Environmental

CV3015 Environmental
i l Engineering
i i
Introduction to Environmental
E i
Engineering
i
Water Use a
Wate andd Demand
e a d
By
Dr Chong Tzyy Haur
Dr.
Office: CleanTech One, #06-08
Email: thchong@ntu.edu.sg
1
Environmental Engineering
y “Integration
“I i off science
i andd engineering
i i
principles to improve the natural environment
( i water, and/or
(air, d/ land
l d resources), ) to provide
id
healthy water, air and land for human
h bi i
habitation andd for
f other
h organisms,
i and
d to
remediate pollution sites” – Wikipedia
CV3015 Environmental Engineering 2

What You Will Learn
y Clean
Cl water
y Wastewater or used water
y Solid waste
y Air pollution

Course Outline
Lecturer Lecture Tutorial
Hrs Hrs
Introduction CTH 2 -
Water Quality & Standards CTH 2 2
Water Treatment Processes CTH 7 3
Wastewater Characteristics CTH 2 1
Biological
o og ca Treatment
eat e t CRX
C 3 2
Wastewater Treatment Processes CRX 6 3
Solid Waste Management CRX 2 1
Air Quality CRX 2 1
Total 26 13
References
y Hammer
H & Hammer
H (
(2008)
8) “Water
“W and
d
Wastewater Technology”, 6th Edition
y Crittenden et. al. (2012) “MWH’s Water
Treatment: Principles and Design”, 3rd Edition
y United States Geological Survey (www.usgs.gov)
y US EPA (www.epa.gov)
(www epa gov)
y PUB (www.pub.gov.sg)

Assessment for CV3015 in 2014
Percentage
Assignment 1 10%
Quiz 1 10%
(Week 7, 23/09/2014, Tuesday, 1530 – 1630)
Assignment 2 10%
Quiz 2 10%
(Week 13, 11/11/2014, Tuesday, 1530 – 1630)
Final Exam 60%
Total 100%

Water
y Chemical
Ch i l formula:
f l H 2O
y Exists in 3 physical states: liquid, solid, and gas
y Universal solvent – dissolves many substances
(Source: Wikipedia)

Clean Water Supply
y Water
W network
k
Sources of Collection &

Transmission
Water Storage
g
Transmission
Distribution Treatment
& Storage

Sources of Water – Hydrologic Cycle

Distribution of Earth’s
Earth s Water

Distribution of Earth’s
Earth s Water
Water source Water volume Percent of Percent of
(km3) freshwater total water
Oceans, Seas, & Bays 1,338,000,000 -- 96.54
Ice caps, Glaciers, & Permanent Snow 24,064,000 68.6 1.74
Groundwater 23,400,000 -- 1.69
Fresh 10,530,000 30.1 0.76
Saline 12,870,000 -- 0.93
Soil Moisture 16,500 0.05 0.001
Ground Ice & Permafrost 300,000 0.86 0.022
Lakes 176,400 -- 0.013
Fresh 91,000 0.26 0.007
Saline
l 85,400 -- 0.007
Atmosphere 12,900 0.04 0.001
Swamp Water 11,470 0.03 0.0008
Rivers 2 120
2,120 0 006
0.006 0 0002
0.0002
Biological Water 1,120 0.003 0.0001
Total Water 1,386,000,000
Total Freshwater 35,029,000
Source: Igor Shiklomanov's chapter "World fresh water resources" in Peter H. Gleick (editor), 1993, Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Fresh
Water Resources (Oxford University Press, New York).

Surface Freshwater
y River,
Ri stream, lake,
l k pond,
d swamp, wetland
l d

Groundwater
y Water
W f
found
d underground
d d in
i the
h cracks
k and
d
spaces in soil, sand and rock
y Stored in aquifer
(Source: USGS)

Water Use
y For
F agricultural,
i l l i d
industrial,
i l h
household,
h ld
recreational, and environmental activities
y Water demand by countries depends on socio-
economic development factors, including
population, physiographic, and climatic
characteristics
y In general, worldwide water use: 70% for
agriculture,
g , 20% for industry,
y, 10% for domestic
use

Withdrawal & Consumption
y Withdrawal:
Withd l The
Th total
t t l amountt off water
t extracted
t t d
from its source to be used. Measures of
withdrawal help to evaluate the level of demand
from various users
y Consumption: Portion of water use that is not
returned to the original water source after being
withdrawn e.g. lost through evaporation,
incorporated into a product and is no longer
available for reuse. It is relevant when analyzing
water scarcity and the impact of human activities
on water availability

Water Use

Water Use
Agriculture Industry Domestic

Quantity of Water Use
y Quantity
Q tit off water
t required
i d for
f a service
i area may
be estimated based on:
{ Water use rate for various uses, expressed as
Litres per capita per day (Lpcd)
{ Population to be served, in the year of design or
future
y Quantity (Litres/day) = Lpcd x Population

Water Use Rate
y Different
Diff t ttypes off water
t d
demands,
d usually
ll
classified as following:
Type Quantity Lpcd %
(x 106 m3/d)
Domestic 75 250 45
Industrial and Commercial 45 150 27
Public Use (e.g. fire demand) 22.5 75 14
Loss ((Unaccounted for Water)) 22.55 75 14
4
Total 165 550 100
(For population of 300 millions)
Domestic Water Use
y Per
P capita
it domestic
d ti use off water
t for
f major
j cities
iti
(Source: State of the Environment Report 2005)

Water Supply System
y Design
D i off water
t supply
l system
t i based
is b d on
projected population of a city, estimated for the
d i period
design i d
y Design period is estimated based on:
{ Useful life of the components
{ Expandability
{ Rate of growth of population

Design Period
y Typical
T i l design
d i period
i d off components
t in
i water
t
supply system

Population Growth Curve
Decreasing
D i
rate of increase
Arithmetic
increase
Geometric
increase

Population Forecast
dP
y Arithmetic increase: = k A ⇒ Pt = P0 + k A (t − t 0 )
dt
y Constant p
population
p growth rate,, kA
g
Population
? P2000 − P1990 200,000 − 150,000

kA = = = 5000
t 2000 − t1990 2000 − 1990
P2010 = 150,000 + 5000(2010 − 1990)
200,000
= 250,000
150,000
Year
1990 2000 2010
y Most applicable to large and established cities

Population Forecast
dP
y Geometric
i increase:
i = kG P ⇒ Pt = P0 e kG (t −t0 )
Population dt
1 ⎛ P2000 ⎞
kG = ln⎜ ⎟
?
(t2000 − t1990 ) ⎝ P1990 ⎟⎠
⎜
1 ⎛ 200,000 ⎞
= ln⎜ ⎟
(2000 − 1990) ⎝ 150,000 ⎠
200,000 = 0.02877
150 000 P2010 = 150,000 e 0.02877 (2010−1990 )
Year = 266,667
1990 2000 2010
y Growth rate proportional to prevailing
population, percentage increase is constant,
usually for new cities
Population Forecast
y Decreasing rate of increase or declining growth:

dP ⎛ Psat − Pt ⎞
= kD (Psat − P ) ⇒ ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = −kD (t − t 0 )
dt ⎝ Psat − P0 ⎠
1 ⎛ P − P2000 ⎞
kD = − ln⎜ sat ⎟
Population (t2000 − t1990 ) ⎜⎝ Psat − P1990 ⎟⎠
1 ⎛ 240,000 − 200,000 ⎞
=− ln⎜ ⎟
(2000 − 1990) ⎝ 240,000 − 150,000 ⎠
Psat = 0.08109
240,000
⎛ 240,000 − P2010 ⎞
? ln⎜ ⎟ = −0.08109(2010 − 1990)
200 000
200,000 ⎝ 240 ,000 − 150,000 ⎠
150,000 P2010 = 222,222
Year
1990 2000 2010

