of one hour holdup of makeup water.
• The maximum allowable water flowrate (rise rate) shall be 2.25 gpm/ft2 (1.5 L/s/m2) at water temperatures above 200°F
(90°C). This rate shall not be exceeded when backwashing filters or rinsing zeolite softeners.
This rate shall be reduced to 2.0 gpm/ft2 (1.4 L/s/m2) for waters containing appreciable organic matter, turbidity, or
magnesium to meet guaranteed effluent turbidity of less than 5 NTU for a throughput ranging from 10 to 100% of design
rate.
• An example of hot process softener performance is shown in the table below. The assumed raw water analysis is the
same as the one used for the cold lime softener example discussed previously. The table shows that silica reduction is
greatly improved over the cold lime process and that lime-soda hot process softening yields a significant reduction in
hardness over lime only hot process softening.
HOT PROCESS SOFTENING

PARAMETER
RAW LIME LIME AND
WATER ONLY SODA ASH
Total Hardness (as CaCO3), ppm 250 120 20
Calcium Hardness (as CaCO3), ppm 150 115 15
Magnesium Hardness (as CaCO3), ppm 100 5 5
“P" Alkalinity (as CaCO3), ppm 0 18 23
“M" Alkalinity (as CaCO3), ppm 150 28 40
Silica (as SiO2), ppm 20 1-2 1-2
pH 7.5 10.4 10.5
XXVI-A 15 of 96

Removal of SiO2 by the hot process, to the levels shown, may require the feed of supplemental magnesium oxide. Sludge
recirculation is necessary. All raw water constituents will be diluted by the steam used for direct heating by approximately 15%.
• Steam requirements for hot lime units can be estimated as follows:
FHL hHL − FRW hRW
FSTM =
hSTM
where: FSTM = Steam Requirements, lb/h (kg/s)

FHL = Hot Lime Effluent Rate, lb/h (kg/s)
FRW = Raw Water Rate, lb/h (kg/s)
hSTM = Enthalpy of Steam, Btu/lb (kJ/kg)
hHL = Enthalpy of Hot Line Unit effluent, Btu/lb (kJ/kg)
hRW = Enthalpy of Raw Water, Btu/lb (kJ/kg)
FILTRATION
Filtration removes suspended and colloidal solids as well as unsettled chemical precipitates from the water. Location and type
of filter used depend on the various other steps of the water treating process.
Filter media typically consists of one or more layers of fine material (sand, anthracite, garnet) and an underdrain/collection
system.
In-depth filtration utilizes at least two filter media of different densities for effective removal of course and small particles.
Anthracite coal which is of lower density than sand is placed on top of the finer sand or garnet layer. The anthracite removes
the coarser particles while the sand provides polishing action. This type of filter provides longer service runs and produces
effluent water quality of less than 0.5 NTU.
The service cycle of the filter is terminated based on pressure rise through the bed(s), on a timed basis or high effluent turbidity.
After the filter is taken out of service it is backwashed with water only or in combination with an air scour or subsurface wash
cycle. Filters are spared to provide sufficient onstream capacity while one filter is backwashed. In addition, filtered water
storage volume has to reflect backwash water requirements.
Valved Gravity Filters are usually employed on pretreated water with low turbidity. These filters can be rectangular concrete
field erected units or round steel pre-fab units. The local economic factors will determine the optimum choice. These filters can
be cleaned via air-scour and backwash water. This type of filter is shown in Figure 10A.
Valveless Gravity Filters offer the attractiveness of automatic self-cleaning by means of a built-in backwash system. These
filters look like cylindrical tanks and can contain several filter compartments. During the filtering cycle, the water level rises
slowly in the backwash pipe as the pressure across the filter bed rises. At a preselected level, water overflows to waste and
the water from the backwash storage section flows through the bed and out through the same pipe. Backwashing stops when
the end of a siphon breaker is exposed to air. The unit thus automatically cycles through service and backwash periods.
These operations are shown in Figure 10B. These filters have the following disadvantages:
1. No valves. Therefore backwash frequency and cycle duration are not controllable.
2. The media cannot be air-scoured to assist in cleaning.
Pressure Filters contain filter media in closed vessels. These can be installed in piping systems without repumping, and
permit operation at elevated temperature without loss of heat. Various types and sizes are available.
In the downflow type pressure filter, the water passes through two layers of filter material before it exits the vessel. Anthracite
coal is usually the top layer followed by fine sand or garnet as shown in Figure 11A. The anthracite is for high capacity filtration
of course impurities and the sand or garnet provides the polishing filtration. Dual media filters have higher capacities and
longer run lengths than single media filters. The filter is taken out of service and backwashed when the filter media becomes
clogged as exhibited by increased pressure drop.
In an upflow type pressure filter, the direction of water flow is reversed so that the unfiltered water passes through layers of
coarse material first and final filtration is via the finer sand layer. This allows removal of larger suspended solids in the bottom
course layer while smaller particles are trapped in the finer sand layer. A retaining grid is used to prevent loss of sand during
the normal (upflow) service cycle as shown in Figure 11B. Filter cleaning is accomplished via flushing and air scouring in the
reverse (downflow) mode.
Horizontal pressure filters may find application in cases where vertical space is limited. Filters as large as 10 ft (2.4 m)
diameter and 25 ft (7.6 m) long are available. These filters can be compartmentalized in order to limit high backwash water
requirements. A horizontal pressure filter is shown in Figure 12A.
XXVI-A 16 of 96

Cartridge and Pre-Coat Filters are used for polishing action on particulates which elude media filtration (20 - 30 microns and
smaller). Cartridge filters go down to the sub-micron range but they are most commonly rated at 5 or 10 microns. Effective
operation depends on in-depth filtration rather than surface action. When cumulative removal results in excessive pressure
drop, the filter medium is discarded. This type of filter may find application upstream of a Reverse Osmosis (RO) plant in order
to prevent fouling of membranes. Pre-Coat filters target even finer particles and are often used in condensate polishing
service. Filter coats are performed with powder slurries which are deposited on wire screen or porous cloth tubes. These
tubes are inserted into a filter vessel housing and the unit is kept in service until the filter elements show increasing pressure
drop or if effluent water quality shows signs of deterioration. Cleaning of filter elements (via air pressure and flushing) plus
application of new pre-coat is required before the filter unit is placed back in service. Examples of Pre-Coat and Cartridge
filters are shown in Figure 12B.
Design guidelines / parameters for filters are as follows:
• Feed systems shall be designed to minimize pressure and flow surges.
• Normal and maximum hydraulic loadings for filters shall be (with one unit out of service for backwashing):
MAXIMUM
FILTER SYSTEM TYPE
gpm/ft2 L/s/m2
Downflow (cold) pressure filters [< 150°F (65°C)] 4.0 2.7
Downflow (hot) pressure filters [> 150°F (65°C)] 4.5 3.0
Downflow gravity filters 4.0 2.7
Upflow pressure filters Vendor Standard
Filter systems / units shall be designed so that maximum flowrates are not exceeded when a vessel is not in service due to
backwash or maintenance requirements.
• Minimum design backwash flowrates shall be as follows:
TYPE gpm/ft2 L/s/m2

Sand 15 10.2
Anthracite Coal 12 8.1
Garnet 25 17.0
• Minimum design air scour rate shall be as follows:
TYPE scfm/ft2 L/s/m2

Downflow filters (Dual Media and Gravity) 5 25
Upflow, sand 4 20
• Bed depth in filters shall be 30 in. (750 mm) minimum.

• For “in-depth" filters at least two different density media, of different sizes, shall be provided. Typically an 18 in. (450 mm)
layer of anthracite coal on top of a 12 in. (300 mm) layer of fine sand is used.
• Freeboard volume shall be provided to facilitate backwash and air scour operations without loss of filter media.
DEMINERALIZATION BY ION EXCHANGE

GENERAL
The ion exchange process utilizes vertical cylindrical vessels which contain ion exchange resin of various types. These resins
remove dissolved salts from the water and replace them with Hydrogen (H+) and Hydroxyl (OH-) ions thus producing “pure"
water.
XXVI-A 17 of 96

Resins which replace positively charged ions such as Calcium (Ca++), Magnesium (Mg++), Sodium (Na+), etc., are called cation
resins and they are regenerated with an acid (sulfuric or hydrochloric) to replace the hydrogen ions which were exchanged for
the “cations". Sulfuric acid is used most often because it is cheaper than hydrochloric acid and requires less investment for
vessel internals and related facilities. Construction material for hydrochloric acid is Hastelloy whereas stainless steel is
acceptable for sulfuric acid. Hydrochloric acid is more efficient than sulfuric acid and there are no concerns with scaling and
fouling. Hydrochloric acid has a high volatility thus producing vapors. The design may require using vent scrubbers to limit
exposure to HCl fumes.
Resins which replace negatively charged ions such as Sulfate (SO4– –), Chloride (Cl–), Carbonate (CO3– –), etc., are called
anion resins and they are regenerated with caustic (NaOH) to replace the hydroxyl ions which were exchanged for the “anions."
There are weak and strong cation as well as weak and strong anion resins. In general, the weak resins are more efficient in
terms of chemicals (acid or caustic) consumption. However, these resins are also limited in their ability to remove ions. For
example, cation removal with weak acid cation (WAC) resin is limited to the amount of Bicarbonate (HCO3–) Alkalinity in the
water; and Anion removal is limited to Sulfides, Chlorides and Nitrates in the acidic form when using Weak Base Anion (WBA)
resin.
Some cations and anions will slip through the ion exchange system and this is called “leakage." The amount of leakage is a
function of many factors (e.g., influent water quality, regeneration chemicals dosage and specific resin type).
Multiple beds in series, or variation in regeneration procedures, and/or mixed bed polishing units can be used to reduce final
leakage and to produce a very low solids effluent.
Ion exchange resin can also be employed in the water softening process by using cation resin in the sodium cycle. Resin
regeneration is with a Salt (NaCl) solution and this process has the advantage of not producing a waste sludge stream as is the
case with hot and cold lime softening.
Optimum plant configuration should be based on economics and the following factors should be considered:
• Investment for facilities (vessels, piping, regeneration system).
• Layout Optimization.
• Chemical costs.
• Power costs (for pumping, fans etc.).
• Resin cost, resin life.
• Disposition of waste streams (e.g., Environmental Factors).
The plant can include single bed units (cation or anion), layered beds (weak and strong resins of similar type in same vessel),
or mixed bed units (polishing type containing strong cation and strong anion resins in the same vessel).
The plant may include degasifiers for efficient mechanical removal of bicarbonate alkalinity (instead of incremental anion
exchange capacity and thus increased chemicals usage). A typical forced draft degasifier is shown in Figure 13.
Historically, most plants were designed in the downflow mode with co-current regeneration systems where regenerant chemical
flow is in the same direction as service flow. In those systems, the bottom resin layer is not regenerated as completely as the
top most layer thus resulting in high ionic leakage.
Layered bed units (Stratabedsâ) combining weak and strong cation or anion resins have been used to minimize chemicals
consumption during regeneration.
More recent designs have used counter-current regeneration (CCR) techniques which improve effluent water quality
significantly. With such a scheme, regenerant chemical flow is in the opposite direction of the service flow and this assures that
during normal operation the water contacts the best regenerated resin layer last. Designs with counter-current regeneration
systems have essentially negated the need for mixed bed polishing units in many locations.
Another development in CCR technology is “packed bed" units. These systems employ shorter vessels than those used in
conventional co-current or counter-current units. The packed bed system essentially eliminates the need for the vessel
“freeboard" space thus saving vessel volume and also reduces total regenerant volumes. A typical conventional ion exchange
vessel is shown in Figure 14. Examples of demineralization plant configurations which have been used in ExxonMobil plants
are shown in Figure 15.
Regeneration of the ion exchange units requires several steps and during that period, spare vessels and/or treated water
storage capacity are needed to provide uninterrupted supply of treated water. Typical steps in the regen sequence include
backwash, chemical injection, displacement of chemicals and rinse prior to returning the unit back to service. Regeneration
time can vary significantly depending on the number of steps involved. Figure 16 shows the sequence of steps required for
mixed bed units.
XXVI-A 18 of 96

Design guidelines / parameters for fixed bed ion exchange (excluding packed beds) units and forced draft degasifiers are as
follows:
• Influent water quality shall not exceed the limits listed in order to avoid plugging, fouling and deterioration of resins.
PARAMETER CO-CURRENT COUNTER CURRENT

Turbidity 1 NTU 0.1 NTU
Iron and manganese 0.3 ppm 0.3 ppm
Chlorine 0.1 ppm 0.1 ppm
Oil 0.3 ppm 0.3 ppm
• Flowrates for design of vessel diameter should be kept in the 2 - 15 gpm/ft2 (18 gpm/ft2 if uniform resin is used) (1.4 - 8.1
L/s/m2) range. The lower limit prevents channeling and the maximum rate allows higher service flows during those periods
when other vessels are in regeneration. The maximum flowrate for mixed bed units in polishing service shall not exceed
24 gpm/ft2 (16.3 L/s/m2).
• Maximum and minimum bed depths shall be 84 in. (2100 mm) and 30 in. (750 mm), respectively.
• The maximum practical vessel diameter is 15 ft (4.6 m).
• Freeboard (as measured from the top of the exhausted resin bed) shall be as follows:
Cation Units – 0.75 x resin bed depth + 42 in. (1050 mm)
Anion Units – 1.0 x resign bed depth + 48 in. (1200 mm)
Mixed Bed Units – 1.0 x resin bed depth + 48 in. (1200 mm)
• Units should be designed with a maximum of one regeneration per 24 hours.
• Parallel units and storage shall be provided to maintain design plant water requirements at all times.
• Forced draft degasifiers (also known as Decarbonators) typically reduce free carbon dioxide (CO2) to 5 ppm and oxygen
(O2) to the 6 - 8 ppm range.
– Maximum allowable water flowrate shall be 17.5 gpm/ft2 (11.9 L/s/m2) of cross sectional tower area. Minimum tower
height shall be 16 ft (4800 mm).
– The minimum allowable air flowrate shall be 3 scfm per gpm (20 L/s per L/s) of design water flow.
– Storage capacity shall not be less than 10 minutes of design throughput rate. Additional storage capacity may be
needed for regeneration water requirements.
SODIUM ZEOLITE SOFTENING

This process removes scale-forming calcium and magnesium salts from the water by replacing them with an equivalent amount
of sodium salts. This treatment does not change the total dissolved solids in the water and has no effect on other constituents
such as silica and alkalinity. Effluent water hardness is reduced to 2 ppm expressed as Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3). Lower
leakage can be obtained by considering CCR.
Synthetic polystyrene resins (Z) are commonly used for sodium zeolite softening. The fundamental reaction with calcium in the
sodium zeolite softening process is:
Ca++ + Na2Z = CaZ + 2Na+
Calcium + Sodium Calcium + Sodium

Ion Zeolite Zeolite Ion
When the zeolite resin is exhausted and will not release any more sodium in exchange for calcium or magnesium, the bed must
be regenerated. It is regenerated with a salt (NaCl) solution. The regeneration reaction for calcium may be written as follows:
CaZ + 2NaCl = Na2Z + CaCl2
Calcium + Sodium Sodium + Calcium

Zeolite Chloride Zeolite Chloride
XXVI-A 19 of 96

Zeolite softeners are also used in combination with hot process lime softener units (refer to Figure 8). Since the zeolite unit
operates on the hot effluent from the softener, it is essential that it be maintained under pressure at all times. If the pressure
inside the vessel is permitted to drop, the water temperature may be high enough to cause steam to form under the zeolite bed.
If enough steam is formed, resin may be lost with the backwash water. To avoid flashing conditions, valves on the units must
be carefully operated in the proper sequence. Water used for regenerating a zeolite softener should come from storage. Dirty
backwash water, if recovered, should go to separate storage. Problems with hot lime/zeolite plants are caused by overloading
the hot lime softener. Overloading results from using the lime softener as a source of backwash and regeneration water
without having separate storage compartments.
The Sodium Zeolite regeneration procedure requires three steps:
1. Backwash for 15 minutes.
2. Inject 10% Salt (NaCl) solution based on the resin volume and the desired exchange capacity. The salt also has to meet
minimum purity specifications to avoid resin fouling (see Table 3).
3. Rinse the resin until effluent quality is acceptable to return the vessel back to service. Use 50 gal/ft3 (6700 L/m3) of resin
volume to establish rinse water requirements.
Table 3
Typical Cation Resin Capacities - Sodium Cycle
(Co-Current Regen)
REGENERANT DOSAGE VS. EXCHANGE CAPACITY