Population Forecast
y Logistic curve: combining geometric rate of

growth at low population with a declining growth
rate as the city approaches limiting population
Psat
Population Pt =
Psat 1 + m ⋅ e b (t −t0 )
2 P0 P1 P2 − P12 (P0 + P2 )
?
P2 Psat =
P0 P2 − P12
P1 Psat − P0
m=
P0
P0 1 P0 (Psat − P1 )
b= ln
Year n P1 (Psat − P0 )
t0 t1 t2 t
n = (t 2 − t1 ) = (t1 − t 0 )
Population Forecast
y Comparative graphical extension: comparison of

the projected growth of City A to the recorded
growth of other Cities (B, C, D, E) of larger size.
y Cities chosen for comparison
p should be as
similar e.g. economic development, fertility rate,
age
g structure etc.
y Cities (B, C, D, E) chosen have population of X in
Year Y (< Year Z)
y City A has population of X in Year Z

Population Forecast
City A City B City C City D City E
Comparative 1950
p
Year Population
32000
Year Population
p Year Population
p Year Population
p Year Population
p
Method: 1960
1970
36000
40000
1980 45000
1990 51000 1950 51000 1955 51000 1953 51000 1954 51000
2000 56250 1960 59000 1965 58000 1963 55000 1964 53000
2010 63750 1970 69000 1975 67000 1973 61000 1974 58000
2020 71500 1980 80000 1985 76000 1983 68000 1984 62000
2030 79750 1990 93000 1995 85000 1993 74000 1994 67000
2040 89375 2000 110000 2005 96000 2003 80000 2004 71500
Population
120000
City A
100000 Cityy B
City C
Projected population
80000 City D
City E for City A: Average
60000
40000
Population = X
based on existing data
20000 for Cities B, C, D, E
Year Z
0 Year
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040
Population Forecast
y Which method to use?

{ Depends
p on information available:
ÙCompleteness and reliability of historical
population data
ÙRural/urban, economic development, policies
on controlling population
y Use the simplest method

Singapore’s
Singapore s Water
y Island
I l d country with
i h a unique
i water management
4 National
N i lTTaps
(Source: PUB)

Water Cycle
Deep Tunnel Sewerage System

(DTSS)
(Source: NCCS)

Local Catchment
y Covers
C 2/3
/ off Singapore’s
Si ’ land
l d surface,
f grow to
90% by 2060
y Collection of rainwater through networks of
drains, canals, rivers, ponds, 17 reservoirs linked
by pipelines
(Source: PUB)

NEWater
y High
Hi h grade
d reclaimed
l i d water
y Allow water to be used and re-used
y Produced from treated used water (effluent from
activated sludge
g p process)) that is further p
purified
using advanced membrane technologies and
ultra-violet disinfection
Micro- or
Treated Reverse UV
Ultra- NEWater
Used Water Osmosis Disinfection
fl
filtration
Membrane Technology

NEWater
y 4 NEWater
NEW t plants:
l t Bedok,
B d k Kranji,
K ji Ulu
Ul Pandan,
P d
Changi (50 MGD plant)
y Meets 30% of water demand, 50% by 2060
y Mainlyy for non-potable
p industrial uses: wafer fab,,
power generation industry, building for cooling
y Small percentage is blended with raw water in
reservoir

Desalinated Water
y First
Fi t plant
l t in
i 2005 att Tuas,
T capacity
it off 30 MGD
or 136,000 m3/day
y 2ndd plant with capacity of 70 MGD completed in
2013
y Treatment process: pre-treatment, reverse
osmosis, remineralisation
y Desalinated water is blended with treated water

Demand & Supply
(Source: PUB)

Water Use
School Hotel
Household
Commercial Government
Building Building (Source: PUB)

Water Use
T
Target
t (D
(Domestic)
ti )
What is the total water

use (Lpcd) in 2010?
Assume population of
5 millions and water
loss is 5% of total
(Source: MEWR)
water
ater use
CV3015 Environmental Engineering
W t Quality
Water Q lit and
d St
Standards
d d
By
Dr Chong Tzyy Haur
Dr.
Office: CEE, N1-01c-91
1
Water Quality
y Importance
I t off water
t quality
lit and
d standards
t d d
{ Protectpublic health and environment
{ Selection of water treatment process
y Water quality
{ Physical
{ Chemical
Ch i l
{ Biological

Water Quality
y Water
W t acquires
i it characteristics
its h t i ti from
f
{ Surrounding it contacts
ÙSoils, rocks, minerals, air
{ Living things and human activities that contact
and influence the water
Past Present Singapore River
(Source: PUB)

Water Quality
y Surface
S f water
t
{ Changes along its journey
Ù Debris and suspended materials on land surface
Ù Contaminants from domestic,, industrial,, and
agricultural activities or discharge
{ Changes while in storage reservoir
Ù Dilution of poor quality water
Ù Sedimentation
Ù Algae or microorganisms growth

Water Quality
y Ground
G d water
t
{ Sources of contaminations
ÙDissolution of minerals deposits in the aquifer
ÙInfiltration of surface water or wastewater etc.
into the aquifer
{ In general,
general better quality than surface water
ÙQuality is relatively uniform throughout the
aquifer
if
ÙNatural filtering capability

Physical Properties
y Turbidity
T bidi i a measure off water clarity
is l i howh
much the material suspended in water decreases
the
h passage off light
li h through
h h the
h water
y Suspended materials include soil particles (clay,
silt, sand), algae, plankton, microbes, etc.
typically in the size range of 1 μm to 1 mm
y Scattering of light by suspended particles depend
on size,, shape,
p , refractive index and composition
p
of particles

Physical Properties
y Measurement
M off turbidity
bidi byb Nephelometry
N h l
{ Measure level of light scattered by the particles
at right angles (90o) to the incident light beam
{ Scattered light
g level is pproportional
p to the
particle concentration

Physical Properties
y Expressed
E d as Nephelometric
N h l t i Turbidity
T bidit Units
U it (NTU)
y Standards of turbidity – Formazin
(Source: Optek)

Physical Properties
y Consequences
C off high
hi h turbidity
bidi
{ Increases water temperature because
suspended particles absorb more heat, which in
turn, reduces the concentration of dissolved
oxygen (DO)
{ Reduces the amount of light
g p penetrating
g the
water, which reduces the photosynthesis and
the p
production of DO
y WHO guideline: < 5 NTU for drinking water

Physical Properties
y Colour
C l i water may result
in l from
f presence off
natural metallic ions (iron and manganese),
h
humus and
d peat materials,
i l plankton,
l k weeds
d etc.
{ “True Colour” refers to colour of water due to
dissolved matter (TDS) only; after turbidity has
been removed
{ “Apparent colour” includes colour due to
substances in solution and suspended
p matter,,
which is determined on the original sample
without centrifugation
g or filtration
Physical Properties
y Measured
M d in
i Hazen
H units:
i
{1
HU = 1 colour unit = 1 mg/l Pt-Co unit
{ Standard made from dilution of 500 mg/l Pt-
Co stock solution
y WHO guideline: < 15 colour units for drinking
water

Physical Properties
y Taste
T and
d odor
d
{ Due to presence of decomposed organic
matters and volatile chemicals
y Temperature
p
{ Most chemicals dissolve more easily in warm
water
{ Particles tend to settle more easily in warm
water
{ Promote biological activities at warmer
t
temperature
t
Chemical Properties
y Inorganic
I i constituents:
i
{ Cations:
Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, Mn2+, Al3+
{ Anions: Cl-, NO3-, HCO3-, CO32-, SO42-, PO43-
y Basic definitions:
Molecular Weight (MW)
Equivalent Weight (EW) =
El t i l Charge
Electrical Ch
mg/l
g/
Milliequivalent per litre (meq/l) =
Equivalent Weight (EW)

Chemical Properties
y Electroneutrality:
El li
The sum of meq/l of cations (positive radicals)
equals the sum of anions (negative radicals)
Component MW EW mg/l meq/l
Na+ 23 23 18.4 0.8
Ca2+ 40 20 36 1.8
Mg2+
M 24 12 4.8
8 0.4
∑(cations) 3.0
Cl- 35.5 35.5 14.2 0.4
HCO3- 61 61 122.0 2.0
SO42- 96 48 28.8 0.6
∑(anions) 3.0
Chemical Properties
y Balance
B l off charge;
h criteria
i i forf acceptance for
f
clean water
∑ cations − ∑ anions
% difference = × 100%
∑ cations + ∑ anions
∑anions (meq/l) Acceptable % difference

0 – 3.0 ±0.2
3.0 – 10.0 ±2.0
10.0 – 800 ±5.0

Chemical Properties
y Representation
R i off inorganic
i i constituents
i b
by
meq/l bar graph
y Hypothetical combinations

Chemical Properties
y Chemical
Ch i l equilibrium
ilib i
aA + bB cC + dD
[C ] [D]
c d
=K
[A ] [B]
a b
Example:
CO 2 + H2O H2CO 3
−
− [[H + ][HCO 3 ]
H2CO 3 H + + HCO 3 = K 1 = 4.45 × 10 −7 att 25 o C
pH 4.5 [H2CO 3 ]
2−
− 2− [H + ][CO 3 ]
HCO 3 H + + CO 3 −
= K 2 = 4.69 × 10 −11 at 25 o C
pH 8.3 [HCO 3 ]
2− 2−
Ca 2 + + CO 3
C C CO 3
CaCO [Ca 2 + ][CO 3 ] = K sp = 5.0 × 10 −9 att 25
[C 2 oC
Chemical Properties
y Redox
R d (reduction-oxidation)
( d i id i ) reaction
i
{ Involves transfer of electrons between two
chemical species
{ Species
p is reduced: oxidant ((electron acceptor)
p )
{ Species is oxidised: reductant (electron donor)
Cl 2 + 2e − ⎯reduction
⎯⎯ ⎯→ 2Cl − E 0 = +1.36
6V
oxidant
Mn 2+ + 2H2O ⎯oxidation
⎯⎯ ⎯→ MnO2 + 4H + + 2e − E 0 = −1.23
1 23 V
reductant
Cl 2 + Mn 2+ + 2H2O → MnO2 + 2Cl − + 4H + E 0 = +0.13 V

Chemical Properties
y pH value denotes acidic or alkaline condition of
water
y pH is related to concentration of hydrogen ions in
water, pH = – log10 [H+]
y At 25oC,
C ionic
i i productd off water
K w = [H + ][OH − ] = 1 × 10 −14
y Recommended pH range for treated drinking
water is 6.55 to 8.5
5 ((WHO g guideline))
y pH affects coagulation and disinfection processes,
speciation and solubility
Chemical Properties
y Total
T l Dissolved
Di l d Solids
S lid (TDS) is
i a measure off
total ions in solution
{ Analysed by filtering out the suspended
material, evaporating the filtrate and weighing
the remaining residue
{ Recommended level of TDS < 5 500 mg/l
g/ ((WHO
guideline)
y Electrical Conductivity (EC) is a measure of
ionic activity of solution in terms of its capacity
to transmit current, expressed as μS/cm
Chemical Properties
y Alkalinity
Alk li i off water is
i a measure off its
i capacity
i
to neutralize acids; or to absorb hydrogen ions
without
ih significant
i ifi pH
H change
h
y Various forms of alkalinity
{ Primary: carbonate system
− 2−
Alkalinity (mol/L) = [HCO3 ] + 2[CO 3 ] + [OH − ] − [H + ]
{ Others:phosphates, silicates, borates, etc.
y Measured
M d by
b titrating
tit ti a given
i sample
l with
ith acid
id
(i.e. 0.02 normal (N) sulfuric acid)

Chemical Properties
y Expressed
E d as mg/l
/l as CaCO
C CO3
ml titrant × Normality of acid × 50,000
=
ml sample
Alkalinity = 2.0 meq/l or 2.0 x 50 = 100 mg/l as CaCO3

Chemical Properties
y Hardness
H d i used
is d to describe
d ib water that
h does
d
not lather well, high scale forming potential
y Hardness does not pose a health risk
y Hardness level (general guideline by USGS)
Range (mg/l as CaCO3) Hardness Level
0 – 60 Soft
61 – 120 Moderately Hard
121 – 180 Hard
> 180 Veryy Hard

Chemical Properties
y Multivalent
M li l cations
i (Mex+, x>=2)) contribute
(M ib to
hardness; Ca2+ and Mg2+ are the most common
Total Hardness = Ca 2+ + Mg 2+ + .....
y Two types
yp of hardness
⎛ Carbonate ⎞ ⎛ Non − carbonate ⎞
Total Hardness = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Hardness ⎠ ⎝ Hardness ⎠
{ Carbonate hardness: CO32- and HCO3- of Mex+
{ Non-carbonate hardness: other anions e.g.

SO42-, NO3-, Cl- of Mex+

Chemical Properties
Total Hardness
Carbonate Non-Carbonate
Non Carbonate
Hardness Hardness
Total Hardness = 1.8 + 0.4 = 2.2 meq/l or 2.2
2 2 x 50 = 110 mg/l as CaCO3
Carbonate Hardness = 2.0 meq/l or 2.0 x 50 = 100 mg / l as CaCO3
N − Carbonate
Non C b t Hardness
H d = 110 − 100 = 10 mg / l as CaCO
C CO3
Chemical Properties
y Organic
O i constituents
i
{ Contains
C and H, O, N, S, P, F, Cl, Br, I etc.
{ MW of up to 106 g/mol
{ Only sparingly soluble in water
y Major sources of organics in water

{ Natural
N t l organici material
t i l
{ From human activities

Chemical Properties
y Natural
N l organic
i material
i l (NOM)
{ Biological origin e.g. secretions or excretion
from microorganism and aquatic organisms,
decay of organic matter by bacteria etc.
{ Composed of products from reactions between
NOM and inorganic
g constituents
{ Basic structures: carbohydrates, lipids, amino
acids and nuclei acids
acids,

Chemical Properties
y Effect
Eff off NOM
{ Cause yellowish colour at high concentration
{ Complex with metal and hydrophobic organic
chemicals making g them more soluble
{ Reacts with disinfectant or coagulant, such that
the dosage required for effective disinfection or
coagulation is higher
{ Reacts with disinfectant,
disinfectant forming disinfection
by-products that could be carcinogenic

Chemical Properties
y Organic
O i compounds
d from
f h
human activities
i ii
{ Industry
y :p
pharmaceutical (antibiotics)
{ Agriculture: pesticides
{ Municipal
M i i l effluents:
ffl t chlorine
hl i can convertt NOM
to trihalomethanes (THM)
{ Surface water as compared to groundwater is
more vulnerable of contaminations

Chemical Properties
y Usually
U ll quantified
ifi d as
(Ref: MWH’s Water Treatment)

Chemical Properties
y Typical
T i l TOC in
i variety
i off waters

Biological Properties
y Classification
Cl ifi i off aquatic
i microorganisms
i i
Organisms Size μm Oxygen Carbon & Energy
Requirement Requirement
Virus 0.01 – 0.1 NA NA
Bacteria 0.1 – 10 Aerobic, Chemoautotroph,
p
Anaerobic, Chemoheterotroph,
Facultative Photoautotroph,
Photoheterotroph
Blue-green algae 1 Aerobic Photoautotroph
Green algae 1 – 100 Aerobic Photoautotroph