Regenerant Dosage Exchange Capacity
lb 100% NaCl/ft3 Resin kilograins as CaCO3/ft3 Resin
5 17.0
6 18.5
7 19.5
8 20.4
9 21.2
10 22.0
11 23.0
12 24.0
13 24.7
14 25.5
Notes:
(1) 7 kilograins equals one pound.
(2) Leakage is 2 ppm as CaCO3.
(3) Regeneration is with 10% salt solution.
(4) For planning purposes only; use resin vendor data for design.
SALT (NACL) SPECIFICATION

Either rock or evaporated salt meeting the following purity requirements is acceptable:
NaCl - minimum 97 percent by weight
Fe2O3 - less than 0.05 percent by weight
H2O - less than 0.5 percent by weight
CaSO4 - less than 0.2 percent by weight
CaCl2 - less than 0.05 percent by weight
HYDROGEN ZEOLITE SOFTENING

This process uses a weak acid cation resin in a hydrogen cycle to remove temporary hardness (all hardness associated with
alkalinity). The permanent hardness (all hardness associated with sulfates, chlorides, etc.) will pass through the resin. The
hydrogen ions combine with the bicarbonate ions (HCO3–) to form carbonic acid (H2CO3) which dissociates into water (H2O)
and carbon dioxide (CO2). The carbon dioxide can then be stripped out in a forced draft degasifier.
XXVI-A 20 of 96

The resin is regenerated with acid (sulfuric or hydrochloric).
Hydrogen zeolite and sodium zeolite can also be combined in series to accomplish total hardness reduction.
Both weak and strong cation resins can be layered in the same vessel (e.g., stratified with the weak resin on top). The top
layer of weak cation resin is regenerated with acid while the bottom layer of strong cation resin is regenerated with salt. This
process is also known as the “Starvation Process" since the amount of acid used is insufficient to regenerate the entire resin
column.
The ion exchange vessels are typically followed by a forced draft degasifier to remove carbon dioxide. This treatment scheme
removes hardness and lowers the total dissolved solids as well. The low pH effluent requires neutralization (with caustic) prior
to direct use.
Exchange capacity of the weak cation resin varies considerably depending on the water analysis as shown in Table 4.
The weak acid cation resin is very efficient in that regeneration acid consumption is only about 120% of theoretical (based on
amount of impurity removed). In addition, the WAC resin exhibits a very high exchange capacity. For sulfuric acid, a highly
diluted solution (0.8 wt% acid) is used in order to prevent Calcium Sulfate precipitation on the resin.
Specification for acid purity requirements is given in Table 5.
Table 4
Typical Weak Acid Cation Resin Capacities
CAPACITY, KILOGRAINS AS
RATIO OF HARDNESS TO TOTAL FREE MINERAL ACIDITY AS CaCO3 OF ALKALINITY
ALKALINITY IN RAW WATER CaCO3, ppm(1) REMOVED PER ft3 OF RESIN
0 5 8
65 10
130 10
280 14
0.5 5 9
65 11
130 13
280 17
0.9 5 10
65 12
130 16
280 19
1.0 or more 5 to 280 40
Notes:
(1) Total free mineral acidity as CaCO3 equals the chlorides and sulfates and nitrates expressed as CaCO3 in the raw water to the
demin plant.
(2) 7 kilograins equals one pound.
(3) Resin is regenerated with 120% of theoretical using dilute acid solution.
(4) For Planning purposes only; use resin vendor data for design.
XXVI-A 21 of 96

Table 5
Acids Specification for Cation Regeneration
SULFURIC ACID (H2SO4)

Virgin technical grade 66° Be′ sulfuric acid, free of suspended matter and light in color (water white to light brown) with a
minimum concentration of 93 percent H2SO4, shall not form any precipitate when mixed in any proportion with water. Acid
containing inhibitors shall not be accepted. The following impurities shall not exceed the amounts given:
Iron (Fe) maximum = 50 ppm

Nitrogen compounds maximum = 20 ppm
Arsenic maximum = 0.2 ppm
Organic contaminants = 0.01 percent by weight
Copper < 0.5 ppm
Chlorides < 10 ppm
Sulfur Dioxide < 100 ppm
The freezing point shall be -24°F and the acid shall weight 15.2 lb per gallon at 60°F.
HYDROCHLORIC ACID (HCI)

Technical grade 18°Be′ virgin hydrochloric acid, free of suspended matter and light in color (water white to light yellow) with a
minimum concentration of 28 percent HCl, shall not form any precipitate when mixed in any proportion with water. Acid
containing inhibitors shall not be accepted.
The following impurities shall not exceed the amounts given:
Sulfuric acid as SO3 = 0.4 percent by weight

Iron (Fe) = 0.01 percent by weight
Organic contaminants = 0.01 percent by weight
The freezing point shall be -40°F and the acid shall weight 9.5 lb per gallon at 60°F.
Hydrochloric acid obtained by the salt-acid process or by the hydrogen chlorine process is acceptable provided it meets the
above specifications; Hydrochloric acid obtained as a by-product from the hydrolysis of chlorinated organic chemicals is not
acceptable.
DEMINERALIZATION PLANT (CO-CURRENT REGENERATION)

Demineralization via ion exchange requires cation and anion resin beds in series. Cations such as calcium, magnesium and
sodium are removed by the cation resin which is operated in the hydrogen cycle. Anions such as chlorides and sulfates are
removed by the anion resin which is operated in the hydroxide cycle. The treated water produced in this process is basically
pure water except that there is some leakage (primarily sodium from the cation bed which picks up hydroxide alkalinity in the
anion bed).
A typical treated water analysis which can be obtained from such a primary demineralization process is as follows:
• Sodium 0 - 1 ppm as CaCO3
• Alkalinity 0 - 1 ppm as CaCO3
• Silica less than 0.1 ppm as SiO2
• CO2 0.01 ppm as CO2
• Dissolved Salts less than 2 ppm
• Conductivity less than 5 micromhos (< 5 µS/cm)
The basic two bed strong acid cation/strong base anion unit configuration can be optimized based on economics. The trade-
offs are resin and vessel volumes against regenerant chemicals consumptions. Additionally, mechanical removal of carbon
dioxide with a forced draft degasifier may be justified in order to reduce strong base anion operating cost.
XXVI-A 22 of 96

General guidelines are as follows:
• Weak acid cation (WAC) resin is more efficient than strong acid cation resin but cation removal is limited to cations
associated with alkalinity. Typical exchange capacities for weak cation resins are shown in Table 4.
• Weak base anion (WBA) resin is more efficient than strong base anion resin but anion removal is limited to sulfates,
chlorides and nitrates in the mineral acid form. Additionally, this resin can also be used to remove surface water organics
which could foul downstream resin and/or cause boiler problems. Exchange capacities for weak base anion resins range
between 16 and 24 kgr as CaCO3/ft3 depending on regenerant dosages and particular resin types.
• Strong acid cation (SAC) resin is capable of removing all types of cations and typical exchange capacities as well as
leakage rates are shown in Table 6.
• Strong base anion (SBA) resin is capable of removing all types of anions and exchange capacities vary widely depending
on regenerant dosages and particular resin types. Sample performance data from one manufacturer is shown in Table 7.
These resins are prone to organic fouling which can lead to reduced capacity and deterioration of treated water quality.
• The minimum configuration normally includes SAC resin followed by SBA resin to achieve acceptable treated water quality.
In cases where raw water TDS is low and/or for low flowrate requirements, the SAC and SBA resins may be contained in a
working mixed bed unit.
• Caustic specification for anion regeneration is shown in Table 8.
• Forced draft degasifiers are typically justified if the raw water bicarbonate alkalinity is greater than 100 ppm. Use of a
degasifier requires pumps to serve downstream ion exchange units.
• Vacuum degasifiers shall be considered if the treated water, downstream of the Water Treating Plant, has to be
transported for long distances in CS piping systems. (See section covering Deaeration)
• Layered resin beds (Stratabedsâ) can be used to minimize the total number of vessels in the plant. WAC/SAC resins are
contained in the cation vessels and WBA/SBA resins are contained in the anion vessels. Application requires that the raw
water impurities are in the right ratios to allow correct amounts of resins in the vessels.
• Regeneration is typically done on a “train" basis. This means that cation and corresponding anion units are taken out of
service simultaneously. Cation and anion regenerations proceed independently and simultaneously except those steps
where the cation is required to feed the anion. De-cationized water can be made available for anion regeneration.
Regeneration steps include the following:
– Backwash of resin beds.
– Injection of dilute chemicals.
– Displacement of chemicals (slow rinse).
– Fast rinse to produce effluent water which is adequate for service cycle.
• The waste regenerants (acid and caustic) have to be collected and neutralized. Design should strive to produce a
“balanced" waste stream so that chemicals usage for final pH control can be minimized. Such a system saves time in the
neutralization cycle and allows more efficient use of neutralization tankage volume.
• Regeneration is done on a timed cycle or controlled volume of water treated. ExxonMobil practice is not to let the resin
beds run to exhaustion. Experience has shown that double dosages of chemicals are required to return resins to base
operating conditions. Monitoring of silica and conductivity in the effluent water is also provided to assure no premature
deterioration of water quality.
MIXED BED UNITS

Mixed bed units containing a mixture of strong acid cation and strong base anion resins can be used as a stand-alone system if
the dissolved solids concentration of the untreated water is very low (below 100 ppm) and the units can be designed with
reasonable service run lengths. Mixed bed units may also find application in cases where very low flowrates are required.
More commonly, mixed bed units are used downstream of primary demineralization systems to serve as polishing units or high
pressure steam condensate systems. It is desirable to obtain long run lengths [7 days maximum for polishing units, 24 hours
maximum for working mixed bed(s)] in order to avoid too many long regeneration cycles. Steps involved in mixed bed unit
regeneration are shown in Figure 16 and total elapsed time required can fall in the 3 to 4 hour range.
XXVI-A 23 of 96

Typical effluent water quality from mixed bed units is as follows:
• Sodium 0.05 ppm as NaCO3
• Alkalinity 0.05 ppm as CaCO3
• Silica 0.02 ppm as SiO2
• CO2 Nil
• Conductivity less than 0.5 micromho (< 0.5 µS/cm)
DEMINERALIZATION PLANT (COUNTER-CURRENT REGENERATION)

Counter-current regeneration (CCR) has revolutionized demineralization plant performance. Chemicals used during
regeneration flow in the opposite direction to the service flow. During normal operation, the water will contact the best
regenerated resin last and this will result in reduced ionic leakage. Counter-current regeneration also reduces regeneration
chemicals consumption and waste effluent production. Figure 17A shows exhaustion patterns (as well as relative effluent
qualities and chemicals dosage requirements) of co-current, counter-current and mixed bed units.
Figure 17B shows the effect of acid (HCl) regenerant dosage on sodium leakage from a cation unit for both the co-current and
counter-current operations.
The challenge in counter-current regeneration is to maintain the integrity of the resin column at all times. This is done by
adding a regenerant collection system at the top of the resin bed and introducing a blocking water or air flow as shown in Figure
18. ExxonMobil prefers air blocking to reduce water consumption and to achieve reliable blocking action.
In co-current units, the beds are backwashed during every regeneration cycle. For counter-current designs, frequent backwash
is avoided to maintain the integrity of the resin bed column. Typically, the beds are backwashed once every 20 regeneration
cycles and this results in time as well as water savings. Low turbidity (less than 0.1 NTU) raw water is required for the cation
units.
Typical effluent water quality from counter-current designed units is as follows:
• Sodium 0.1 ppm as NaCO3
• Alkalinity 0.1 ppm as CaCO3
• Silica 0.02 ppm as SiO2
• CO2 Nil
• Conductivity less than 1.0 micromho (< 1.0 µS/cm)
XXVI-A 24 of 96

Table 6
Typical Strong Acid Cation Resin Capacities
(100% Sulfuric Acid)
2.5 lb/ft3 (Acid/Resin) 5.0 lb/ft3 (Acid/Resin) 7.5 lb/ft3 (Acid/Resin)

Exchange Cation Exchange Cation Exchange Cation
Capacity Leakage Capacity Leakage Capacity Leakage
Alkalinity, % Na, % kgr/ft3 % kgr/ft3 % kgr/ft3 %
0 0 6.3 2 9.0 1 10.9 0
25 6.2 4 9.0 2 10.9 1
50 6.3 7 9.0 3 10.9 2
75 6.3 16 9.2 6 11.0 4
100 8.1 49 14.4 28 16.6 18
50 0 7.2 0 9.9 0 11.7 0
25 7.2 2 9.9 1 11.7 0
50 7.2 4 9.9 2 11.7 1
75 7.2 9 9.9 5 11.7 4
100 11.7 28 17.1 15 18.9 10
100 0 7.7 0 10.4 0 12.2 0
25 8.6 0 10.8 0 12.6 0
50 9.0 0 11.7 0 13.5 0
75 10.3 1 13.0 0 15.3 0
100 13.5 2 18.5 1 21.5 0
Notes:
(1) Cation leakage for co-current regeneration. For counter-current regeneration, maximum leakage will be 0.1 ppm as CaCO3.
(2) 7 kilograins equal one pound.
Table 7
Typical Performance of Strong Base Anion Resin
Exchange Capacities and Silica Leakage as a
Function of Regenerant Level (100% Caustic)
REGEN CAPACITY, kgr/ft3 AVERAGE SILICA LEAKAGE, ppm

LEVEL % WEAK ACID(1) % SILICA(2)
lb/ft3 25 50 75 10 30 50 70 90
4 10.8 11.8 12.6 0.05 0.19 0.30 0.41 0.53
5 11.7 12.7 13.5 0.04 0.12 0.19 0.27 0.34
6 12.2 13.4 14.2 0.02 0.05 0.08 0.12 0.14
8 13.4 14.2 15.0 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.09
Notes:
(1) Percentage of (SiO2 + CO2) as CaCO3 in Total Exchangeable Anions (TEA).
(2) Percentage of SiO2 as CaCO3 in TEA.
(3) 7 kilograins equal one pound.
XXVI-A 25 of 96

Table 8
Caustic Specification For Anion Regeneration
Anion exchange resins are normally regenerated using diluted 50 percent sodium hydroxide. The following specification should
be included in the purchase requisition.
50% CAUSTIC
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
COMPONENT SPECIFICATION LIMITS % BY WEIGHT
NaOH 50 - 52
Na2CO3 0.06 max.
NaCl 0.003 max.
Fe 0.0002 max.
Na2SO4 0.002 max.
SiO2 0.002 max.
Al2O3 0.0006 max.
CaO 0.002 max.
MgO 0.0002 max.
Mn 0.00004 max.
Ni 0.00003 max.
Cu 0.00005 max.
NaClO3 0.0003 max.
The appearance shall be water white - a density of 12.6 lb per gallon at 100°F and a freezing point of 55°F. Important - iron
content is very critical as to fouling of the anion resin.
DEMINERALIZATION PLANT (PACKED BED DESIGN)

Packed bed design demineralization plants have been installed in several European affiliate locations (i.e., Augusta and Port
Jerome). This design offers all of the advantages of counter-current designed units and in addition reduces vessel sizes and
simplifies regeneration procedures.
In the packed bed design, freeboard space is essentially eliminated. The vessels contain compartments which are entirely
filled with resin (except for a small space to accommodate resin swelling and shrinkage resulting from exhaustion and
regeneration cycles). Bed movement is therefore eliminated and counter-current regeneration becomes quite simple. Some
vendors offer upflow designs with downflow regeneration while others prefer downflow designs with upflow regeneration.
Packed bed units can have one compartment or multiple compartments. Multiple compartments can be used to house different
resins in a single vessel or split the same resin into two or more compartments to avoid a very deep bed (minimize single bed
compaction and resin movement).
In general, packed bed unit internals are simple when compared to conventional counter-current designed units. Vendor know-
how is critical to achieve a reliable design. Support plates with large number of strainers assure good water and chemicals
distribution and keep the resin beds fixed.
As is the case for plants, packed bed units do not require regular backwashing. Experience has shown that Packed Bed units
can be kept in service without backwashing for up to 6 months to a year. This can result in reduced water consumption even
when compared to CCR plants. Fines generation is minimized selecting only uniform particle size resin and by following
recommended procedures during resin loading steps. Some vendor designs can facilitate in-situ backwash by providing a two
compartment vessel where one of the compartments is only partially filled with resin. A method for resin transfer between
compartments is also provided so that the packed layer can be moved for backwashing. Nevertheless, for ExxonMobil
Designs, external backwash facilities are highly recommended. These facilities are also extremely useful for resin fines
removal during initial start-up and periodic resin replacement steps.
XXVI-A 26 of 96