Protozoa 1 – 100 Aerobic, Anaerobic Chemoheterotroph
Fungi 1 – 100 Aerobic, Anaerobic Chemoheterotroph
H l i h
Helminths 1 – 105 A bi
Aerobic Ch
Chemoheterotroph
h h
y Heterotroph
H h and
d autotroph
h
Use CO2 as Use organic
carbon source compounds as
carbon source
(Ref: Wikipedia)
y Virus
Vi
{ Composed
p mainlyy of
nuclei acid and protein
{ Intracellular parasites;
replicates only in living
h t ’ cells
hosts’ ll because
b l k
lack
the metabolic systems
f self-reproduction
for lf d
(Ref: www.textbookofbacteriology.net)

y Viruses
Vi that
h infect
i f only
l bacteria
b i is
i known
k as
bacteriophages
{ Virus of concern: Hepatitis, Enterovirus
y Bacteria
{ Negative surface charge Difficult to be
{ Small in size removed by
{ Some are motile conventional process

y Importance
I off Reduction-Oxidation
R d i O id i andd pH
H
Aerobic : ( f MWH’s
(Ref: ’ Water Treatment))
O2 + 4H + + 4e − → 2H2O
A bi :
Anaerobic
−
2NO2 + 8H + + 6e − → N 2 + 4H2O
MnO2 + 4H + + 2e − → Mn 2+ + 2H2O
Fe 2O 3 + 6H + + 2e − → 2Fe 2+ + 3H2O
2-
SO 4 + 10H + + 8e − → H2S + 4H2O

y Waterborne
W b di
diseases b pathogenic
by h i bacteria
b i
{ Salmonella spp., Vibrio cholerae, Shigella spp.
y Algae
{ Using photosynthesis for cell growth
CO2 + PO4 + NH3 ⎯energy
⎯ ⎯from⎯sunlight
⎯⎯ ⎯→ new cell h + O2
ll growth
{ Algal bloom can impact the pre-treatment unit
of a water treatment process due to high
biomass

y Protozoa
P
{ Single cell
{ Complex digestive system and use solid organic
matter as food ((e.g.
g ingest
g bacteria and algae)
g )
{ Aerobic
{ Parasitic protozoa: Giardia,

Giardia Cryptosporidium

y Microbial
Mi bi l testing
i
{ Too many pathogens and lack of rapid test
{ Common method: Coliform bacteria as
indicator of sanitaryy q
qualityy of water,, p
potential
fecal contamination of water
{ Coliform bacteria: aerobic and facultative
anaerobic, non-spore forming, Gram-stain
negative rods,
rods ferment lactose with gas
production within 48 hours of incubation at
35oC
y Coliform
C lif test
{ Total coliform: include bacteria
from feces, soil or other origin
{ Fecal coliform: bacteria originated from human
or warm blooded animal feces; usually are non-
pathogenic; used as indicator since pathogenic
microorganisms are from the same source
{ Escherichia coli: bacteria under fecal coliform
group; can be checked using commercial test
kit based on β-glucuronidase
β glucuronidase enzyme assays
y Coliform
C lif test
{ Multiple Tube Fermentation Technique
(Standard Methods 9221)
ÙResults expressed
p in Most Probable Number
(MPN) of organisms present: an estimate of
the mean densityy of coliform in the water
sample
{ Membrane Filter Technique (Standard Method
9222)

y Multiple
M l i l Tube
T b Fermentation
F i
Making
dil i
dilutions: 100x 10,000x
1x 100,000x

y Multiple
M l i l Tube
T b Fermentation
F i
(Ref: Water & Wastewater Technology)

y Multiple
M l i l Tube
T b Fermentation
F i
{ Precision
of each test depends on the number
of tubes used
{ Five tubes pper dilution ((e.g.
g 10,, 1,, 0.1 ml)) is
recommended (so 15 tubes in total)
y Results in MPN
{ MPN/100 ml = MPN index (from table) x 10/V
{ V = volume
l off sample
l att the
th lowest
l t selected
l t d
dilution

y MPN index
i d
(Ref: US EPA)

y Multiple
M l i l Tube
T b Fermentation
F i
Serial Dilution Sample portion Number of positive test out of
(ml) five tubes
Lauryl tryptose EC medium
broth
0 1.0 5 5
1 0.1 5 4
2 0 01
0.01 5 1
3 0.001 1 0
4 0.0001 0 0
5 0.00001 0 0
S l
Select llargest positive
i i tubes
b at the
h greatest dil
dilution
i
y Multiple
M l i l Tube
T b Fermentation
F i
{ Total Coliform: select serial dilution 2, 3, 4 with
5, 1, 0 positive tubes
MPN value = 33
MPN/100 ml = 33 x 10/0.01 = 33,000
95% confidence interval: 10,000
10 000 – 100,000
100 000 per
100 ml of sample

y Multiple
M l i l Tube
T b Fermentation
F i
{ Fecal Coliform: select serial dilution 0, 1, 2 with
5, 4, 1 positive tubes
MPN value = 170 7
MPN/100 ml = 170 x 10/1 = 1,700
95% confidence interval: 580 – 4,0004 000 per 100
ml of sample

y Membrane
M b Fil
Filtration
i Technique
T h i
{ Highly reproducible
{ Can handle large volume of sample
{ More rapid test than multiple tube

fermentation technique
{ Limitation: not suitable for water with high
turbidity and large number of non-coliform
(background) bacteria

y Membrane
M b Fil
Filtration
i Technique
T h i
{ Select volume of sample that will yield 20 – 80
colonies coliform per membrane
e.g. 10 ml of
water sample
e.g. 40 colonies in
10 ml = 400
colonies in 100 ml

y Singapore’s
Si ’ drinking
d i ki water guideline:
id li non-
detectable in any 100 ml sample for fecal
coliform
lif
y Test for Giardia and Cryptosporidium
{ Method 1622 and 1623 developed by US EPA
{ Use immuno
immuno-magnetic
magnetic separation (IMS) and
immuno-fluorescence assay (FA)

Constituents of Emerging Concern
y Constituents of emerging concern to public

health; challenges for water treatment process
{ Pharmaceuticals
Ph i l and d personall care products
d
(PPCP)
{ Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDC)
{ Nanoparticles
p
{ New disinfection by product
Ù N-nitrosodimethylamine
N nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA)
{ New pathogens
{ Radionuclides
Standards
y In
I US,
US regulatory
l b d is
body i US EPA
{ Establish Safe Drinking Water Act in 1974
{ Health based maximum contaminant level goal
((MCLG), ), below which there is no known or
expected risk to health; MCLG is non-
enforceable goal
g
{ Maximum contaminant level (MCL) is set as
close to MCLG by taking costs and technology
into consideration; MCL is enforceable
standard
Standards
y At
A international
i i l level,
l l Guidelines
G id li f Drinking
for D i ki
Water Quality by WHO (1993, 2006, 2008), are
f
for guidance
id only
l and
d not mandatory
d
requirement
y In Singapore, Environment Public Health
(Quality of Piped Drinking Water Regulations
2008) is set up by National Environment Agency
(NEA), under Ministry of Environment and
Water Resources (MEWR)

Water Treatment Processes

Coagulation & Flocculation
By
Dr. Chong Tzyy Haur
1
Water Treatment
y Water treatment describes the processes used to

make water acceptable for a desired end use
{ Drinking water, industrial water, water for
medical usage etc.
y Usually a combination or sequence of methods is
needed
{ Depends on quality of un-treated water;
ÙSurface water vs. groundwater

{ and desired quality of treated water

Water Treatment
y For drinking water, the purpose is to

{ Remove the contaminants in source water to
level below the Maximum Contaminants Level
(MCL) set in the standards for quality of drinking
water by the authority
ÙChemically and biologically safe
ÙAppealing to consumer (aesthetically)
ÙNon-corrosive and non-scaling
ÙOther requirements

Unit Processes
y For overview of methods and application of unit

processes for the removal of specific constituents,
refer to reference book:
“MWH’s Water Treatment – Principles and
Design” Table 4-7 & 4-8 pg. 190 – 197.

Surface Water
y Conventional water treatment

{ Typically for turbidity > 20 NTU; colour > 20
c.u.; TOC > 4 mg/l
{ More flexible but requires large land area

Surface Water
y Direct and in-line (contact) filtration

{ Typically for low turbidity ≤ 15 NTU; moderate to
low colour ≤ 20 c.u.; low TOC < 4 mg/l

Surface Water
y Membrane filtration
{ Typically for low turbidity ≤ 10 NTU; moderate
to low colour < 10 c.u.; low TOC < 4 mg/l
{ Smaller foot print

Ground Water
y Conventional lime softening

{ Lime to remove hardness caused by Ca2+ & Mg2+;
soda ash to remove non carbonate hardness

Ground Water
y Membrane softening
{ Nanofiltration membrane for softening, and to
remove colour, TOC etc.

Ground Water
y Air stripping
{ Remove gases such as hydrogen sulfide or
volatile organic constituents

Ground Water
y Iron and Manganese treatment

{ Ground water with low dissolved oxygen
{ Oxidant include chlorine and oxygen when (no
manganese), KMnO4 and ozone (both present)

y Gravity settling
Particle diameter Settling velocity
10 mm 0.73 m/s
1 mm 0.23 m/s gravity
0.1 mm 0.6 m/min settling
0.01 mm or 10 μm 8.6 m/day
1 μm 0.3 m/year
1 nm 3 m/million year
y Colloids (1 nm to 1 μm): gravity settling not

possible
y Primary purpose is to remove turbidity

y Coagulation
{ Addition of chemical to destabilize particles so
they aggregate or form a precipitate that will
sweep particles from solution or adsorb dissolved
constituents
y Flocculation
{ Aggregation of destabilized particles into larger
masses that are easier to remove from water than
original particles

y Chemicals are added to cause coagulation (quickly,

usually less than 1 minute or few minutes),
which then flocculate (slowly, usually between
few minutes to less than 1 hour)
y Coagulation – rapid mixing required during
chemical addition
y Flocculation – gentle mixing to enhance bigger
floc formation but prevent floc breakage

Particle Stability
y Electrical Double Layer (EDL)
Stern layer
Distribution of
ions in solution
-ve charged Zeta

particle potential
Diffuse layer

Particle Stability
y Most particles have a net negative surface charge

in solution
y Forces acting on particle
{ Electrostatic force – attractive if opposite sign,
repulsive if same sign
Repulsion
Particle Particle
A B
{ Intermolecular or van der Waals – always

attractive
Particle Stability
y Force analysis on particle

Coagulation Mechanism
y (1) Charge neutralization – positively charged ions

neutralize the negatively charged particle

y (2) Double layer compression

y (3) Particle enmeshment

{ Excess coagulant react with alkalinity to form
insoluble hydroxide with entrapped particles
{ Often called sweep-floc coagulation
{ Example:
Ùi) Adsorption of Al3+ ions on the particles and

de-stabilization by charge neutralization

Ùii) Sweep-floc coagulation: precipitate formed

trap the particles as it settles
(www.water.me.vccs.edu)

y (4) Inter-particle bridging: synthetic polymer

adsorbs onto particles and grow into a single
bigger and tougher floc

Flocculation Mechanism
y Once particles are coagulated, they can be

flocculated
y Flocculation occurs by:
{ Perikinetic – collision from Brownian motion,
results from rapid and random bombardment by
molecules of fluid, important for small particles
(< 0.5 μm)
{ Orthokinetic – induced collision through
mechanical stirring; velocity gradient exists in a
fluid body

Flocculation Mechanism
y Flocculation basin has a number of compartments

with decreasing mixing speeds as the water
advances through the basin
{ Allow increasing large floc to form without being
broken apart by mixing blades
y Floc will then settle out in the sedimentation basin
y Floc aid such as polymer can be added to enhance
bigger floc formation

Coagulation Chemistry
y Key properties of coagulants

{ Trivalent ions: higher valence cationic salt is
used (Al3+, Fe3+etc.)
{ Non-toxic: health issue
{ Insoluble in pH 7 range – coagulant needs to be
removed from water after use
{ Common coagulants:
ÙAlum, Al2(SO4)3.14H2O
ÙFerrous sulfate, FeSO4 or Ferric chloride, FeCl3
ÙPolyaluminium chloride (PACl)

y When alum is added to water
Al2(SO4)3.14H2O
Æ 2Al(OH)3 + 6H+ + 3SO42- + 8H2O
{ Decrease pH of solution
{ Bicarbonate alkalinity (HCO3-) in water is
consumed
{ Increase in carbonic acid content in water (refer
to Lecture Week 2 for carbonic acid speciation)

y Optimum pH is 5 – 7
{ soluble aluminum ions may form when pH < 4 or
> 8.6
y Alkalinity is added when needed to maintain
pH of water (around pH 7)
y When alkalinity (natural) is present

Al2(SO4)3.14H2O + 3Ca(HCO3)2
Æ 2Al(OH)3 ↓ + 3CaSO4 + 14H2O + 6CO2

y When alkalinity is added

{ Reaction with added lime
Can be expressed as
Alkalinity in mg/L as CaCO3
Al2(SO4)3.14H2O + 3Ca(OH)2
Æ 2Al(OH)3 ↓ + 3CaSO4 + 14H2O
{ Reaction with added soda ash
Al2(SO4)3.14H2O + 3Na2CO3
Æ 2Al(OH)3 ↓ + 3Na2SO4 + 3CO2+ 11H2O

y Reaction for Fe (Fe2+, Fe3+) compounds

{ Naturalalkalinity:
Fe2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(HCO3)2
Æ 2Fe(OH)3 ↓ + 3CaSO4 + 6CO2
{ Added alkalinity:
Fe2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(OH)2 Æ 2Fe(OH)3 ↓ + 3CaSO4

2FeSO4.7H2O + 2Ca(OH)2 + ½O2
Æ 2Fe(OH)3 ↓ + 2CaSO4 + 13H2O

y Example
MW = 594 MW = 162
{ Al2(SO4)3.14H2O + 3Ca(HCO3)2
Æ 2Al(OH)3 ↓ + 3CaSO4 + 14H2O + 6CO2
MW = 78
{1 mg/l of alum
React with 3×162/594~0.82 mg/l of Ca(HCO3)2
or 3×2×61/594 ~ 0.62 mg/l of HCO3-
or 0.62×(50/61) ~ 0.51 mg/l of Alk as CaCO3
EW (CaCO3) = 50 EW (HCO3) = 61
Produce 2×78/594 ~ 0.26 mg/l of Al(OH)3

y Mass balance of Alkalinity:
y Example
Alum dose of 40 mg/l is used to coagulate a raw
water with alkalinity of 10 mg/l as CaCO3
1) Calculate the amount of CaO required to keep
the final alkalinity of water at 15 mg/l as CaCO3
2) Compute the amount of Al(OH)3 produced

consumed final natural
MW = 56
EW (CaO) = 28 EW (CaCO3) = 50

Coagulant Dosage
y Typical dosage
{ Alum: 10 – 150 mg/l
{ Fe2(SO4)3.9H2O: 10 – 250 mg/l
{ FeCl3.6H2O: 5 – 150 mg/l
y Interference from other constituents in water

{ Alum or iron react with various ligands (e.g.
SO42-, F-, PO43-, NOM etc.)