Design guidelines / considerations for Packed Bed systems are as follows:
• Maximum resin bed delta P should not exceed 25 psi
• Maximum vessel diameter should be limited to 15 ft (4.6 m)
• Maximum resin bed depth should not exceed 108 in. (2,740 mm)
• Maximum service velocity should be limited to 18 gpm/ft2 (12.2 L/s/m2)
• An external backwash tank shall be provided to facilitate backwashing the entire resin contained in the largest ion
exchange vessel.
• Upflow designs shall be critically reviewed for required turndown (Is recycle needed to keep resin bed suspended during
low flow?)
• Only uniform particle size resin shall be used
A schematic representation of packed bed ion exchange vessels and an external backwash tank are shown in Figure 19.
Some non-ExxonMobil facilities have retrofitted co-currently regenerated demin plants for packed bed operation in order to gain
water quality improvements and to reduce regeneration costs. Such conversions are difficult and the EMRE WATER
TREATING SPECIALISTS should be consulted in order to maintain reliable water treating plant operation.
REVERSE OSMOSIS
Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a well-established process which has been used extensively to produce potable water from brackish
water and seawater. More recently, this process has found wider application in the production of “pure" water in many
industrial uses. This process uses pressure energy to overcome the osmotic pressure in a solution, thus reversing the natural
osmosis process.
RO is typically considered when raw water TDS is greater than 300 ppm and in places where electric power costs are low. The
RO process requires pretreated water in order to avoid membrane fouling and the final effluent may need to be “polished" prior
to use as BFW. Figure 20 shows a simple RO Module and a typical Pretreatment Scheme.
Membranes used in the RO process vary from one manufacturer to another. However, the most common types are “spiral
wound" or “hollow fiber" as shown in Figure 21.
There are many factors which influence membrane performance and it is recommended that specifics of the raw water source
and treated water quality requirements be communicated to the EMRE WATER TREATING SPECIALISTS and/or the RO
system supplier.
Some general membrane performance characteristics are shown in Figure 22. The graphs show that both feed pressure and
% conversion (e.g., recovery) have an effect on treated water quality (salt passage) and flowrate. The relationships were
developed for the specific basis as noted in the graphs and using a single stage membrane system.
Designs of RO systems can vary from one application to another based on specific flowrate and water quality needs. Most
systems require more than one permeator and the most common arrangements are as follows. Combinations of these systems
are also used.
1. Parallel Single-staged RO System
The arrangement shown in Figure 23 is typically used for seawater designs. Individual permeators vessels are connected
to common feed, permeate and concentrate headers. Flow and pressure balancing are needed to avoid differences in
individual permeator performance. Recovery of a single stage system is limited to about 40%.
2. Brine Staged RO System
The arrangement shown in Figure 24A may be used for brackish waters to improve overall recovery of the system and to
minimize waste production. It is not normally used for seawater since the TDS level of the first stage brine may be too high
to make the second stage practical. A two stage system will boost recovery to the 70 to 75% range. Adding a third stage
can increase recovery to the 90% level.
3. Product Staged System
The arrangement shown in Figure 24B is used when a single-pass RO system does not yield the desired product water
quality. The product water from the first system becomes the feedwater for the second system. Each system is in effect a
separate RO plant requiring its own high pressure pumps. Since the brine from the second system has a lower TDS than
the raw water feed to the first unit, it can be recycled and added to the feedwater of the first system. If salt rejection of
each stage is 90%, a series two stage configuration will result in 99% salt rejection.
Simplified schematics of seawater and brackish water RO systems are shown in Figures 25 and 26. These sketches illustrate
the use of different types of RO modules as well as recycle and blending options. A listing of electric power requirements is
also given for the two examples.
XXVI-A 27 of 96

Design guidelines / considerations for RO systems are as follows:
• Due to small pore size, membranes are vulnerable to fouling. Therefore, design of pretreatment facilities is critical for a
reliable system and for long membrane life.
• Dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide will pass through the membranes into the permeate. Removal via degasification
or ion exchange may be required.
• Feed streams have to be treated and/or adjusted to meet the limits of the membranes.
– Suspended colloidal solids must be < 5 SDI (Silting Density Index) for spiral wound and < 3 SDI for hollow fiber.
– Guidelines for pH and free residual chlorine are:
ACETATE POLYAMID
PARAMETER
MEMBRANES MEMBRANES
pH ≤ 6.3 2 - 10
ppm Cl2 ≤ 0.5 ≤ 0.1
– Ideal operating temperature for membranes is 77°F (25°C). Upper temperature limits are in the 86 to 122°F (30 to
50°C) range depending on the membrane type.
• Pilot testing of the RO feed stream is highly recommended in order to determine the necessary pre-treatment (e.g.filtration)
system and optimum chemicals dosing requirements (e.g. de-chlorination, pH adjustment, anit-sealent addition).
• RO systems operate at fixed flowrates and total capacity is achieved by providing multiple trains. Maintaining fixed
flowrates will cause the treated water inventory to fluctuate. A spare train is recommended to enable maintenance and
cleaning of RO facilities. Sizing of trains will depend on total water demand as well as standard modules or skid sizes
available from the RO suppliers.
• Raw water source facilities should include a pressure control system to minimize the impact on the RO system flows.
• The operating philosophy of the RO plant (e.g. manual, semi-automatic, fully automatic) should be determined early in the
planning stage of the project. This will impact control system and water storage requirements.
• Membrane cleaning facilities are required to facilitate in-situ cleaning of the spare train.
• System design shall consider 4 in. (102 mm) and 8 in. (203 mm) spiral wound and 4 in. (102 mm), 8 in. (203 mm) and
10 in. (254 mm) hollow fiber membranes.
• Spiral wound pressure vessels (permeator housings) shall be sized to contain 6 or 7 permeators.
• Derating of membrane performance should be considered in order to maintain continuity of design throughput as the
membranes age (e.g. reduced performance).
• Vendor offerings and designs should be carefully reviewed to assure plant reliability and ease of performing the required
routine maintenance. For example:
a. Individual Cartridge Filiter for each RO train vs. common/spared filters.
b. Individual RO Feed pump for each RO train vs. common/spared pumps.
c. Number and capacity of individual RO trains in light of plant turndown, flushing operations, etc.
d. Layout, access for membrane removal.
e. Membrane cleaning operations.
• Typical energy consumption is as follows:
– For brackish water 6 to 8 kWh/1000 gal (1.6 to 2.1 kWh/m3).
– For seawater 35 to 40 kWh/1000 gal (9.2 to 10.6 kWh/m3).
– Energy recovered via hydraulic turbines on the high pressure brine reject has been utilized in some seawater RO
installations.
XXVI-A 28 of 96
FLASH EVAPORATION
Evaporation involves the application of heat to a liquid and thereby producing a vapor. Condensation of this vapor will yield a
distilled liquid product which is virtually free of dissolved and suspended solids which are present in the feed liquid stream.
Wire mesh or other devices are used to prevent liquid droplets containing solids to carry-over into the vapor phase. The
mechanical or thermal vapor compression units work on a similar principle except that the evaporative heat is imparted from
thermal or mechanical compression energy. Figure 27A shows a schematic of the thermal distillation process and Figure 27B
pictures the mechanical vapor compression (MVC) process.
Evaporation processes have been used successfully for many years to produce drinking water and other low solids water
streams from seawater and brackish water sources. An advantage of the flash evaporation process is that the composition of
the feedwater to the plant has an almost negligible effect on the energy consumption per unit of product water produced. This
contrasts with the performance of other desalination processes (e.g., Reverse Osmosis) in which energy consumed is a direct
function of feed composition.
Multi-stage Flash (MSF) desalination is the most commonly used process for desalting seawater feed. The principles involved
are shown in Figure 28.
Seawater is heated and discharged into a chamber maintained slightly below the saturation vapor pressure of the water, a
fraction of its water content flashes into steam. The flashed steam is stripped of suspended brine droplets as it passes through
a mist eliminator and condenses on the exterior surface of heat transfer tubing. The condensed liquid drips into trays as hot
product water.
The unflashed brine enters a second chamber, or stage, where it flashes to steam at a lower temperature, producing a further
quantity of product water. Simultaneously, the distillate from the first stage passes to the distillate tray in the second stage, at a
lower pressure giving up some of its heat and thereby lowering its temperature. The flashing-cooling process is repeated from
stage to stage until both the cooled brine and the cooled distillate are finally discharged from the plant as blowdown brine and
product water, respectively.
It is common practice to recycle a fraction of the blowdown water, combined with feedwater, through the entire circuit in order to
extract an additional fraction of its water content. The recirculating stream, flowing through the interior of the tubes that
condense the vapor in each stage, serves to remove the latent heat of condensation. In so doing, the circulating brine is
preheated to almost the maximum operating temperature of the process, simultaneously recovering the energy of the
condensing vapor. This portion of the MSF plant is called the “heat recovery" section. The preheated brine is finally brought up
to maximum operating temperature in a brine heater supplied with steam from an external source.
At the cool end of the plant, a separate set of tubes is installed in several of the stages in a “heat rejection" section to remove
the waste heat. The coolant there is generally not recycled brine, but the feedwater (e.g., seawater), of which the greater
portion is discharged to waste. A small fraction of this coolant becomes preheated makeup water.
In principle, MSF is the simplest of the desalination techniques. Once the interstage orifices are adjusted, the plant can operate
for long periods without resetting of flows.
High efficiency can be obtained by incorporating many stages and a large heat transfer area into the design. Steps aimed at
reducing the capital cost of MSF plants have included the substitution of lower cost materials and by using the compact
vertical/stacked designs.
Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) is the oldest evaporative process. The principles involved are shown in Figure 29.
In the vertical tube evaporator the feed descends as a thin film on the inside of vertical tubes. The partially concentrated brine
is delivered to a second chamber (effect), maintained at a slightly lower pressure than the first effect. Likewise, the vapor
liberated from the first effect feed is sent to the second effect. There it condenses on the heat transfer tubes, giving up its latent
heat to evaporate an additional fraction of water from the brine flowing on the opposite wall of the tube. The process of
evaporation plus condensation is repeated from effect to effect, each at successively lower pressure and temperature. The
combined condensed vapor constitutes the product water.
Several design alternatives exist. For example, the feed may flow counter-currently to the vapor, thereby subjecting the most
concentrated brine to the maximum evaporative driving force. Conversely, the brine, partially preheated by a fraction of the
vapor, may flow co-currently with the steam. The latter flow pattern has the advantage of minimizing scale formation, since the
most concentrated brine is exposed to the lowest temperature. Another design variation uses horizontal rather than vertical
heat-exchange tubes. This configuration requires more plot space.
MED plants can be made more energy efficient by increasing the number of effects and the heat transfer area or by increasing
the maximum operating temperature. On the other hand, when low-cost heat is available, it is preferable to sacrifice some of
the energy efficiency by operating at a lower temperature because of the resultant decrease in the rate of corrosion and scale
formation. The low corrosion and scaling tendencies of the low-temperature multi-effect (LTME) process not only improve
reliability and decrease operating costs but permit the construction of the plant from lower cost materials.
XXVI-A 29 of 96

One design variation reverses the common procedure of passing the brine through the heat-exchange tubing. Instead, the
brine is sprayed on the outside of the tubing while the hot vapor flows inside. Thus, in the unlikely event of a leaky tube wall,
the vapor (which is at a higher pressure than the brine) would leak into the brine chamber, thereby avoiding contamination of
the product water.
Design guidelines/considerations for flash evaporation systems are as follows:
• Selection of the optimum seawater desalination system normally requires an economic analysis. Vendor supplied
hardware requires evaluation based on investment and operating cost considerations.
• Effluent water (distillate) quality is < 10 ppm (< 10 mg/L).
• Mechanical Vapor Compression (MVC) should be considered if:
– Demands can be met with relatively small units. Maximum sizes are available up to 1200 TPD (317,000 GPD).
– An economic heat source (e.g., steam) is not available.
• In general, low temperature operation appears to have major advantages in the area of scale and corrosion control, which
in turn should lead to higher service factor. On the negative side, operating at lower temperature requires a larger unit and
usually a higher capital cost. Higher temperature operation saves significant capital, but introduces a higher potential for
scaling and corrosion, and places more importance on operator control (especially for plants using acid). Newly developed
chemical dispersants can also be considered for minimizing scale. An exception to this trade-off between high and low
temperatures is the low temperature multi-effect which operates at 160°F (70°C) [versus 190°F (90°C) for other low
temperature processes]. At this low temperature there is little scaling concern, and use of lower cost materials may offset
the investment required for a larger unit.
• The major factor influencing unit reliability and service life, as well as capital cost, is choosing the correct materials for the
specific operating conditions present in each portion of the desalination unit. The duty specification should specify
acceptable materials for given operating conditions (temperature, O2 content, TDS concentrations, etc.).
• Thermal units are provided with either long tube (full length or height of unit) or cross-tube configurations. The major
advantage of long tube units is lower cost. Cross-tube units are generally easier to maintain (short tubes to pull), and if
leaks occur, plugging of a tube does not significantly impact heat transfer capacity.
• The MSF system is the standard of the industry and the long operating history has led to steady improvements in reliability.
On the negative side, MSF plants are difficult to operate under changing feed conditions and turndown is limited to about
70%.
• Multi-effect (ME) plants can be designed for higher efficiencies, and generally have an advantage over MSF when energy
costs are high. In addition ME plants are easier to operate under changing feed conditions and have a greater turndown
capability (to about 50%).
• A qualitative comparison of MSF and ME evaporation system parameters is shown in Table 9.
XXVI-A 30 of 96

Table 9
Qualitative Comparison
Multiple Stage Flash and Multiple Effect
Evaporation Systems
MULTIPLE STAGE FLASH MULTIPLE EFFECT EVAPORATION

Horizontal Long Cross Tube Stack
Brine Recirculation Tube & Vertical Tube
PARAMETERS Once Through Low Temperature High Temperature Low Temperature High Temperature
Ratio of Feed to Product 8 - 10 10 - 12 8 - 12 8 - 12 8 - 10
Water Volume
Performance Ratio 3 - 12 3 - 12 3 - 12 5 - 15 5 - 15
(product/steam)(2)
Operating Temp. (°F) 170 - 240 190 - 200 200 - 250 158 200 - 240
(°C) (77 - 116) (88 - 93) (93 - 121) (70) (93 - 116)
Operating Pressure Vacuum Vacuum Vacuum Vacuum Vacuum
Materials Cu Ni, Some Ti, Cu Ni, Min. Ti Ti and Cu Ni CuNi(1) Ti, Cu Ni,
Cu Ni/SS lining Cu Ni/SS lining Cu Ni/SS lining CS with Epoxy Lining Cu Ni/SS Lining
Reliability (availability of > 90% > 90 % > 90% > 95% > 95%
individual units)
Notes:
(1) Some vendors offer alternative materials (such as aluminum alloys) with their equipment. While these materials may be suitable for a
specific application, their acceptance should be based on consultation with the ER&E MATERIALS SPECIALIST(S).
(2) Performance ratios vary based on local investment and operating cost factors.
DEAERATION
Dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide and oxygen must be removed from the water in order to avoid corrosion and pitting in
piping systems and steam generation equipment. Primary removal of the gases can be accomplished in a number of ways
depending on water treating plant and steam system configuration and requirement. Final removal of small residual quantities
is typically done via chemical injection. Carbon dioxide is often removed via mechanical means by the use of a degasifier
which is part of the water treating plant as discussed in the section entitled Demineralization by Ion Exchange.
Oxygen in the treated water is removed via heating and stripping. Dissolved oxygen concentration in water is a function of
pressure and temperature as shown in Figure 30.
Most ExxonMobil plants utilize pressure deaerators for effective oxygen removal. Designs usually involve sprays and/or trays
to disperse the undeaerated water into droplets or films so that maximum area is available for direct contact heating with steam.
Spray/tray type deaerators employ both methods and they are specified most often. Figure 31 shows a schematic of this type
of unit. Various vendors offer a multitude of designs consisting of vertical and horizontal units. Many of them also include the
deaeration section and storage compartment in the same vessel. ExxonMobil specified designs typically consist of a
deaeration vessel which is mounted on top of a separate storage vessel to provide good oxygen removal and adequate storage
capacity during upset conditions. Deaerated water from pressure deaerators is normally used directly as boiler feed water
(BFW) for steam generation.
Vacuum Deaeration (Degasification) may find application in cases where waste heat (from process) is recovered into the
make-up water stream. The vacuum deaerator provides oxygen removal at low temperature and facilitates the use of carbon
steel piping and equipment (as compared to undeaerated treated water which is very corrosive and requires rubber lined or
Stainless Steel piping and equipment). Typical units produce effluent water containing 0.05 ppm oxygen and 5 ppm Carbon
Dioxide.
XXVI-A 31 of 96