Coagulant Dosage
y Dosage determined empirically using Jar Tests

(ASTM D2035)
y Jar tests used to simulate full scale coagulation,
flocculation, and sedimentation process
y Involves both visual and chemical testing of water
sample
SOURCE: Philip Wong; Seraya Lab, 2001

Coagulant Dosage
y Jar Tests

Coagulant Dosage
y Information from Jar Tests

{ Coagulant
dosage
{ Optimum pH

Rapid Mixing - Coagulation
y Objective: to disperse chemicals (e.g. alum) quickly

and uniformly in rapid or flash mixers
y Degree of mixing in mixer quantified by velocity
gradient (G value in s-1)
P = power input (W or Nm/s)
μ = viscosity of liquid (Pa.s or Ns/m2)
V = reactor volume (m3)
y The shorter the mixing time, the larger the

required G (700 – 3500 s-1 )

Rapid Mixing
y Example
Given Q = 0.22 m3/s, mixing time = 20 s
Find V and P if G recommended is 1000 s-1
V = Q×t = 0.22×20 = 4.4 m3
At 25oC, µ = 0.89 x 10-3 Ns/m2
P = G2μV = (1000)2×0.89 x 10-3×4.4 = 3916 W
To achieve complete mixing within 20 s, and for a

reactor of 4.4 m3, install a mixer/impeller that can
impart ~ 4,000 W
Rapid Mixing Devices
y Mechanical agitators
{ Typical retention time ranges from 10 s to 5 min

y Mechanical agitators
{ For highly turbulent flows, Re > 10,000
Np = power number of impeller

= f (w/d, impeller type)
d = impeller diameter (m)
n = impeller speed (rev per sec)
{ For transitional regime,
1000 < Re < 10,000,
still ok to use equation
{ For laminar regime, Re < 1000, then

Np = f (w/d, Re)

y Static (hydraulic) agitators e.g. baffle basins

y Pipe reducers
y Pneumatic (diffused air) agitators
Inline static mixer

Types of Flocculator
y Mechanical flocculator – impeller type

{ Total number of particle collisions is
proportional to G×t
{ Recommended range of G and retention time t

y Mechanical flocculator – paddle type
(MWH’s Water Treatment)

y Mechanical flocculator
P = 0.5 CDApρvw3
CD = drag coefficient on paddle
(1.8 for flat plat)
Ap = projected area of paddle (m2)
vw = velocity of paddle relative to fluid (m/s)
~ 0.75 of paddle tip velocity, vp
vp = 2πrN
r = radius of rotation
N = rotation speed of shaft (rev per sec)

y Other designs
{ Baffles


Sedimentation & Filtration
By
Dr. Chong Tzyy Haur
1
Sedimentation
y Conventional process – sedimentation follows

coagulation & flocculation
y Gravity separation of suspended matters
from water
y Need to understand particle settling theories

Classification
y Classification of
particle settling
according to
concentration and
morphology

Particle Settling
y Type I – discrete particle settling

{ Dilute suspension, concentration is low
{ Particle do not interfere with one another during
settling
{ Do not flocculate
{ Removal prior coagulation

Particle Settling
y Type II – flocculant settling

{ Capable of flocculating – particles can adhere to
each other during collision
{ Particles aggregate and settle
{ Removal after coagulation

Particle Settling
y Comparison between Type I and Type II

Particle Settling
y Type III – hindered settling

{ Higher concentration than Type I and II
{ Blanket of particles formed – traps particles
below it as it settles, clear interface above blanket
{ Blanket velocity decrease with increasing
concentration
{ Found in thickener (sludge disposal)

Particle Settling
y Type IV – compression settling

{ Higher concentration than Type III
{ Consolidation of suspension, rather than particle
settling
{ Water drains out of a mat of particles very slowly,
cake is formed
{ Found in dewatering process

Type I – Discrete Settling
y Settling based on size and density
∑F = F −F −F g b d
1
∑F = ρ V g −ρ p p V
w p g −
2
C ρ
D w A v
p s
2

Type I – Discrete Settling
y Terminal settling velocity, when ∑F = 0

4 g (ρ p − ρ w ) d p
vs =
3 CD ρ w
y Drag coefficient, CD, is a function of Reynolds

number

Sedimentation Basin
y In ideal sedimentation basin (Type I – discrete

settling)
{ Four zones: inlet, outlet, settling, sludge
{ Uniform horizontal velocity in settling zone
{ No interference from other particles

Sedimentation Basin
vf : fluid velocity
y Particle trajectory
vs : settling velocity
Particle 1: enter at the top, ho, not settle at sludge zone, wash out of basin
Particle 2: enter at the top, ho, settle at sludge zone
Particle 3: enter at depth hs, settle at sludge zone
Sedimentation Basin
y Particle 2: enter at the top, ho, settle at sludge zone
vs2 = vo = critical settling velocity of the design particle

for this basin or known as the Overflow Rate (OR) of
basin
ho = depth of sedimentation basin
t = hydraulic detention time of basin

Sedimentation Basin
y Particles with vs ≥ vo will be removed regardless of

the starting position
y Particles with vs < vo
{ At the top of basin, ho, will pass through the
settling zone and exit in the outlet (not removed)
{ At position hs and lower, can be partially
removed
Fraction removed,

Sedimentation Basin
y Design guidelines
{ Detention time ~ 2 – 4 hr
{ Maximum horizontal velocity = 2.5 mm/s
{ Overflow Rate (OR) in range = 20 – 40 m3/m2·d
y Different types

Granular Media Filtration
(Gravity Filtration)
y Removal of particles from suspension by passage
of suspension through a porous medium
y Granular material e.g. sand, anthracite
y Sedimentation is effective only for removing macro
flocs ~ 100 μm within reasonable time ~ 3 hrs
y Typical retention time of sedimentation basin: 2 –
4 hrs
y Remaining colloidal materials and microflocs
removed by sand filtration

Filtration Mechanisms
- Straining
- Flocculation
- Sedimentation
(ce.memphis.edu)

Sand Filtration
y Slow sand filtration

Sand Filtration
y Rapid sand filtration

Sand Filtration
y Comparison of slow and rapid sand filtration

Ideal Filter Media
y Large porosity (coarse) to collect large quantities of

flocs, particulates
y Fine enough to prevent passing of flocs, solids
y Sufficiently deep to increase filter run time (depth
filtration instead of surface filtration)
y Need to prevent plugging of the top sand layer

Mixed-Media Beds
y Anthracite, sand, and garnet sand are used

y Greater solids removal efficiency thus increase
filter run times and water quality
y More expensive