Typically, a vacuum degasifier is installed as part of the demineralization plant facilities.
• Downstream of the cation units and upstream of the anion units.
• Downstream of an RO plant and upstream of secondary deionization vessels of mixed bed polishing units.
Refer to Figure 32 for a schematic of a vacuum degasifier.
Pressure deaerators are capable of reducing dissolved oxygen in the feedwater to about 0.007 ppm and chemical oxygen
scavengers are employed to achieve complete oxygen removal. Chemicals are injected downstream of the deaeration
facilities. Feed systems are designed to inject in excess of theoretical requirements to assure zero oxygen.
Deaerators used in Hydrogen plants must be capable of removing large amounts of carbon dioxide from the return condensate
stream. Such a design requires special attention to assure adequate stripping capacity for the dissolved gases involved.
Two of the most frequently used chemicals are Catalyzed Sodium Sulfite and volatile oxygen scavengers commonly called
hydrazine substitutes.
Sodium Sulfite is fast acting but has the disadvantage of adding solids to the system as can be seen by the following reaction:
2Na2SO3 + O2 2Na2SO4
Sodium Sulfite Oxygen Salt
BFW which has been dosed with Sodium Sulfite is typically used in lower pressure boilers and is not suitable for
desuperheating water (plugging of spray nozzles and corrosion) or make-up to process units where catalyst poisoning can
occur.
Hydrazine adds no solids to the water and reacts with the oxygen per the following equation:
N2H4 + O2 N2 + 2H2O
Hydrazine Oxygen Nitrogen Water
This chemical has been labeled a carcinogen and calls for stringent handling procedures. For this reason, it is rarely used and
chemical suppliers have developed alternatives as follows:
• Nalco Surguard
• Nalco Eliminox
• Betz Cor-Trol 778
• Dearborn Diethyl Hydroxylamine (DEHA)
• Drew Mekor
• etc.
Design guidelines/parameters for vendor supplied deaerators are as follows:
• Maximum allowable flowrates per empty cross-sectional vessel area:
– For pressure deaerators - 18 gpm/ft2 (12.2 L/s/m2)
– For vacuum deaerators - 35 gpm/ft2 (23.8 L/s/m2)
• Storage capacity with unit operating at 100% design throughput:
– For pressure deaerators - 20 minutes to the overflow level (Storage Drum)
– For vacuum deaerators - 20 minutes to the overflow level (Storage Drum)
• Chemical feeding for oxygen scavenging should be based on the guidelines given in Report No. EE.2E.86.
• The oxygen scavenging chemicals should be injected into the liquid phase of the deaerator storage compartment. This will
provide maximum reaction time as opposed to injection into the downstream BFW piping. The oxygen scavenger will also
help in minimizing pitting and corrosion of the carbon steel storage vessel.
XXVI-A 32 of 96
CONDENSATE SYSTEMS
CONDENSATE CLEANUP
Condensate returning from steam consumers can contain any number of impurities which have to be removed prior to reuse.
Depending on origin, the condensate may contain oil, metals such as copper and iron, or a variety of suspended or dissolved
solids. Corrosion products and carry-over from steam drums can produce “crud" which, if not removed, can cause plugging
and fouling in BFW and steam systems.
Generally sour condensates and condensates with high amounts of oil or dissolved solids are not considered for reuse as BFW
but are sent to Waste Water Treating. This section considers only those condensate streams with limited impurities such that
treatment to BFW standards is economical.
Cleanup can include gravity separation, filtration, membrane separation or ion exchange.
Oil removal may be accomplished by the use of holdup/skimming, or by using coalescers or by activated charcoal filters.
Most other impurities can be removed by filtration, ion exchange or some hybrid system which captures the filtration/ion
exchange benefits.
Following are some general comments regarding the various treatment options:
1. Cartridge Filters
• Are expensive.
• Do not have ability to remove soluble contaminants.
• Must be replaced routinely.
2. Deep Bed Ion Exchange
• Removes soluble and insoluble contaminants.
• Can be configured in many ways (cation beds, anion beds, mixed beds, etc.).
• Consider flowrates in the 15 to 30 gpm/ft2 (10.2 to 20.4 L/s/m2) range.
3. Electromagnetic Filters (see Figure 33)
• Superior removal of magnetic iron particles.
• Usually some copper removal observed.
• Performance enhanced by passivating agents.
• No soluble contaminant removal.
4. Powdered Resin Filters (see Figure 34)
• Limited ability to remove soluble contaminants.
• Media is replaced when pressure drop is high.
• Operating cost can be high.
5. Pre-Coat Filters (see Figure 35)
• Excellent removal of insoluble contaminants and oil.
• Operating expense related to fouling load.
• Pre-coat material can foul downstream equipment.
• Used pre-coat material may have to be considered a hazardous waste.
XXVI-A 33 of 96

Qualitative performance information for the various mechanical condensate treatment options are as follows:
CONTAMINANT CARTRIDGE ELECTROMAGNETIC PRE-COAT PRE-COAT

REMOVED FILTER MIXED BED FILTER DEMIN FILTER
Insoluble Fe/Cu oxide yes yes Yes(only Fe) yes yes
Soluble Fe/Cu/TH no yes No yes no
TDS no yes No yes(1) no
Insoluble oil-organic yes no(2) No yes(2) yes
Soluble organic(3) no no No no no
Operator skill level low high Low medium medium
Notes:
(1) These units are designed primarily as filters. Due to the large flowrates, they will quickly exhaust if exposed to high TDS.
(2) Ion exchange media will remove oil and certain organics by fouling.
(3) Activated carbon has been used. Each potential contaminant must be evaluated.
Selection of an appropriate option will depend on many factors. High operating temperature may rule out the use of certain
resins and upset conditions could lead to rapid plugging of filter media or exhaustion of resins.
Final selection should be based on economics and a fallback position may be needed to dump highly contaminated condensate
streams for extended periods. This in turn may require additional capacity in the make-up water treating and storage facilities.
CONDENSATE TREATING
The condensate can also contain dissolved gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide which can cause severe corrosion.
Oxygen may enter via leaks in condensers and carbon dioxide can be formed via decomposition of bicarbonate compounds in
the boiler water. The oxygen is removed via deaeration using heat, stripping and chemical oxygen scavenging as discussed in
the DEAERATION section.
Even trace amounts of carbon dioxide (2 to 5 ppm) can produce enough carbonic acid to result in high corrosion rates.
Injection of a filming or neutralizing amine is required to prevent system shutdowns and to maintain long equipment life.
Filming Amines are useful when excessive carbon dioxide and oxygen are a problem. These amines will form a film coating
on the metal surfaces and provide protection against corrosion. Continuous feeding of the chemicals is required since the
protective film can be washed away. Also multiple injection points may be needed for large systems since the filming amines
do not carry far. Use of this treatment method is not risk free. Overfeeding can lead to the formation of “gunk" and the cleaning
action of the amine can release old corrosion products into the condensate streams and result in plugging of equipment.
Because of the potential problems involved, and the requirements for tight control and monitoring, filming amines are not used
very often.
Neutralizing Amines are commonly employed to counteract the corrosive action of carbonic acid which is formed from the
carbon dioxide in the system. These amines volatilize and condense with the steam and neutralize the condensate.
Injection is typically into the BFW (deaerator liquid or BFW piping) and the required rate is a function of the amount of carbon
dioxide present and the final target pH of the condensate. For all carbon steel systems, pH is the range of 8.5 to 9.6 is
optimum. For systems containing copper or brass, recommended pH is 8.5 to 9.2. Common neutralizing amines are
Morpholine (C4HgNO), Cyclohexylamine (C6H11NH2), and Ammonia (NH3). Care must be exercised when using Ammonia due
to its ability to complex copper at elevated pH levels.
XXVI-A 34 of 96

Feed rate can be estimated by knowing the amount of carbonate in the feedwater or the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the
steam.
1 ppm IN FEEDWATER >> WILL PRODUCE ppm CO2 IN STEAM

Bicarbonate 0.79
Carbonate 0.35
For example, for feedwater containing:
• Bicarbonate: 4 ppm as CaCO3

• Carbonate: 2 ppm as CaCO3
The corresponding CO2 production will be:

4 ppm x 0.79 = 3.16 ppm
2 ppm x 0.35 = 0.70 ppm
Total 3.86 ppm of CO2
About 2 ppm of Morpholine or 2.3 ppm of Cycloxhexylamine are required for the neutralization of each ppm of CO2.
Additional amine required to raise the pH from 7.0 to 9.0 is as follows:
ppm REQUIRED
• Morpholine: 4
• Cyclohexylamine: 1
• Ammonia: 0.2
Suppliers of water treating chemicals also offer a host of proprietary products which can provide similar protection against
corrosion in condensate systems. The WATER TREATING DISCIPLINE SPECIALIST can provide guidance in selecting the
most appropriate program for the particular water and steam system configuration.
CHEMICAL FEED SYSTEMS

Reliable and separate feed systems are required for:
1. Oxygen Scavenging
2. Condensate Dosing
3. Boiler Water Control
Each system typically includes a storage tank and a spared pumping configuration.
Chemicals storage should provide a minimum inventory of 24 hours at the design consumption rate.
Two metering pumps (normal plus spare) are provided for the oxygen scavenger as well as the condensate dosing facilities.
This is based on a single deaerator system. For multiple deaerators, additional dedicated systems should be provided.
Boiler water chemicals injection shall be via dedicated metering pumps for each boiler. A common spare pump, capable of
serving any of the boilers shall also be provided.
Sizing of the facilities may require consultation with the chemical(s) supplier(s). Concentrations of vendor supplied chemicals
can vary and have an effect on storage volumes and pumping rates.
XXVI-A 35 of 96
INTERNAL BOILER WATER TREATING

Chemical treatment of the boiler water protects the steam generating system from the impurities remaining in the Boiler
Feedwater (BFW). The BFW which is pumped from the deaerator is free of oxygen and carbon dioxide which may have been
present in the make-up water or condensate streams. Types and amounts of other impurities remaining in the BFW will
depend on the method of make-up water treatment and the source(s) of return condensate streams.
The internal boiler water treating requirements are primarily a function of boiler operating pressure and BFW chemistry.
Selection of the appropriate treatment program alone does not guarantee trouble-free operation. Maximum effectiveness of the
program requires monitoring of boiler water, adjustment of the chemical feed system and control of the continuous blowdown
stream. In situations with widely varying steam loads it may be justified to install automatic controls for chemical feed and
blowdown systems. The primary justification for such controls would be to insure operation in the proper pH range to avoid
corrosion. Added benefits would be minimum use of chemicals plus water and energy savings.
Chemical treatment for Non-Demineralized Water is primarily tailored to prevent scale deposition/fouling by the injection of
scale inhibitors, precipitants and/or polymer dispersants. Additionally, alkalizing agents may have to be added to supplement
the natural make-up water alkalinity content for boiler corrosion protection.
Treatment for Demineralized Make-up Water is primarily designed to provide effective pH/Alkalinity control. In addition,
polymer dispersants may also be added during upset conditions or boiler start-up to maintain a clean system and minimize iron
fouling.
The following table lists several chemical treatment programs as well as their primary control effects for demineralized and non-
demineralized operations:
MAKE-UP WATER PRIMARY CONTROL

CHEMICAL TREATMENT PROGRAM
DEMIN NON-DEMIN CORROSION SCALE
Alkaline-Phosphate X X
Chelants X X
Chelant - Phosphate X X
Zero Solids - All Volatile X X
All-Polymer X X
Coordinated/Congruent Phosphate X X
Details of these programs and a methodology for calculating chemicals requirements are contained in Report No. EE.2E.86.
The continuous blowdown rate from a boiler is a function of the impurities contained in the BFW (e.g., TDS, Silica, Alkalinity,
etc.) and the allowable concentration(s) limits in the boiler drum. Calculation of the rate can be per the following equation:
A
% Blowdown of Boiler Output = B−A x 100
100
= C −1
100
Blowdown as Percentage of BFW Rate =
C
where: A = Concentration of impurity in BFW

B = Concentration of impurity allowed in Boiler (drum) water. For planning purposes refer to
Table 1.
C = Cycles of concentration
XXVI-A 36 of 96
Figure 1
Water Treatment Flowplan with Fresh Water Supply
Raw Water
Cold Lime Hot Lime

Softeners Softeners
Clarifiers Clarifiers
1 (3-10 NTU) 1 (5 NTU)
2 (10-100 ppm) 2 (10-100 ppm)
3 (5-70 ppm) 3 (5 ppm)
4 (40-100 ppm) 4 (20-50 ppm)
10 (0 ppm) 5 (1-5 ppm)
Filters
10 (0 ppm)
1 (0.5 NTU)
0.1 0.1 (1 NTU) 1 1

Sodium Hydrogen
Micron CCR or Primary Sodium
Packed Bed Zeolite
Filters Demineralizers Softeners Cation
Demineralizer Exchangers
12 <5 SDI 2 (0.05 ppm) 2 (0.1 ppm) 2 (1 ppm) 2 (1 ppm)
3 (0.05 ppm) 3 (0.1 ppm) 3 (1 ppm) 3 (1 ppm)
Reverse
Osmosis 4 (0.1 ppm) 4 (1 ppm) 7 (0.1 ppm) 4 (10 ppm)
5 (0.02 ppm) 5 (0.1 ppm) 7 (0.1 ppm)
2 (3% of inlet) 6 (0.5 ppm) 6 (2 ppm)
3 (3% of inlet) 7 (0.05 ppm) 7 (0.1 ppm)
4 (5% of inlet) 10 (0.1 ppm) 10 (0.1 ppm)
5 (5% of inlet)
6 (5% of inlet)
7 (3% of inlet) Mixer Bed
Demineralizers
Condensate Return Condensate
2 (0.02 ppm) System
IMPORTANT–Please review this 3 (0.02 ppm)
table before referring to flowplan
4 (0.05 ppm) Condensate
5 (0.02 ppm) Treatment
The table below explains code used in Flow Plan.
Number in circle indicates th impurity reduced by 6 (0.2 ppm)
the treatment equipment. The numbers in 7 (0.02 ppm)
parenthesis indicate the remaining impurities
in ppm after treatment. If the raw water contains 10 (0.05 ppm) 2 (0.02 ppm)
less than this amount, the lower value applies. 3 (0.02 ppm)
4 (0.05 ppm)
Number (Impurity in Water)
Code 5 (0.02 ppm)
6 (0.2 ppm)
1 Turbidity in Nephelometric Turbidity Units, NTU
To 7 (0.02 ppm)
2 Calcium Hardness (as CaCO3)
Deaerators 10 (0.05 ppm)
3 Magnesium Hardness (as CaCO3)
4 Alkalinity (as CaCO3)
10 (0.01 ppm)
5 Silica (as SIO3) 11 (0.007 ppm)
6 Dissolved Salts (as CaCO3)
7 Iron and/or Manganese (as Fe)
8 Color (as Hazen Units)
9 Organic Matter (C.O.D.)
10 Free Carbon Dioxide (as CO2)
11 Oxygen (as O2)
12 Silt Density Index (SDI)
DP26Af01
XXVI-A 37 of 96
Figure 2
Water Treatment Flowplan with Salt Water Supply
Sea Water
Sea Water Sea Water

Well Intake
Clarification
1 (3-10 NTU)
Filtration Filtration
1 (0.5 NTU) 1 (0.5 NTU)
Evaporation Cartridge Cartridge

Filters Filters
6 (<10 ppm) 12 (<5 SDI) 12 (<5 SDI)
Primary Primary
Reverse Reverse Evaporation
Osmosis Osmosis
6 (500 ppm) 6 (<10 ppm)
for Drinking, Utility Water, etc,.
Secondary Secondary
Reverse Reverse
Osmosis Osmosis
6 (10% of Inlet)
Mixed Mixed Mixed Mixed

Bed Bed Bed Bed
Demineralizers Demineralizers Demineralizers Demineralizers
2 (0.05 ppm)
3 (0.05 ppm)
4 (0.10 ppm)
5 (0.02 ppm)
6 (0.20 ppm)
7 (0.05 ppm)
10 (0.10 ppm)
To
IMPORTANT: Please review table in Deaerators
Figure 1 before
referring to flowplan. DP26Af02
XXVI-A 38 of 96
Figure 3
Sludge Contact Clarifier
Treated Automatic Recirculation

Outlet Water Collector Scraper Drive Rate Controller
Chemical
Inlet
Back
Flash
Raw Water
Inlet
Settling
Zone Recirculation
Nozzles
Detention Zone Sludge

Thickening Pit
Sludge
Blowoff
DP26Af03
Picture courtesy of Ecodyne Corporation (Graver Water Conditioning Brochure)
XXVI-A 39 of 96
Figure 4
Parallel Plate Clarifier
Flow Distribution Orifices Flocculation Tank
Feed Box
Flash Mix Tank
Overflow
(Effluent)
Feed
Lamella
Plates
Sludge Hopper
Underflow
Vibrator (Sludge)
Pack
Picture courtesy of Drew Chemicals Corporation (Handbook) DP26Af04