Mixed-Media Beds
y The average porosity of mixed-media bed is

estimated as

Multi-Media Filtration
y Composed of more than 2 different materials

y Media are stratified during backwashing
(fluidization/expansion)
y Dense and fine material at the bottom, less
dense and coarse material at the top
y Promotes depth filtration
(a)Single-medium
(b)Dual-media
(c)Mixed-media

y Anthracite (a hard type of coal) commonly use in

dual media filtration
y Coarse (larger) anthracite in a dual media filter can
stay above the fine sand layer after backwashing
because of its lower SG (1.3 – 1.6)
y Size chosen is such that both media have about the
same settling velocity
y Bigger flocs are trapped by the anthracite while
smaller flocs by the sand layer

y Garnet (SG: 3.1 – 4.3) sometimes used as a third

layer
y To minimize intermixing of media grains

during backwashing, different media type should
have about the same settling velocity:
2
⎛ Ss1 − 1 ⎞ 3
d2 = d1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Ss 2 − 1 ⎠
where di = diameter of media i with specific gravity S si

y Example
Sand: d = 0.5 mm, SG = 2.65
Anthracite: d = 1.5 mm, SG = 1.7
Check if the two media are compatible:
2
⎛ Ss1 − 1 ⎞ 3
d2 = d1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ Ss 2 − 1 ⎠
2 2
⎛ Ssand − 1 ⎞ 3
⎛ 2.65 − 1 ⎞ 3
danthracite = dsand ⎜ ⎟ = 0.5 ⎜ ⎟ = 0.89
⎝ Santhracite − 1 ⎠ ⎝ 1.7 − 1 ⎠
Anthracite of size 1.5 mm (> 0.89 mm) is not
compatible
Rapid Filtration
y (i) Constant rate – low flow rate

y (ii) Variable (declining) rate – high at beginning
|Backwash when the filter is clogged
(ii)
(i)
Flow Rate
Backwash
after 24 hrs
operation
Filtration Time

Rapid Filtration
y Termination of filtration when:

{ (1) when head loss (~ 2.5 m) is exceeded (t2); or
{ (2) when acceptable effluent standard is
exceeded (t1)
t2 t1
Rapid Filtration
y To increase t1
{ 1) Use finer medium, 2) increase bed depth, 3)
apply higher dose of coagulant, 4) decrease
filtration rate
y To increase t2
{ 1) Use coarser medium, 2) decrease bed depth, 3)
apply lower dose of coagulant, 4) decrease
filtration rate

Rapid Filtration
y Example
Given that the filtration of water with turbidity of 5
NTU at a rate of 8 m3/m2.h can last 2 days,
estimate the filtration time if the turbidity of water
is 8 NTU and filtration rate increased to 10
m3/m2.h.
Assume t 1/(turbidity, v) Î t = k/(turbidity x v)

k = (t)(turbidity)(v) = 2(5)(8) = 80
t = 80/(8 x 10) = 1 day

Rapid Filtration
y Head loss, h (m)

h v2
= 1.067 C D ψ = shape factor
L g dp ψ f 4
ρ v (ψ d p )
Re =
μ
24 3
CD = + + 0.34 for 1 < Re < 10 4
Re Re
24
CD = for Re ≤ 1
Re

Rapid Filtration
y Example
Find head loss in clean filter bed. Bed depth, L = 1 m, grain
size, dp = 1 mm, filtration rate, v = 80 m3/m2.d, f = 0.4,
shape factor, ψ = 0.8
v = 80/(3600 × 24) = 9.26 ×10 −4 m/s
ρ v (ψ d p ) 1000 × 9.26 ×10 − 4 × 0.8 × 0.001
Re = = −3
= 0.83
μ 0.893 ×10
24
CD = = 28.9
Re
h v2 (9.26 ×10 − 4 ) 2
= 1.067 C D = 1.067 × 28.9 × = 0.13
L g dp ψ f 4
9.81× 0.001× 0.8 × 0.4 4
h = 0.13 ×1 = 0.13 m
Filter Backwash
y Backwash when filter is clogged

y Filter grains are mobilized when bed is fluidized or
expanded by combined flow of air and backwash
water upward
y Grains cleaned by fluid shear and abrasion

Filter Backwash
y For a uniform bed of depth L and porosity f,
backwashing will expand it to an expanded depth
Le with porosity fe
y Volume of sand in un-expanded (static) bed
= Volume of sand in expanded bed
(1 − f )A s L = (1 − f e )A s L e A s = cross section area
Le ⎛ 1 − f ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
L ⎝ 1 − fe ⎠
⎛ Le − L ⎞
Degree of expansion = ⎜ ⎟ ×100%
⎝ L ⎠
Filter Backwash
y Backwash rate vb must be high enough to fluidize
all media and expand bed by 30 – 50 %
{ If vb too low Æ Insufficient cleaning
{ If vb too high (> vs) Æ Loss of media, so

maximum backwash rate to be less than vs of the
smallest particles
{ Most effective backwash rate when vb = 0.1vs
y Porosity of expanded bed can be calculated

0.22
⎛ vb ⎞
f e = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ or v b = v s f e4.5 v b = backwash velocity
⎝ vs ⎠
Filter Backwash
y Example
Given f = 0.4, vs = 0.12 m/s and dimension of filter unit (4.5
m x 9.1 m), find (1) backwash velocity that will expand the
bed by 30%, and (2) backwash volume assuming backwash
time = 6 min.
Le ⎛ 1 − f ⎞
Bed expansion = 30% Æ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1.3 → f e = 0.54
L ⎝ 1 − fe ⎠
vb= vs fe4.5 = (0.12)(0.54)4.5 = 0.0075 m/s
Backwash volume = (0.0075)(6 x 60)(4.5 x 9.1) = 111 m3


Disinfection
By
Dr Chong Tzyy Haur
Dr.
1
Disinfection
y Disinfection:
Di i f ti t inactivate
to i ti t pathogens
th i water
in t so
that the occurrence of active disease causing
microorganisms
i i i reduced
is d d to
t acceptable
t bl levels
l l

Disinfection
y In
I water
t t t
treatment,t primary
i and
d secondary
d
disinfection refers to
{ Primary – inactivation of microorganisms in
water
{ Secondary – maintaining a disinfectant
residual in the treated water distribution system,
system
prevent biological growth in the water pipings

Disinfection
y Common
C di i f ti agentt
disinfection
{ Free chlorine
{ Combined chlorine or chloramines (chlorine
combined with ammonia)
{ Chlorine dioxide
{ Ozone
{ UV light

Disinfection
y Desirable
D i bl characteristics
h t i ti off disinfectant
di i f t t
{ Readily available
{ Safe and easy to handle
{ Act in a reasonable length of time
{ Non-toxic
{ Does not add unpleasant taste or colour

{ Easy to be measured
{ Provide residual protection

Chlorination
y Addition
Additi off chlorine
hl i or chlorine
hl i compounds
d to
t
water for disinfection
y Chlorine is the most common disinfectant
y Selected for its effectiveness,, residual stability,
y, cost
y May be applied as Cl2 gas, sodium hypochlorite
(NaOCl) or bleach, calcium hypochlorite Ca(OCl)2
Typical household bleach contains 3-6% NaOCl

http://www.clorox.com

Chemistry of Free Chlorine
y Chlorine gas in water

Cl2 (g) + H2O Æ HOCl + H+ + Cl-
y Hypochlorite salts
NaOCl ((l)) + H2O Æ HOCl + Na+ + OH-
Ca(OCl)2 (s)+ 2H2O Æ 2HOCl + Ca2+ + 2OH-
y Cl2 gas: sold in bulk,
bulk cheap,
cheap but dangerous to
transport and store due to its toxicity
y Hypochlorite
H hl i salts
l easier
i to handle
h dl

y Hypochlorous
H hl acid:
id strong
t oxidant
id t but
b t weak
k acid
id
HOCl H+ + OCl-
+ -
H OCl
Ka = pKa ~ 7.5 at 25oC
HOCl
CT = [HOCl] + [OCl-]
HOCll HOCll 1 1
= - -
CT HOCl OCl OCl Ka
1 1
HOCl H+
F
Free Chlorine
Chl i or Free
F R
Residual
id l = [HOCl] + [OCl-]
y At high
hi h pH,H HOCl
dissociates to OCl-
y OCl- is 20 – 100x less
effective as disinfectant
y Desirable pH 7 or less
for disinfection (to get
g
HOCl)
At pH ~ 7.0, 70% is HOCl, 30% is OCl-