XXVI-A 40 of 96
Figure 5
Cold Lime Process Predicted Calcium and Carbonate Ions in Treated Water
DP26Af05
140
120
CO3--
+
a+
C
100
Concentration, ppm as CaCO3
TH = Raw Water Total Hardness
Mg = Treated Water Magnesium

MO = Raw Water Total Alkalinity
80
60
TH - MO + (70 - Mg)
40
20
0
-20
-40
120
100
80
60
40
20
Ca++ or CO3-- in Effluent, ppm as CaCO3

XXVI-A 41 of 96
Figure 6
Hot Process Softener (Downflow Type)
Spray Heater &

Vent Condenser
Raw Water Inlet Vent
Steam Inlet
Chemical Feed
Vacuum
Breaker
Filter
Backwash
Return
Softwater
Effluent
Recording
Thermometer
Sludge Sludge
Sample Blowdown
Lines Valves
Sludge
Recirculation
Pump
Picture courtesy of Betz Laboratories, Inc. (Handbook) DP26Af06

XXVI-A 42 of 96
Figure 7
Hot Process Softener (Upflow Type)
Vent
Steam Inlet
Raw Water Inlet
Vacuum Breaker
Condensate Spray Space
Outlet
Chemical
Feed Reaction Zone
Condensate Scrubber
Outlet
To Clear Wash
Water Storage
Dirty (Low Fill Rate)
Backwash
Water Return
(Low Emptying
Rate)
Softwater
Effluent
Baffle Plate
Not Always Used
Clear Water
Outlet to
Backwash Pumps
Note:
Filter Wash
WAter Storage
Partitioned to
Separate Clear
and Dirty Water
Sludge Blanket
Sludge
Recirculation
Sludge Blowdown
Picture courtesy of Betz Laboratories, Inc. (Handbook) DP26Af07

XXVI-A 43 of 96
Figure 8
Typical Hot Process Softening System
Brine
Vent Regen
Lime Feed
Raw Water Steam
Softened
Backwash Water
Hot Pumps
Lime
Unit
Booster
Pumps
Filter Zeolite
Softeners
Sludge
Recycle
Sludge DP26Af08
to
Waste
XXVI-A 44 of 96
Figure 9
Hot Lime Process Predicted Calcium
and Carbonate Ions in Treated Water
150
Raw Water Operation Dilution

Temperature Pressure Factor
°F psig f
125
0.90
3
CO
40 0.89
Ca
0.88
as
60
++
0.87
Filtered Hot Process Plant Effluent
Ca
–2 0.86
100 80 5–
– 10 0.85
15 –
0.84
100
PPM as CaCO3
0.83
110 0.82
75 0.81
50
25
CO3 = as CaCO3
0
-50 -25 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
Diluted Raw Water Noncarbonate Hardness

DP26Af09
(Raw Water TH-Raw Alk.) x f
XXVI-A 45 of 96
Figure 10
Rectangular Gravity Filter
Figure 10A
Water In
Sand Backwash Waste
Gravel
Water Out
Backwash Inlet
DP26Af10a
Figure 10B
Valveless Gravity Filter (With Automatic Backwash)
Inlet
Siphon
Backwash Breaker
Pipe
Water
Out
Back- Back-
wash wash
Storage Storage
Filtering Backwash
Cycle Cycle
Picture courtesy of Power Magazine (Special Report) Dp26Af10b

XXVI-A 46 of 96
Figure 11
Pressure Filter (Downflow Type)
Figure 11A
Inlet Baffle
Backwash Out
Water In Anthracite
Backwash In
Water Out Sand or
Garnet
Weir
Concrete
Sub Fill
Drain
Header, Lateral
Butterfly Strainer System
Valve
Sump
Pictures courtesy of Power Magazine (Special Report) DP26Af11a
Figure 11B
Pressure Filter (Upflow Type)
Water Out
Sand Retaining
Grid
Outlet to
Waste
Graded Bed of
Filter Media
Nozzle Plate
Distributor
Air Inlet
Raw Water In
Pictures courtesy of Power Magazine (Special Report) DP26Af11b

XXVI-A 47 of 96
Figure 12
Horizontal Pressure Filter
Figure 12A
Raw
Water
Backwash
To Waste Filtered
Water
Pictures courtesy of Power Magazine (Special Report) DP26Af12a
Figure 12B
Precoat And Cartridge Filters
Outlet Air
Air Inlet Outlet

Vent
Inlet Drain
Precoat Filter Cartridge Filter
Pictures courtesy of Power Magazine (Special Report) DP26Af12b

XXVI-A 48 of 96
Figure 13
Forced Draft Degasifier
Air Out
Water
Inlet
Blower
Air Seal
To Pumps
Picture courtesy of Drew Chemicals Corporation Inc. (Handbook) DP26Af13

XXVI-A 49 of 96
Figure 14
Typical Ion Exchange Vessel
Inlet
Raw Water
Distributor
Freeboard
Space
Regenerant
Distributor
Ion
Exchange
Resin
Treated Water
Collector
Support Plate
(False Bottom)
Outlet DP26Af14
XXVI-A 50 of 96
Figure 15
Typical Demin Plant Configurations
SAC SBA
Legend
WAC = Weak Acid Cation

SAC = Strong Acid Cation
WBC = WEak Base Anion
SBA = Strong Base Anion
D = Degasifier
MB = Mixed Bed
SAC SBA MB
SAC WBA SBA
SAC D SBA
WAC WBA
D
SAC SBA
DP26Af15
XXVI-A 51 of 96
Figure 16
Regeneration Steps for Mixed Bed Units
Anion
Cation
Dilute
Acid
1. In Service 2. Backwash 3. Cation

Regeneration
4. Anion 5. Rinse 6. Drain
Regeneration
Dilute
Caustic
4. Anion 5. Rinse 6. Drain

Regeneration
7. Air Mix 8. Refill 9. Rinse
Picture courtesy of Power Magazine (Special Report) Dp26Af16

XXVI-A 52 of 96
Figure 17
Typical Exhaustion Patterns with Multiple Beds
(Co-Current and Counter-Current) and Mixed Beds
Figure 17A
10.0
Method Dosage
A. Co-Current 400%
8.0
B. Counter-Current 200%
Effluent Conductivity, µ mhos/cm
C. Mixed Bed 400%
6.0
4.0
A
2.0
B
C
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent of Run
Graphs courtesy of Duolite DP26Af17a
XXVI-A 53 of 96
Figure 17B
Effect Of Acid Dosage On Sodium Leakage,
Co-Current Vs. Counter-Current Units
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
Co -
Cu r
ren
1.0 t
Sodium Leakage, ppm
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.05
0.04
0.03 Coun
te r-Cur
0.02 rent
0.01
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Regenerant Dosage, Grams HCI/ Liter
Graphs courtesy of Duolite DP26Af17b

XXVI-A 54 of 96
Figure 18
Counter-Current Regeneration
of Ion Exchange Units
Water In
Inlet Distributor
and Backwash
Collector
Service Waste Regenerant

Cycle Collector
Outlet Collector
and Chemicals
Distributor
Water Out
Blocking Water
or Air Flow
Regeneration
Cycle
Waste Regenerant
Out
Regenerant In
DP26Af18
XXVI-A 55 of 96
Figure 19
Packed Bed Ion Exchange Vessels
Resin
Bed
Distributor/
Resin Collector
Bed Plates
Resin
Bed
Single Compartment Double Compartment

Vessel Vessel
~
Resin
Inlet
Backwash
To Waste
Cleaned
Resin Backwash
Outlet Inlet
External Backwash
Tank
Dp26Af19
XXVI-A 56 of 96
Figure 20
Reverse Osmosis Systems
A. Simple Module
RO Module
Treated Water
Raw (Permeate)
Water
Semi-Permeable
Membrane
Waste
(Concentrate)
B. Pretreatment Scheme
Raw Clarification Media Chemical

Water & Filtration Filtration For Sale
(Primary) (Polishing) Control and pH
Chemical
Cleaning
Skid
RO Units
Micron
Filters Product
(5µ) Water
Waste DP26Af20
XXVI-A 57 of 96
Figure 21
Reverse Osmosis Membrane Types
A. Spiral Wound Type
Module Seal
Permeate Collection Holes
Feed Solution
Concentrate
Permeate Out
Concentrate
Feed Channel
Feed Solution Spacer
Membrane
Feed Flow Permeate
Across Feed Collection
Channel Spacer Material
Membrane
Permeate Flow Feed Channel
Spacer
Cover
Adhesive Line
Reject
B. Hollow Fiber Type
Brine Permeate
Feed
Feed Permeate
DP26Af21
Picture courtesy of Betz Laboratories, Inc.
XXVI-A 58 of 96
Figure 22
Membrane Performance Characteristics
Reduced Pressure Decreases Product

Flow and Increases Salt in Product
10
9 Performance at
reduced pressure
Performance ratio =
8 Performance at
2,760 kPa (400 psig
7
(Basis: 1,500 mg/L NaCI and 75% conversion
Performance Ratio
3 Sa
lt P
ass
a ge
2
1 w
Product Flo
0
0 100 200 300 400 psig
0 690 1,380 2,070 2,760 kPa
Effective Feed Pressure
Higher Conversion Increases Salt

Concentratuion in Product, Decreases Flow
8
Performance at conversion Y
7 Performance ratio =
Performance at 75% conversion
6 [Basis: 2,760 kPa (400 psig) feed pressure
and 1,500 mg/L NaCI]
Performance Ratio
4
Salt Passage
3
2
Product Flow
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Conversion, %
Graphs Courtesy of DuPont (Permasep® Permeators) DP26Af22

XXVI-A 59 of 96
Figure 23
Parallel Single-Staged RO System
Low Pressure
Shutdown Switch
Feed Supply Feed Pressure Permeator
Pressure Gauge
Gauge Pump Sample Flow Balancing
Sucton Sample Tube Sample
Pressure Pump
Gauge Valve
Feed Sample
Inlet Sample
Valve
5 - 10µ High
Filter High Pressure Pressure
Pump Shutdown
Sample Sample
Switch or
High Relirf Sample
Temperature Device
Switch
Sample
Sample
Product
Pressure Gauge
Sample
High Product Pressure
Flow Control Vale Shutdown Switch
Sample
M Flow Meter
Flow Meter M
Brine Drain
Product
Low TDS Flush Line to Service
Drawing Courtesy of DuPont (Permasep® Permeators)

DP26Af23
XXVI-A 60 of 96
Figure 24
Brine-Staged RO System
Figure 24A
First Stage
Second Stage
Product
Feed
Pumps
Waste
DP26Af24a
XXVI-A 61 of 96
Figure 24b
Product-Staged Ro System
First Stage Second Stage
Product
First
Stage
Pumps
Storage Or Recycle
To First Stage
Pump
Second
Stage
Pumps DP26Af24b
XXVI-A 62 of 96
Figure 25
Simplified Seawater RO Plant
10 Million GPD (37.850 m3/d) Capacity
Feed
126,800 m3/d
(33.5 Million GPD)
130,200 m3/d
(34.4 Million GPD)
6,141 - 6,900 kPa
(890 - 1000 psig)
853 mg/l TDS

B - 10 Permasep Permeator
Conversion = 32% 41,600 m3/d B - 10 Product
(11.0 Million GPD)
88,500 m3/d
(23.4 Million GPD)
B - 10 Brine 37,850 m3/d
To Energy Recovery (10.0 Million GPD)
2760 kPa 3,785 m3/d

(400 psig) (1.0 Million GPD)
B - 9 Permasep Permeator 125 mg/l TDS
Conversion = 90%
Reject Staged 4:2:1 34,000 m3/d B - 9 Product
(9.0 Million GPD)
3,400 m3/d
(0.9 Million GPD)
B - 9 Brine to Recycle 200 mg/l TDG
37,850 m3/d
(10.0 Million GPD) RO Product
Summary of Energy Requirements
Pump Pump Pump Motor HP Motor kWh/1.000 gal.

GPM Eff.% Heat Feed 92% Eff. kW of Product
Chlorine Injection – – – 40 30 0.076
Traveling Screens – – – 60 45 0.114
Sea Pump 23,230 84 115 890 664 1.590
Acid Injection – – – 40 30 0.076
Coagulation - Injection – – – 40 30 0.076
Filtered Water Pump 23,840 84 115 915 682 1.630
Sodium Bisulfite Injection – – – 40 30 0.076
B - 10 RO Pump 23,840 84 2,309 18,366 13,695 32.850
B - 9 R0 Pump 6,920 84 924 2,131 1,589 3.780
Product Degasification – – – 100 75 0.180
Product Water Pump 6,940 84 115 261 195 0.450
Energy Recovery B - 10 16,210 80 2,194 -7,192 -5,363 -12.870
Total 28.030
Example Courtesy of DuPont (permasep) DP26Af25

XXVI-A 63 of 96
Figure 26
Simplified Brackish Water RO Plant
5 Million GPD (18,900 m3/d) Capacity
Feed
23,470 m3/d
(6.2 Million GPD)
1478 mg/I TDS 9,436 m3/d
18,179 m3/d (2.5 Million GPD)
(4.8 Million GPD) 97 mg/I TDS
Stage 1
1478 mg/I TDS
Permasep Permeators
Conversion = 51.9 %
8,743 m3/d
(2,308,000 GPD)
2971 mg/I TDS
4,197 m3/d
(1.1 Million GPD)
Blend 174 mg/I TDS
5,291 m3/d Stage 2
(1,398,000 GPD) Permasep  Permeators
1478 mg/I TDS Conversion = 4.80 %
Brine
Product
4,546 m3d
(1,2 Million GPD) 18,924 m3/d
5,551 mg/I TDS (5 Million GPD)
500 mg/I TDS
DP26Af26
SUMMARY OF ENERGY REQUIREMENTS

Pump Pump Pump Motor HP Motor kWh/1.000 gal
GPM Eff.% Heat Feed 90% Eff. kW of Product
Supply Pump 4,306 80 200 302 225 1.08
Filtered Water Pump 4,306 80 100 78 58 0.28
B-9 RO Pump 3,335 80 924 1,081 806 3.87
Additive Pumps — — — 40 30 0.14
Product Degas — — — 40 30 0.14
Product Pump 3,472 80 100 122 91 0.44
Total 5.95
XXVI-A 64 of 96
Figure 27
Thermal Distillation Process
Figure 27A
Cooling
Water
Out
Vapor Cooling
Water
Mesh In
Heating Product
Steam Water
Out
Feed
Water
Condensate Concentrated
Returned Brine to Waste
to Boiler
DP26Af27a Picture Courtesy of Aquachem, Inc.
Figure 27B
Mechanical Vapor Compression (Mvc) Process
Evaporator
Boiler Centrifugal
Compressor
Distillate Storage
Feedwater Supply
Blowdown Waste
Plate Type
Heat Exchanger
Picture Courtesy of Aquachem, Inc.

DP26Af27b
XXVI-A 65 of 96
Figure 28
Multi-Stage Flash (MSF) Distillation
(with Brine Recycle)
Acid and Scale

Feed Inhibitors
Decarbonator/Deaerator
Coolant
Discharge
Steam
To Vent System
Brine Heater
Feed &
Coolant
Product
Recycle Brine
Condensate Return
Brine
Blowdown
Heat Heat
Recovery Rejection
Stages Stages

DP26Af28
XXVI-A 66 of 96
Figure 29
Multi-Effect Distillation (MED)
(Vertical Tubes)
Makeup Coolant
Effect No.1 Effect No.2
Cooling Tower
Cooling
Water
Gases Gases
Steam To Vent To Vent Vapor
Final Condenser
Condensate
Condensate
Product Water
Feed Vapor Vapor

Cooling Water
Pump
Brine Brine Brine Blowdown Coolant Blowdown
From Last Effect
Pump Pump

DP26Af29
XXVI-A 67 of 96
Figure 30
Solubility of Oxygen in Water
(as a Function of Pressure and Temperature)
16
14
12 Ga
Oxypen Content, cm3/L
ug
e
Pr
10 es
10 su
8 re
Po
6 un
ds
8 4
2
0
6 4
Va
cuu 8
mI
nch
e sm
12 erc
4 ury
16
20
2
24
0 28
32 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250
Temperature, °F
Note: Use the following for converting to from metric units:

Temperature ( °F-32) x 5/9 = °C
Pressure Psig x 6.895 = kPa
Vacuum in.Hg x 25.4 = mm Hg
O2 Content cm3/L x 1.43 = ppm
DP26Af30
XXVI-A 68 of 96
Figure 31
Deaerator Schematic
(Spray/Tray Type)
Condensate Makeup
Vents
Water Box
Valves, Nozzles
Heater Tank
Steam
Spray Chamber
Tray Stack
Steam Equalizers
Countercurrent Flow
Downcomer
Storage Tank
To Feedwater Pumps
Picture courtesy of Power Maqazine (Special Report)

DP26Af31
XXVI-A 69 of 96
Figure 32
Vacuum Degasifier
Stream Inlet Vacuum

Ejectors
Condenser
see other Sheet
Storage
LC
Inlet Water
To Waste
Booster
Pump(s) DP26Af32
XXVI-A 70 of 96
Figure 33
Electro Magnetic Filters
Outlet
Magnet Coil
Magnet Frame Flow Distribution
Canister Matrix
Inlet
Picture Courtesy of Betz Laboratories,Inc.

DP26Af33
XXVI-A 71 of 96
Figure 34
Powdered Resin Filters
Condensate Condensate
In Vent Out
Backwash
Air
Supply
Water
Powdex
Elements
Slurry
Tank
Precoat
Pump
Service
Vessel
Precoat Precoat
Return Recycle
Hold
Pump
Drain Precoat Inlet
Sump Service Cycle

Picture Courtesy of Betz Laboratories, Inc.
Note: Shows one unit only. Typically provide multiple units for continuous service.
DP26Af34
XXVI-A 72 of 96
Figure 35
Pre-Coat Filters
Condensate Inlet
Inlet
Distribution
Precoat Layer
Resin
Underdrain
Backwash
Inlet or Rinse
Outlet Treated Condensate outlet
Precoat
Makedown
Tank
Note: Shows one unit only. Typically provide multiple units for continuous service.
DP26Af35 Picture Courtesy of Betz Laboratories, Inc.

XXVI-A 73 of 96
APPENDIX A
Table A-1 Standard Water Analysis Sheet

Table A-2 Factors for Conversion from PPM as Substance to PPM as CaCO3
Table A-3 Common Impurities Found in Water
Table A-4 Typical Water Analysis of Rivers, Wells and Municipal Supplies
Table A-5 Regenerant Chemicals Solutions
Table A-6 Waste Generated by Various Water Treatment Processes
Table A-7 Performance Specification - RO Membranes
Sample Problem Primary Demineralization (Co-Current Regeneration)
Table A 1
Standard Water Analysis Sheet
CONSTITUENT ppm as I II III IV V VI

Calcium (Ca++) CaCo3
C Magnesium (Mg++) CaCo3
a
t Sodium (Na+) CaCo3
i Hydrogen (H+) CaCo3
o CaCo3
n
s CaCo3
Total Cations CaCo3
Bicarbonate (HCO3–) CaCo3
Carbonate (CO3– –) CaCo3
A Hydroxide (OH–) CaCo3
n
i Sulfate (SO4– –) CaCo3
o Chloride (Cl–) CaCo3
n
s Nitrate (NO3–) CaCo3
CaCo3
Total Anions CaCo3
Total Hardness CaCo3
Methyl Orange Alkalinity CaCo3
Iron, Total Fe
Carbon Dioxide, Free CO2
Silica SiO2
Turbidity
Color
pH
Notes:
Identification
Column I Raw Wares Analysis
Column II Maximum Allowable Impurities in Makeup Water to Deaerator
Column III Modified Analysis Resulting from each Treatment Step
Column IV Modified Analysis Resulting from each Treatment Step
Column V Modified Analysis Resulting from each Treatment Step
Column VI Modified Analysis Resulting from each Treatment Step
XXVI-A 74 of 96
Table A 2
Factors for Conversion
From Parts per Million as the Substance to Parts per Million as CACO3
IONIC EQUIVALENT FACTOR

IONS SYMBOL WEIGHT WEIGHT (NOTE)
Cations
Aluminum Al3+ 27.0 9.0 5.56
Ammonium NH4+ 18.0 18.0 2.78
Barium Ba2+ 137.4 68.7 0.73
Calcium Ca2+ 40.1 20.0 2.49
Copper Cu2+ 63.6 31.8 1.57
Hydrogen H+ 1.0 1.0 50.0
Iron (ferrous) Fe2+ 55.8 27.9 1.80
Iron (ferric) Fe3+ 55.8 18.6 2.69
Magnesium Mg2+ 24.3 12.2 4.10
Manganese Mn2+ 54.9 27.5 1.82
Potassium K+ 39.1 39.1 1.28
Sodium Na+ 23.0 23.0 2.18
Anions
Bicarbonate HCO3– 61.0 61.0 0.82
Bisulfate HSO4– 97.1 97.1 0.51
Bisulfite HSO3– 81.1 81.1 0.61
Carbonate CO32– 60.0 30.0 1.67
Carbon Dioxide CO2 44 44 1.13
Chloride Cl– 35.5 35.5 1.41
Fluoride F– 19.0 19.0 2.63
Hydroxide OH– 17.0 17.0 2.94
Nitrate NO3– 62.0 62.0 0.81
Phosphate (primary) H2PO4– 97.0 97.0 0.51
Phosphate (secondary) HPO42– 96.0 48.0 1.04
Phosphate (tertiary) PO43– 95.0 31.7 1.58
Sulfate SO42– 96.1 48.0 1.04
Sulfide S2– 32.1 16.0 3.12
Sulfite SO32– 80.1 40.0 1.25
Silica SiO2 60.1 60.1 0.83
Note: Multiply by this factor to convert ppm as the substance to ppm as CaCO3. For example, to convert 50 ppm Sodium (Na+) to Calcium
Carbonate equivalent, proceed as follows:
50 ppm Na+ x 2.18 = 109 ppm as CaCO3
XXVI-A 75 of 96
Table A 3
Common Impurities Found in Water
CONSTITUENT CHEMICAL FORMULA DIFFICULTIES CAUSED MEANS OF TREATMENT

Calcium and Magnesium salts, Chief source of scale in heat exchange Softening, internal boiler water
Hardness expressed as CaCO3. equipment, boilers, pipelines, etc. treatment.
Bicarbonate (HCO3–) and Foaming and carryover of solids with Lime softening, demineralization,
Alkalinity carbonate (CO3– –), salts and steam. Embrittlement of boiler steel. dealkalization, distillation.
hydroxides (OH–), expressed Bicarbonate and carbonate produce
as CaCO3. CO2 in steam, a source of corrosion.
Corrosion in water lines and particularly Aeration, deaeration, strong base
Carbon Dioxide CO2 condensate lines. anion exchange, neutralization
with alkalites, filming and
neutralizing amines.
Adds to solids content of water, but, in Demineralization, distillation.
Sulfate (SO4) itself, is not usually significant.
Combines with calcium to form calcium
sulfate scale.
Adds to solids content and increases Demineralization, distillation.
Chloride (Cl) corrosive character of water. With
sulfate, promotes pitting of turbine
blades.
Adds to solids content, but is not Demineralization, distillation.
Nitrate (NO3) usually significant.
Scale in boilers. Insoluble turbine blade Hot lime process removal with
Silica SiO2 deposits. magnesium salts; adsorption by
highly basic anion exchange
resins, in conjunction with
demineralization. Distillation.
Source of deposits in water lines, Aeration, coagulation and
Iron and Manganese Fe, Mn boilers, etc. filtration, lime softening, Cation
exchange.
Scale, sludge and foaming in boilers. Baffle separators, strainers,
Oil and Hydrocarbons Expressed as total carbon. Impedes heat exchange. coagulation and filtration.
Corrosion of water lines, heat exchange Deaeration, sodium sulfite,
Oxygen O2 equipment, boilers, return lines, etc. hydrazine or other oxygen
chemical scavengers.
Corrosion of copper and zinc alloys by Cation exchange with hydrogen
Ammonia NH3 formation of complex soluble ion. zeolite, deaeration, pH control.
“Dissolved solids" is the measure of the Lime softening, demineralization,
Dissolved Solids — total amount of dissolved matter, distillation.
determined by evaporation or
measurement of specific conductance.
High concentrations of dissolved solids
are objectionable because of process
interference, scale or as a cause of
foaming in boilers.
“Suspended Solids" is the measure of Clarification and filtration.
Suspended Solids — the undissolved matter, determined
gravimetrically. Suspended solids plug
lines, cause deposits in ion exchange
units, membranes, heat exchange
equipment, boilers, etc.
Excessive corrosion of steel, copper Aeration. Chlorination.
Hydrogen Sulfide H2S
materials of construction. Stripping.
“Total Solids" is the sum of dissolved See Dissolved Solids and
Total Solids —
and suspended solids. Suspended Solids.
Fouling of anion exchange resins in Coagulation-filtration. Organic
Organic Matter — demineralization plants. Corrosion of scavenging resins. Brining of
boiler metal. Foaming. anion resins.
XXVI-A 76 of 96
Table A 4
Typical Water Analysis of Rivers, Wells and Municipal Supplies
CONTENT AS CaCO3 TOTAL

DISSOLVED
WATER SUPPLY LOCATION SiO2 SOLIDS
Ca Mg Na+K HCO3 SO4 Cl as SiO2 TURBIDITY
Mississippi River New Orleans, La.
Average 97 51 43 103 48 40 9 535 247
Maximum 130 99 126 150 97 108 6 1770 436
Ohio River Cincinnati, O.
Average 100 30 73 40 111 52 3 70 268
Maximum 161 58 102 39 180 102 5 1100 456
Brazos River South Bend, Tex.
Average 364 96 780 93 307 840 3 20 1480
Maximum 1150 305 3907 92 1070 4200 9 1400 6530
Missouri River Kansas City, Mo.
Average 147 67 111 145 158 22 10 810 420
Maximum 173 75 149 142 230 25 12 10,000 537
Lake Michigan Chicago, Ill. 77 40 11 96 22 10 2 8 159
Lake Worth Fort Worth, Tex. 110 33 48 125 21 45 6 20 228
Well Lafayette, Ind. 252 150 34 310 100 26 12 1 496
Salty Well Roswell, N. Mex. 1400 650 11,000 170 1800 11,080 — — 15,500
Delaware River Philadelphia, Pa. 67 16 10 26 45 22 6 1 130
(filtered) (municipal)
Colorado River Los Angeles, Cal. 130 70 335 115 296 124 9 2 678
(softened) (municipal)
Hetch Hetchy San Francisco, Cal. 8 2 6 9 2 5 3 1 27
Reservoir (municipal)
Hillsborough Tampa, Fla. 128 21 15 89 50 25 7 2 212
River (filtered) (municipal)
Wells (filtered) Lincoln, Neb. 140 38 64 158 70 14 35 2 312
(municipal)
Catskill supply New York, N.Y. 14 4 5 6 12 5 3 3 42
(municipal)
XXVI-A 77 of 96
Table A 5
Regenerant Chemicals Solutions
WT. OF CHEMICAL PER

WT% VOLUME OF SOLUTION SG OF
SOLUTION TYPE CHEMICAL SOLUTION BAUMÉ
lb/gal grams/liter
Sodium Chloride 1 0.084 10.07 1.0073 1.0
(NaCl) 2 0.169 20.27 1.0145 2.0
4 0.343 41.14 1.0029 4.1
10 0.894 107.23 1.0734 9.9
26.4 2.650 317.86 1.2043 24.6
Sulfuric Acid 0.7 0.0565 6.77 1.0035 0.5
(H2SO4) 1 0.0839 10.05 1.0051 0.7
2 0.1689 20.24 1.0118 1.7
4 0.3422 41.00 1.0250 3.5
50 5.821 697.6 1.3951 41.1
93 14.19 1700 1.8279 65.7
100 15.28 1831 1.8305 65.8
Hydrochloric Acid 1 0.0837 10.04 1.0032 0.5
(HCl) 2 0.1683 20.19 1.0082 1.2
4 0.3399 40.77 1.0181 2.6
40 3.999 479.67 1.1980 24.0
Sodium Hydroxide 1 0.0842 10.10 1.0095 1.4
(NaOH) 2 0.1704 20.41 1.0207 2.9
4 0.3481 41.71 1.0428 6.0
50 6.364 762.7 1.5253 49.9
XXVI-A 78 of 96
Table A 6
Waste Generated by Various Water Treatment Processes
WASTE VOLUME
TREATMENT PROCESS CHARACTER OF WASTE PRODUCED PERCENTAGE FLOW
Rough screens Large objects, debris N/A
Sedimentation Sand, mud slurry 5 - 10
Clarification Usually acidic chemical sludge and settled matter 2-5
Cold Lime Softening Alkaline chemical sludge and settled matter 2-5
Hot Lime Softening (+ 212°F) Alkaline chemical sludge and settled matter 2-5
Filtration, gravity, or pressure Sludge, suspended solids 2-5
Reverse Osmosis Suspended and 90 - 99 percent of dissolved solids plus chemical 10 - 60

pretreatment if required
Electrodialysis Suspended and 80 - 95 percent of dissolved solids plus chemical 10 - 50

pretreatment if required
Distillation Concentrated dissolved and suspended solids 10 - 75
Sodium Zeolite Softening Dissolved calcium, magnesium and sodium chlorides 4-6
Two Bed Demineralization Dissolved solids from feed plus regenerants 10 - 14
Mixed Bed Demineralization Dissolved solids from feed plus regenerants 10 - 14
Notes:
(1) Approximate values for rough planning purposes.
(2) Waste production can vary widely depending on specific water source and treatment process(es).
XXVI-A 79 of 96
Table A 7
Performance Specification - RO Membranes
B-9 PERMASEP UNIT (10 in. DIA)(1)
Application range 150 - 10,000 ppm (150 - 10,000 mg/L)
Membrane type B-9 aramid
Membrane configuration Hollow fiber
Bundle weight 85 lb (38.6 kg) approximate
Initial product water capacity 25,000 GPD (94.61 m3/day) nominal ± 10%
Salt rejection with PT-A > 90%
Rated operating pressure 400 psig (2,760 kPa)
Temperature range 32 - 95°F (0 - 35°C)
pH range, continuous exposure 4 - 11
Minimum brine rate (permeator) 16,600 GPD (62.82 m3/day)
Maximum brine rate (permeator) 40,300 GPD (152.51 m3/day)
B-10 PERMASEP UNIT (8 in. DIA)(2)
Application range 7,000 - 60,000 ppm (7,000 - 60,000 mg/L)
Membrane type B-10 aramid
Membrane configuration Hollow fiber
Bundle weight 60 lb (27.2 kg) approximate
Initial product water capacity 6,300 GPD (23.85 m3/day) nominal ± 10%
Salt rejection with PT-A > 98.5%
Rated operating pressure 800 - 1,000 psig (5,515 - 6,895 kPa)
Temperature range 32 - 95°F (0 - 35°C)
pH range, continuous exposure 4-9
Minimum brine rate (permeator) 6,000 GPD (22.71 m3/day)
Maximum brine rate (permeator) 40,000 GPD (151.4 m3/day)
Notes:
(1) Performance data based on feed at 1,500 mg/L NaCl at 400 psig (2,760 kPa) 77°F (25°C). Conversion at 75%.
(2) Performance data based on feed at 30,000 mg/L NaCl at 800 psig (5,515 kPa), 77°F (25°C). Conversion at 30%.
(3) Use Vendor supplied performance data for specific application.
Courtesy of Du Pont (Permasep)

XXVI-A 80 of 96
APPENDIX (Cont)
SAMPLE PROBLEM
PRIMARY DEMINERALIZATION
(CO-CURRENT REGENERATION)
General
Problem
Solution
Step 1 - Select Resin Capacities and Regenerant Levels
Step 2 - Determine First Pass Resin Requirements for Further Guidance
Step 3 - Size Anion Unit(s)
Step 4 - Determine Anion Unit Regeneration Requirements
Step 5 - Forced Draft Degasifier
Step 6 - Design of Cation Units
Step 7 - Determine Cation Unit Regeneration Requirements
Step 8 - Neutralization of Waste Regenerants
Step 9 - Sizing of Neutralization Tank(s)
Step 10 - Demineralization Plant Summary
Step 11 - Other Considerations (Water and Chemicals Reuse)
General: This example is intended to show the calculation methodology for determining demineralization plant requirements
as follows:
• Vessel Sizes
• Resin Volumes
• Chemicals Consumptions
• Waste Streams
The example is based on co-current regeneration and general resin data as included in this Design Practice. Resin
performance and chemicals consumption can vary from one manufacturer to another; and it is therefore recommended to use
vendor data whenever possible.
An optimum design may also justify an economic analysis of other options/configurations. These may include mixed bed
polishers, counter-current regeneration, or packed bed technology.
XXVI-A 81 of 96
APPENDIX (Cont)
SAMPLE PROBLEM (Cont)
Problem: Design a plant which produces 1000 gpm (227 m3/h) of treated water on a continuous basis.
• Effluent Quality to meet the following limits:
Calcium Hardness 0.1 ppm as CaCO3
Magnesium Hardness 0.1 ppm as CaCO3
Alkalinity 2 ppm as CaCO3
Silica 0.1 ppm as SiO2
Dissolved Salts 2 ppm as CaCO3
Free Carbon Dioxide 0.01 ppm as CO2
• The raw water analysis (after pretreatment steps) is as follows:
Calcium 128 ppm as CaCO3
Magnesium 21 ppm as CaCO3
Sodium 15 ppm as CaCO3
Total Cations 164 ppm as CaCO3
Bicarbonates 89 ppm as CaCO3
Sulfates 50 ppm as CaCO3
Chlorides 25 ppm as CaCO3
Total Anions 164 ppm as CaCO3
Silica 7 ppm as SiO2
Note: Substances contained in the Raw Water Analysis were converted to CaCO3 equivalents via appropriate conversion
factors (see Table A-2).
Solution: The demin plant configuration can be simple and include only SAC and SBA units. Alternatively, a plant
consisting of WAC/SAC layered beds followed by degasification and WBA/SBA beds could be utilized for
maximum chemical efficiency.
Let's use the latter configuration to illustrate a variety of concepts.
STEP 1 - SELECT RESIN CAPACITIES AND REGENERANT LEVELS

WAC Resin will remove cations (preferentially hardness) associated with alkalinity.
Using Table 4, we get the following:
Ratio of Harness to =
(128 + 21)
= 1.67
89
Alkalinity in Raw Water
Total Free Mineral Acidity = 50 + 25 = 75
(FMA) as CaCO3
Based on these values we can use an exchange capacity of 40 kgr/ft3.
SAC Resin will remove the remaining cations and limit cation leakage to less than 2 ppm to the anion unit(s).
XXVI-A 82 of 96
APPENDIX (Cont)
Using Table 6 we get the following:
% Alkalinity (after WAC Resin) = 0
15
% Na Ions = x 100 = 20
(164 − 89)
(after WAC Resin)
2 ppm
Acceptable Cation = x 100 = 2.7%
75
Leakage (%)
Use sulfuric acid dosage of 5 lb/ft3.
To give SAC exchange capacity of 9 kgr/ft3 and leakage of 2%.
WBA Resin will remove the free mineral acidity (FMA) from the water. In the absence of vendor data, assume an exchange
capacity of 20 kgr/ft3 and a caustic dosage of 4 lb/ft3.
SBA Resin will remove the silica and residual carbon dioxide from the degasifier (5 ppm). Using Table 7 we get the following:
Silica (SiO2)
7 ppm x 0.83 = 5.8 ppm as CaCO3
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
5.7 ppm as CaCO3
5 ppm x 1.13 =
11.5 ppm as CaCO3
% Weak Acid in Total = 100

Exchangeable Anions (TEA)
5 .8
% Silica in TEA = x 100 = 50
11.5
Use 6 lb/ft3 caustic dosage to obtain silica leakage below 0.1 ppm (0.08 per Table). Exchange capacity is about 14 kgr/ft3.
STEP 2 - DETERMINE FIRST PASS RESIN REQUIREMENTS AND VESSEL SIZES FOR FURTHER
GUIDANCE
Total Water Treated
1000 gal 1440 min 1.44 Mgal
x =
min day day
Use minimum of two trains
1.44 Mgal 1 720 kgal
x =
day 2 trains day
XXVI-A 83 of 96
APPENDIX (Cont)
12 gal
Maximum vessel velocity is
min/ ft 2
(during regen or other train)
2
1000 gal ft
x = 83.3 ft2
min 12 gal
min
Vessel Diameter
4A 4 (83.3)
D = = = 10.3 ft
π π
use 10.5 ft (3.2 m) dia.

πD 2
π (10.5 ft ) 2
A = = = 86.5 ft 2
4 4
Resin Requirements are based on one regeneration per vessel per day. Also one grain per US gallon equals 17.1 ppm
because a gallon weighs 8.33 lb and 1 lb contains 7,000 grains.
WAC Resin (removes 89 ppm Alkalinity)
89 ppm ft3
x 720 kgal x = 94 ft3
17.1 40 kgr
SAC Resin (removes 15 ppm sodium plus 60 ppm residual hardness)

75 ppm ft 3
x 720 kgal x = 351 ft3
17.1 9 kgr
WBA Resin (removes sulfates and chlorides)
75 ppm ft 3
x 720 kgal x = 158 ft3
17.1 20 kgr
SBA Resin (removes silica and CO2 residual from degasifier)
11.5 ft 3
x 720 kgal x = 35 ft3
17.1 14 kgr
This would result in resin bed depths as follows:
1
WAC 94 ft3 x 86.5 ft 2 = 1.1 ft (0.3 m)
1
SAC 351 ft3 x 86.5 ft 2 = 4.1 ft (1.2 m)
1
WBA 158 ft3 x 86.5 ft 2 = 1.8 ft (0.6 m)
1
SBA 35 ft3 x 86.5 ft 2 = 0.4 ft (0.1 m)
Since the minimum allowable resin bed depth is 2.5 ft (0.8 m), it appears that the Anion Resin should be limited to SBA only.
The efficiency advantage of the WBA resin will be offset by the minimum resin bed depth requirement for the resins and the
resulting higher total chemical consumption.
Continue the problem with SBA Resin only.
XXVI-A 84 of 96
APPENDIX (Cont)
STEP 3 - SIZE ANION UNIT(S)
SBA Resin has to remove all Anions, plus Silica, plus Carbon Dioxide in effluent of degasifier.
Sulfates 50 ppm as CaCO3
Chlorides 25 ppm as CaCO3
Carbon Dioxide 6 ppm as CaCO3
Silica 6 ppm as CaCO3
Total Anions 87 ppm as CaCO3
Using Table 7 again, we get the following:

12
% weak acid in TEA = 87 x 100 = 14
6
% Silica in TEA = 87 x 100 = 7
Use Caustic Regenerant Level of 4 lb/ft3

And Exchange Capacity of about 10 kgr/ft3
SBA Resin required is
87 ppm ft 3
17.1 x 720 kgal x = 366 ft3
10 kgr
1
Resin Bed Depth: 366 ft3 x 86.5 ft 2 = 4.2 ft (1.23 m)
Vessel Height is:

SBA Resin Bed Depth = 4.2 ft (1.23 m)
Freeboard
= 10.4 ft (3.2 m)
(Resin Bed x 1.0 + 48 in.)
Total 14.6 ft (4.4 m)
Use 14.5 ft (4.4 m) Straight
Side
STEP 4 - DETERMINE ANION UNIT REGENERATION REQUIREMENTS

In the absence of vendor information, use 3 gal/min • ft2 for 15 minutes for backwash.
3 gal
min ft 2 x 86.5 ft2 = 260 gal/min (59 m3/h)
260 gal
min x 15 min = 3,900 gal (14.8 m3)
Regeneration of resin requires 6 lb/ft3 at 100% NaOH. Chemical injection is at 4 wt% and caustic is typically purchased at
50 wt% (50 Baumé). Refer to Table A-5 for chemical solutions.
XXVI-A 85 of 96
APPENDIX (Cont)
6 lb Caustic
366 ft3 Resin x ft 3 Re sin = 2,196 lb 100% Caustic
Dilute Caustic at 4 wt%

gal
2,196 lb x 0.3481 lb = 6,308 gal
Concentrated Caustic
gal
2,196 lb x 6.364 lb = 345 gal
Dilution Water = 5,963 gal
In the absence of vendor information, use 0.25 gal/min per ft3 of Resin for Caustic Injection Rate.
0.25 gal 92 gal
366 ft3 x min • ft 3 = min
Injection Time is:

min
6,308 gal x 92 gal = 69 min
Note minimum injection time for optimum silica removal is 60 minutes.

Displacement of the caustic from the resin follows next. This is accomplished by continuing the dilution water flow through the
resin. Normal displacement is a minimum of 2 Bed Volumes (BV). A bed volume is defined as the empty volume of the vessel
which the resin occupies.
1BV = 366 ft3 = 2738 gal
Dilution Water Rate is:

1 86 gal
5,963 gal x 69 min = min
Displacement Time is:

min
2,738 gal x 2 BV x 86 gal = 64 min
Fast Rinse is the final step in the regeneration of the resin before the unit is returned to service. Rinse water volume and time
required is typically determined by monitoring effluent water quality. Normal rinse volume is approximately 75 gal per ft3 of
resin.
Rinse Water Volume is:
75 gal
366 ft3 x ft 3 = 27,450 gal
In the absence of vendor information, use a rinse rate of 10 to 12 gal/min per ft2 of vessel cross section.
XXVI-A 86 of 96
APPENDIX (Cont)
Rinse Rate is:
10 gal 865 gal
86.5 ft2 x min • ft 2 = min
Rinse Time is:

27,450 gal min
min x 865 gal = 34 min
ANION UNIT REGENERATION SUMMARY

Water From Volume to
Flowrate Time Cation Unit Water from Demin Tank Waste
Step gal/min (m3/h) min gal (m3) gal (m3) gal (m3)
Backwash 260 (59.1) 15 3,900 (14.8) — 3,900 (14.8)

Caustic Injection 92 (20.9) 69 — 5,963 (22.8) 6,308 (24.0)
Displacement 86 (19.8) 64 — 5,504 (21.1) 5,504 (21.1)
Fast Rinse 865 (196) 34 27,450 (111.0) — 27,450
(111.0)
Totals 182 31,350 (125.8) 11,467 (43.9) 43,162
(170.9)
STEP 5 - FORCED DRAFT DEGASIFIER

The Forced Draft Degasifier can be designed as a common unit to serve both cation/anion unit trains. Multiple degasifiers
and/or sparing of fans can be considered for added reliability.
Using a single degasifier for both trains results in the following:
Design Anion Unit Feed = 1,000 gal/min (227 m3/h)

Maximum Regen Water = 865 gal/min (196 m3/h)
(Fast Rinse) _____________________
Design Rate 1,865 gal/min (423 m3/h)
Size Degasifier Tower using 17.5 gpm/ft2 (11.9 L/s per L/s/m2) of cross-sectional area:
1865 gal min • ft 2

x = 106.6 ft2
min 17.5 gal
4A 4 x 106.6 ft 2
D = = = 11.6 ft (3.5 m) dia
π π
Storage section should be sized to provide a minimum of 10 minutes holdup. This assumes that anion unit regeneration water
comes from its respective cation unit (e.g., regenerated in tandem) and that no additional storage is required.
1865 gal
x 10 min = 18,650 gal (70.6 m3)
min
XXVI-A 87 of 96
APPENDIX (Cont)
The minimum air flowrate for FD fan sizing is based on 3 scfm per gpm (20 L/s per L/s).
1865 gal 3 scfm 5595 scfm (9505 m3 /h)

x =
min gal / min h
STEP 6 - DESIGN OF CATION UNITS

The Design of the Cation Unit(s) has to reflect water requirements for Anion Unit(s) Regeneration. Hydraulically, Cation Unit
and Anion Unit designs are similar and the regeneration of an Anion Unit will be carried out in tandem with the corresponding
Cation Unit. Additional Cation Resin is required to provide decationized water to the Anion Unit(s).
Vessel Diameter is 10.5 ft (3.2 m).
This is identical to the Anion Unit(s) since the maximum flowrate of 1000 gpm (227 m3/h) will not be exceeded during
regeneration of the Anion Unit(s).
WAC resin will remove all the hardness associated with alkalinity. Resin exchange capacity can vary widely as shown in
Table 4. For the raw water analysis in this example, and using the data in the table, we get the following:
Ratio of Hardness to 149 ppm

Alkalinity in Raw Water: = = 1.7
89 ppm
Total Free Mineral Acidity (FMA) = 75 ppm as CaCO3

Based on these, we can use and exchange capacity of 40 kgr/ft3.
The total water to be treated by each Cation Unit is as follows:
Service Run Between Regens = 720 kgal (2727 m3)

Anion Regeneration Water = 44 kgal (171 m3)
_____________________
Total From Each Cation Unit 764 kgal (2898 m3)
WAC Resin required is:
89 ppm
x 764 kgal = 3,976 kilograins
17.1
ft 3 Resin
3,976 kgr x = 100 ft3 Resin
40 kgr
1
Resin Bed Depth: 100 ft3 x 86.5 ft 2 ≅ 1.2 ft (0.4 m)
However, the minimum bed depth is 2.5 ft (0.8 m).

Therefore, the WAC Resin Volume is:
86.5 ft2 x 2.5 ft = 216 ft3

XXVI-A 88 of 96
APPENDIX (Cont)
The SAC Resin has to remove the remaining cations in order to produce a demin plant effluent with less than 2 ppm of
dissolved salts. Leakage from the Resin will be sodium ions. Resin exchange capacity and leakage can vary widely depending
on composition of raw water and acid regen dosages as shown in Table 6.
% Alkalinity = 0 (Alkalinity removed by WAC Resin)
15
% Na ions = (164 − 89) x 100 = 2.7%
Maximum Allowable 2 ppm

Cation Leakage = (164 − 89) x 100 = 2.7%
Use Acid Regenerant Level of 5 lb/ft3 and Exchange Capacity of about 9 kgr/ft3
SAC Resin required is:
75 ppm ft 3
x 764 kgal x = 373 ft3
17.1 9 kgr
1
Resin Bed Depth: 373 ft3 x 86.5 ft 2 = 4.3 ft (1.3 m)
Vessel Height is:

WAC Resin Bed Depth = 2.5 ft (0.8 m)
SAC Resin Bed Depth = 4.3 ft (1.3 m)
Total Resin Beds = 6.8 ft (2.1 m)
Freeboard
(Resin Bed x 0.75 + 42 in.) = 8.6 ft (2.6 m)
Total = 15.4 ft (4.7 m)
use 15.5 ft (4.7 m) Straight Side
STEP 7 - DETERMINE CATION UNIT REGENERATION REQUIREMENTS

6 gal
In the absence of vendor information, use for 15 minutes for backwash.
min • ft 2
6 gal 519 gal

2
x 86.5 ft2 = (118 m3/h)
min • ft min
519 gal
x 15 min = 7,785 gal (29.5 m3)
min
Regeneration of the SAC Resin requires 5 lb/ft3 of 100% H2SO4. Chemical injection is normally at 2 and 4 wt% to prevent
CaSO4 sealing. The WAC Resin requires 120% of theoretical cation loading as an acid dosage and the excess acid from the
SAC resin is typically adequate for that purpose. To prevent calcium sulfate precipitation on the WAC Resin, the acid is diluted
to about 0.7 wt% and then the 2% step is not required for the SAC Resin because the 0.8 wt% replaces this step. Refer to
Table A-5 for chemical solutions.
XXVI-A 89 of 96
APPENDIX (Cont)
100% Sulfuric Acid for SAC Resin
5 lb
377 ft3 x = 1,885 lb
ft 3
Acid required for WAC Resin at 120% of theoretical is:
3976 kgr 1 lb
x x 1.2 = 682 lb
removed 7 kgr
Total Acid used by SAC Resin:

75 ppm 1 lb
x 764 kgal x = 479 lb
17.1 7 kgr
Excess Acid available for WAC Resin:
1885 lb - 479 lb = 1406 lb
Therefore we have sufficient excess acid from SAC to regenerate WAC Resin.
Required dilute sulfuric acid at 0.7 wt%
gal
682 lb x = 12,071 gal
0.0565 lb
Concentrated Sulfuric Acid at 100%
gal 44.6 gal

682 lb x =
15.28 lb
Dilution Water = 12026.4 gal
Total acid available for 4 wt% step:
1,885 lb - 682 lb = 1,203 lb
Total dilute sulfuric acid for 4 wt%:

gal
1,203 lb x = 3,515 gal
0.3422 lb
Concentrated sulfuric acid 100% for 4 wt%:

gal
1,203 lb x = 78.7 gal
15.28 lb
Dilution Water = 3436.3 gal

XXVI-A 90 of 96
APPENDIX (Cont)
In the absence of vendor information, use 0.6 gal/min per ft3 of resin for Acid Injection Rate.
6 gal 226 gal

377 ft3 SAC Resin x 3
=
min • ft min
0.7 wt% Injection Time is:
min
12,071 gal x = 53 min
226 gal
4 wt% Injection Time is:
min
3,515 gal x = 15.5 min
226 gal
Therefore acid injection is a two step process, 0.7 wt% and 4 wt%. The acid is past down through the WAC resin and than the
SAC resin.
Displacement of the acid from the cation resins is similar to caustic displacement from the anion resin. The acid flow is shut off
and dilution water flow is allowed to continue. Normal displacement is 2 BV.
1BV = 216 ft3 WAC + 373 ft3 SAC = 589 ft3 resin = 4406 gal
Dilution Water Rate is:
min
3436.3 gal x = 222 gpm
15.5 gal
Displacement Time is:

min
4,406 gal x 2 x = 40 min
222 gal
Fast Rinse
Normal rinse volume is in the range of 50 to 75 gal per ft3 of resin.
50 gal
(216 ft3 WAC + 373 ft3 SAC) x = 29,450 gal
ft 3
Rinse Rate is same for SBA: 865 gal/min

Rinse Time is:
min
29450 gal x = 34 min
865 gal
XXVI-A 91 of 96
APPENDIX (Cont)
CATION UNIT REGENERATION SUMMARY
Flowrate Time Raw Water Volume to Waste
Step gal/min (m3/h) (min) gal (m3) gal (m3)
Backwash 519 (118.0) 15 7,790 (29.5) 7,790 (29.5)
Acid Injection
0.8 wt% 226 (51.3) 53 12,026.4 (45.5) 12,071 (45.7)

4.0 wt% 226 (51.3) 15.5 3,436.3 (13) 3,515 (13.3)
Displacement 222 (50.4) 40 4,406 (16.7) 4,406 (16.7)
Fast Rinse 865 (196) 34 29,450 (111.5) 29,450 (111.5)

Totals > 157.5 57,109 (216) 57,232 (216.7)
STEP 8 - NEUTRALIZATION OF WASTE REGENERANTS

Acid used during regen = 1,885 lb as H2SO4
1,885 lb x 1.02 = 1,923 lb as CaCO3
Consumed by Ion Exchange
lb
WAC 3,976 kgr x = 568
7 kgr
75 ppm lb
SAC x 764 kgal x = 479 1,047 lb as CaCO3
17.1 7 kgr
Excess = 876 lb as CaCO3
Acid
Caustic used during regen = 2,196 lb as NaOH
2,196 lb x 1.25 = 2,745 lb as CaCO3
Consumed by Ion Exchange:
87 grain lb
SBA x 720 kgal x = 523 lb as CaCO3
17.1 gal 7 kgr
Excess Caustic = 2,222 lb as CaCO3
Excess Caustic = 2,222 lb as CaCO3

Excess Acid = 876 lb as CaCO3
Net Excess Caustic = 1,346 lb as CaCO3
Acid Required for = 1,346 lb as CaCO3
pH Adjustment
1,346 x 0.98 = 1,319 lb as H2SO4
XXVI-A 92 of 96
APPENDIX (Cont)
STEP 9 - SIZING OF NEUTRALIZATION TANK(S)
The waste regenerant streams have to be stored and neutralized prior to discharge from the plant.
Sizing of tankage has to consider elapsed time for regeneration, neutralization and discharge. Insufficient storage volume
and/or lack of tankage flexibility can limit demin plant production capability.
For large plants with multiple trains, more than one tank may be necessary.
Minimum holdup volume should consider two back-to-back regenerations.
For this sample problem, a single tank with the following minimum net volume is required:
Cation Waste = 57,232 gal (217 m3)

Anion Waste = 43,162 gal (171 m3)
Total for one regen = 100,394 gal (388 m3)
For two regens ≅ 201 kgal (776 m3)
STEP 10 - DEMINERALIZATION PLANT SUMMARY

• Design Rate is 1,000 gal/min (227 m3/h)
Daily treated water production is 1.44 Mgal (5455 m3)
• Plant includes two trains of cation/anion vessels and common forced draft degasifier. Cation vessels utilize layered resin
beds (WAC and SAC). Anion units contain SBA Resin.
• Major Equipment sizes are as follows:
– Cation Vessels
10.5 ft (3.2 m) dia. x 15.5 ft (4.7 m) Straight Side
– Forced Draft Degasifier
Tower - 10.5 ft (3.2 m) dia. x 16.0 ft (4.8 m) high
Storage Section - 15 kgal (57 m3) net capacity
– Anion Vessels
10.5 ft (3.2 m) dia. x 12.5 ft (3.8 m) Straight Side
– Neutralization Tank (or Pit)
201 kgal (776 m3) net capacity
• Resin Inventory
– WAC Resin 97 ft3 (2,750 L)
– SAC Resin 373 ft3 (1,0570 L)
– SBA Resin 366 ft3 (1,0370 L)
• Chemicals Consumption
100% H2SO4 3,204 lb (1,453 kg) per regen
6,408 lb (2,906 kg) per day
100% NaOH 2,196 lb (996 kg) per regen
4,392 lb (1,992 kg) per day
• Waste Regenerant Production
100 kgal (388 m3) per regen
201 kgal (776 m3) per day
XXVI-A 93 of 96
APPENDIX (Cont)
STEP 11 - OTHER CONSIDERATIONS (WATER AND CHEMICALS REUSE)
Water Reuse can be considered to reduce raw water consumption, chemicals consumption and wastewater production.
A. Demineralization (Ion Exchange)
Regeneration wastes can be put into three major steps:
1. Backwashes
2. Chemical Injection and Displacement
3. Fast Rinse
It is generally possible to collect and recycle all of the backwash waters and 50% of the fast rinse. Reuse will require additional
valving, piping and perhaps storage capacity.
Reuse water may have to be recycled to an upstream treatment step (e.g., cation backwash requires filtration).
Multiple tanks can be used to provide flexibility in terms of water reuse and waste effluent control.
Chemicals Reuse can also be considered to reduce acid and caustic consumption. A reuse scheme requires separate
storage, pumping and monitoring facilities to avoid problems in the regeneration process. The basic concept is to reuse the last
portion of the acid and caustic streams for the initial chemical dosage of the next regeneration. Final resin regen is always with
fresh chemicals.
This concept was applied in one ExxonMobil Plant in order to reduce acid consumption by 50%. High acid dosage of the cation
resin became necessary to reduce treated water sodium leakage to acceptable levels. This change was justified to avoid
investing in mixed bed polishing units.
Utilization of such a reuse concept requires caution and perhaps some pilot testing to make sure that there are no adverse
effects on resins and/or equipment.
Base facilities should be designed to operate when the water and/or chemicals reuse facilities are not available.
B. Reverse Osmosis
Consider additional staging to optimize product water (permeate) and waste water (reject) streams. Work with vendors to stay
with membrane(s) limitations. Use reject water stream for make-up to firewater and plant service water systems.
XXVI-A 94 of 96
APPENDIX B RELIABILITY CHECK LIST
PURPOSE
➧
Provide a check list to ensure that projects have identified key reliability issues. Three check lists are provided:
• Common Areas
• Grass roots/major project
• Revamp or small projects
The distinction between the project types is made due to their different impact on the site utility systems:
• Common areas are those where the reliability requirements apply to all projects
• Grass roots/major projects typically incorporate the requirements for utility systems to support the project
− Ensure that the utility systems provided have the equipment configuration and are sized to meet the project reliability
philosophy
• Revamp/small projects typically consume available "spare" capacity from existing utility systems.
− Ensure that the changes do not go against the requirements of the site reliability philosophy. Also a review point to
determine if the system is at a breakpoint which requires additional investment in utility infrastructure.
COMMON AREAS
AREA TO REVIEW REASON FOR REVIEW

Impact of site Utility Philosophy or project Venture Prior to starting any project the site Utility Philosophy or project Venture
Philosophy on water treating system reliability Philosophy should be reviewed to determine the system reliability
requirements. These will be based on supporting both critical utility and
process unit operations. System modifications shall ensure that the
required reliability is not compromised.
Full range of raw water quality defined If the raw water is taken from a surface water source its quality can vary
with the seasons, wet or dry years (droughts) and human influenced
conditions. Well water quality and quantity may also deteriorate. In order
to maintain both the quality and quantity of treated water the treating unit
needs to be designed for the full range. For new sources of water,
available historical data should be reviewed to determine if there are any
discernable trends. A minimum of 3 years of data is recommended.
This will allow reasonable flexibility to be included in the design to cover
the impact of the trends and other events impacting the quality Check for
any regulatory restrictions on the availability of new wells.
Treated water quality confirmed suitable for steam Water quality requirements become more stringent as steam generation
generation pressure pressure increases, the requirements are defined by Report No. EE.2E.86,
“New Guide To Boiler Water Treatment:”
Confirm that the treating system design and quality targets are appropriate
for the steam generation pressure.
Clean and Potentially dirty condensate segregated Segregation of returned condensate into clean and potentially dirty streams
allows provision of testing facilities on the potentially dirty stream(s).
Consideration should also be given to providing an automated dump
system on the potentially contaminated condensate return to prevent
contamination of the BFW.
With potentially contaminated condensate, ensure that all potential sources
of contamination have a means of obtaining a sample. For heat
exchangers this can be a drain valve in an accessible location. Develop a
sampling plan with all process units to be used once contamination has
ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Company – Fairfax, VA

XXVI-A 95 of 96

been identified. (This should concentrate on the exchangers most likely to
result in a leak)
Requirement to treat condensate return reviewed For steam generation above 1,000 psig condensate polishing is required.
For large sites with an extensive condensate network, polishing should
also be considered to remove iron pick up from the piping.
For potentially contaminated condensate review the economics of
hydrocarbon removal in addition to treating.
For all condensate treatment steps ensure that the condensate is cooled
below the maximum operating temperature for the treatment system.
Water treatment capacity In addition to being able to produce the “normal” make up rate from the
steam balance the water treating plant sizing should cover the following:
• Loss of largest condensate return stream
• Start up with no return condensate available
• End of life of resins
Number of treatment trains and supporting equipment Base assumption will be a minimum of two trains, one operating and one
such as regeneration and waste neutralization facilities in regeneration. The individual demineralizer trains shall be sized so that
N-1 operation is possible. During N-1 operation, consideration must be
made for the shortfall of production during regeneration, rinses and aged
resins. Review the impact of train maintenance requirement on treated
water generation rates:
• Resin replacement
• Unexpected train shutdown and turnarounds.
If single train has capacity to make up regeneration shortfall during a
normal operating run for the complete maintenance period, no further
action.
If demin trailers of a suitable size are available consider installing
permanent connections to allow their hook up. Number of trailer
connections requires an analysis of potential contingencies.
If no spare capacity or rentals, consider economics of more capacity on 2
trains versus additional smaller trains (e.g. 3 @ 50%), or additional
demineralized water storage.
Regeneration and waste neutralization facilities are often overlooked and
may limit overall production. Time to empty neutralizations tanks may limit
the number of regeneration’s possible in a day. Sewer sizing must be
checked.
(Big trains mean high backwash, rinse rates and large sewers)
Raw, Intermediate, and Treated water storage Sizing of the raw water storage tank is based on meeting outages of the
make up water supply. If the source is an existing 3rd party supplier, outage
records should be examined to determine the likely outage span. This can
then be used to set the sizing basis for the raw water tank.
The treated water storage is normally sized to provide between 12 & 24
hours of hold up. The storage should be based on covering a realistic
outage of the water treatment plant and allow for a safe shutdown of the
site if the water treating cannot be brought back on line.
Consideration must also be given to the sizing of intermediate storage
tanks, (e.g. filtered water tanks and pumps).
Drivers for treated water pumps If the site utility philosophy requires the utility generating plant to remain
online during a major utility upset, then both turbine and motor drives will
be required. Turbine(s) should be fed from the utility plant protected steam
header.
GRASS ROOTS / MAJOR PROJECTS

XXVI-A 96 of 96

Impact of multiple regeneration’s It is occasionally necessary to perform back to back regeneration’s, resin
cleaning, and resin brinings to return the resins to their required
performance level. This can impact the design of the regeneration chemical
facilities, the neutralization facilities as well as the required volume in the
treated water tank.
Quality monitoring of treated water Provide quality monitoring at the outlet of each demineralizer train.
Parameters to be monitored are conductivity & silica.
Also have a sampling program set up to test the quality of the treated water
on a regular basis. In addition, have samples taken of the raw water on a
monthly basis to give trending of the contaminant level.
Quality monitoring of returned condensate Provide Hydrocarbon monitoring to check the level of oil in water and other
potential contaminants such as cooling water. The monitor should be
backed up by a weekly sampling program. Sample coolers shall be
provided on all significant condensate streams (>15% of total).
REVAMP / SMALL PROJECTS

Quality of inlet water still within existing design If the level of contaminants in the raw water has increased, determine if this
parameters new level decreases the ability of the treatment unit to produce either the
required quantity or quality of water. May require either pretreatment or
modified treatment scheme to return system to required operating level.
Treated water quality maintained Does the existing system still maintain the quality of treated water? If this is
achieved by shorter run lengths between regeneration’s, what is the impact on
overall capacity, capacity of regeneration facilities, and waste neutralization
facilities
Make up rate still covers dumping of largest condensate Have the return rates of condensate increased to the point that the treated
stream water make up cannot cover the potential condensate dumping rate?
Actual plant net continuous capacity (accounts for Has the site demand reached the point where the system cannot produce the
regeneration short fall and losses) required rate and additional capacity is required ?
COLD EYES REVIEW
It is recommended that projects which change the Treated Water demand by more than 5% have a Cold Eyes review
performed by an EMRE water treating and/or utilities specialist.

Boiler Feedwater Treating Systems: Design Practices

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Boiler Feedwater Treating Systems: Design Practices

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STEAM SYSTEMS Section Page

BOILER WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS ...............................................................................................8

EXTERNAL BOILER WATER TREATING PROCESSES...............................................................................9

INTERNAL BOILER WATER TREATING .....................................................................................................35

SAMPLE PROBLEM PRIMARY DEMINERALIZATION (CO-CURRENT REGENERATION)......................80

Table A 1 Standard Water Analysis Sheet.....................................................................................................73

Calcium and Magnesium Hardness

Caustic or Caustic Soda

Free Mineral Acidity

Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU)

Soda or Soda Ash

BOILER WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS

BOILER PRESSURE RANGES

BOILER WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS (Cont)

BOILER PRESSURE, psig (barg)

Silica (ppm SiO2) < 125 < 90 < 50 35 < 20 <8

Suspended Solids (ppm) < 15 < 15 < 10 <8 <6 <4

BOILER PRESSURE, psig (barg)

EXTERNAL BOILER WATER TREATING PROCESSES

EXTERNAL BOILER WATER TREATING PROCESSES (Cont)

Note: X - Indicates reduction of Listed Water Impurity by Water Treating Process

EXTERNAL BOILER WATER TREATING PROCESSES (Cont)

COLD PROCESS SOFTENERS

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 = 2CaCO3 + 2H2O

MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 = Mg(OH)2 + CaSO4

CaSO4 + Na2CO3 = CaCO3 + Na2SO4

CaCl2 + Na2CO3 = CaCO3 + 2NaCl

EXTERNAL BOILER WATER TREATING PROCESSES (Cont)

MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 + Na2CO3 = Mg(OH)2 + CaCO3 + Na2SO4

MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 + N2CO3 = Mg(OH)2 + CaCO3 + 2NaCl

EXTERNAL BOILER WATER TREATING PROCESSES (Cont)

COLD PROCESS SOFTENING

Total Hardness (as CaCO3), ppm 250 145 81

Calcium Hardness (as CaCO3), ppm 150 85 35

Magnesium Hardness (as CaCO3), ppm 100 60 46

“P" Alkalinity (as CaCO3), ppm 0 27 37

“M" Alkalinity (as CaCO3), ppm 150 44 55

Silica (as SiO2), ppm 20 19 18

pH 7.5 10.3 10.6

HOT PROCESS SOFTENERS

Hardness 10 - 100 ppm as CaCO3

EXTERNAL BOILER WATER TREATING PROCESSES (Cont)

HOT PROCESS SOFTENING

EXTERNAL BOILER WATER TREATING PROCESSES (Cont)

where: FSTM = Steam Requirements, lb/h (kg/s)

EXTERNAL BOILER WATER TREATING PROCESSES (Cont)

TYPE gpm/ft2 L/s/m2

• Minimum design air scour rate shall be as follows:

TYPE scfm/ft2 L/s/m2

• Bed depth in filters shall be 30 in. (750 mm) minimum.

DEMINERALIZATION BY ION EXCHANGE

EXTERNAL BOILER WATER TREATING PROCESSES (Cont)

EXTERNAL BOILER WATER TREATING PROCESSES (Cont)

PARAMETER CO-CURRENT COUNTER CURRENT

SODIUM ZEOLITE SOFTENING

Ca++ + Na2Z = CaZ + 2Na+

Calcium + Sodium Calcium + Sodium

CaZ + 2NaCl = Na2Z + CaCl2

Calcium + Sodium Sodium + Calcium

EXTERNAL BOILER WATER TREATING PROCESSES (Cont)

REGENERANT DOSAGE VS. EXCHANGE CAPACITY