Chemistry of Combined Chlorine
y Reaction
R ti off HOCl with
ith dissolved
di l d ammonia
i in
i water
t
produces combined chlorine or chloramines
(1) NH3 + HOCl Æ NH2Cl + H2O
monochloramine
(2) NH2Cl + HOCl Æ NHCl2 + H2O

dichloramine
(3) NHCl2 + HOCl Æ NCl3 + H2O

trichloramine
Combined Chlorine or Combined Residual =

[NH2Cl] + [NHCl2] + [NCl3]
y Species
S i formed
f d depends
d d on pH
H and
d Cl2:NH
NH3 ratio
ti
{ High Cl2:NH3 and low pH favors NHCl2
y No clear consensus on exact mechanism, but
overall reaction:
3HOCl + 2NH3 Æ N2 + 3H+ + 3Cl- +3H2O
HOCl = 3 x 71 = 213 g as Cl2
NH3 = 2 x 14 = 28 g as NH3-N
Chlorine/Ammonia = 213/28 = 7.6 g Cl2/g NH3-N

y Advantages
Ad t
{ Reaction between chloramines and organics in
water is weak, formation of disinfection by-
products (i.e. trihalomethanes or THMs, MCL =
0.08 mg/L) is minimized
{ Chloramines are more stable than chlorine,
suitable as distribution disinfectant
y Disadvantage
{ Chloramines ~ 1000x less effective than HOCl
as disinfectant
Breakpoint Chlorination
Free Chlorine or
Free Residual
Combined Chlorine or
Combined Residual

y Ensure
E presence off free
f chlorine
hl i in i water
t supplies
li
for disinfection
y (1) Chlorine demand – amount of chlorine used up
when reacting with compounds in water,
producing no chlorine residual
{ Reacts with organic
g compounds
p to form
trihalomethanes (THMs)
{ Reacts with dissolved inorganic or reducing
agents such as hydrogen sulfide, iron, manganese
and nitrite
y (2)
( ) Chloramines
Chl i f
formation
ti – amountt off chlorine
hl i
needed to react with all dissolved ammonia in
water
t forming
f i combined
bi d chlorine
hl i or chloramines
hl i
{ If using chloramine as disinfectant, chlorination
process is stopped here
y (3) Destruction of some chloramines – further
addition of chlorine breakdowns chloramines in
water (refer to pgpg. 10), thus lowering g chlorine
residual

y (4)
( ) Breakpoint
B k i and d formation
f i off free
f chlorine
hl i –
When these demands are met, chlorine
“b k i ” is
“breakpoint” i reached.
h d Chlorine
Chl i added
dd d beyond
b d
breakpoint reacts with water and forms HOCl in
di
direct proportion
i to the
h amount off chlorine
hl i added
dd d
and available as a free chlorine which is more
effective
ff ti a disinfectant
di i f t t than
th chloramines
hl i

y Beyond
B d breakpoint
b k i t
Total Chlorine = Free Chlorine + Combined Chlorine
or
Total Residual = Free Residual + Combined Residual
y At any point
i t on the
th plot
l t off “chlorine
“ hl i residual”
id l” vs.
“chlorine added or dosage”
Chlorine Added or Dosage =

Chlorine Demand + Chlorine Residual
Weaknesses of Chlorination
y Disinfection
Di i f ti by b products
d t due
d to
t chlorination
hl i ti
y Protozoa Giardia and Cryptosporidium are
resistant to chlorine
{ Disinfection with UV light
g is more effective

Chlorine Dioxide
y Strong
St oxidization
idi ti andd disinfecting
di i f ti capability
bilit than
th
free chlorine
y Reacts very weakly with ammonia or with THM
precursors
y Besides disinfection, use for removal of taste and
odor, color, iron, manganese,
g and organics
g
y Volatile and easily removed from water by aeration
y Does not maintain a residual long enough; not
useful for distribution

Chlorine Dioxide
y Generated
G t d onsite
it between
b t chlorine
hl i (Cl2) andd
sodium chlorite (NaClO2):
2NaClO2(aq) + Cl2(aq) Æ ClO2(g) + 2NaCl pH~2
y ClO2(g)
g introduced into water as disinfectant
y ClO2 does not dissociate to HOCl, thus disinfecting
power relatively independent of pH
y Cost 5 – 10x more than chlorination
y Health
H lth effects
ff t nott well
ll established
t bli h d

Ozonation
y Strong
St oxidizing
idi i gas that
th t reacts
t with
ith mostt organic
i
and many inorganic molecules
y Unstable gas, must be generated onsite
y Reactions rapid
p in inactivating g microorganisms,
g ,
oxidizing iron, manganese, sulfite and nitrite
y Slower in oxidizing organic compounds like
pesticides and volatile organic compounds

Ozonation
y Does
D nott form
f THM but
THMs, b t can reactt with
ith bromide
b id
ion to form harmful bromate ion (BrO3-, MCL =
0.01 mg/L)
/L)
y Energy intensive: 10 kWh per kg ozone
0.5 – 5% O3
15 – 20 kV Typical ozone-generating configuration

f a corona-discharge
for di h cell
ll
Comparison of Disinfectant
y Effectiveness
Eff ti off disinfectant:
di i f t t LogL R
Removal
l Value
V l
(LRV)
LRV = log10[Ci/Ce] ∝ C·t
Ci and Ce are influent and effluent concentration of
microorganisms respectively
C is residual disinfectant concentration (in mg/l)
t is contact time (in minute) or time it takes water
to move from point of disinfectant application to
point where residual disinfectant is measured

y Strong
St di i f t t achieves
disinfectant hi di i f ti
disinfection objective
bj ti
with a small C·t (low dose and contact time); weak
di i f t t requires
disinfectant i a large
l C t (high
C·t (hi h dose
d and
d
contact time)
y Biocidal efficiency:
ozone > chlorine dioxide > free chlorine >
chloramines
y Persistency/stability in water:
chloramines > free chlorine > chlorine dioxide >
ozone

Disinfection with UV
y Non-oxidizing
N idi i chemical
h i l
y Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is electromagnetic
radiation with wavelength between 100 and 400
nm
y Germicidal range ~ 200 – 300 nm; inactivates
microorganisms
g byy transforming
g their DNA
y Useful to inactivate Giardia and Cryptosporidium

Disinfection with UV
y Challenges
Ch ll off UV disinfection
di i f ti
{ Reactivation of injured microorganisms – self
repairing
{ Interference from p particles in water – causes
refraction, reflection, and scattering of UV light
{ Design of UV reactors – has a short residence
time, issue of dispersion and short circuiting

Membrane Processes in Water

Treatment
By
Dr Chong Tzyy Haur
Dr.
1
Membrane Processes
y Membrane
M b processes ini watert t t
treatment t are
physicochemical separation techniques that use
diff
differences i permeability
in bilit (of
( f water
t constituents)
tit t )
as a separation mechanism
y 4 types of pressure-driven membranes
{ Microfiltration (MF)
M b
Membrane Filt
Filtration
ti
{ Ultrafiltration (UF)
{ Nanofiltration (NF)
Reverse Osmosis
{ Reverse Osmosis (RO)

Classification

Comparison
y Pore
P size
i
Non porous

Comparison
Ch
Characteristics
t i ti M
Membrane
b Filtration
Filt ti R
Reverse O
Osmosis
i
Membrane types MF, UF NF, RO
Objectives & Particles and microorganisms Desalination (dissolved
Targets removal solutes); softening (Ca2+,
Mg2+); specific contaminant
removal
Typical source Surface water (TDS < 1000 Seawater (TDS ~ 35,000
water mg/L) mg/L); brackish water (TDS ~
1000 – 20,000 mg/L);
coloured groundwater (TOC >
10 mg/L)
Separation Straining Differences in solubility or
mechanism diffusivity
Pressure and flux 0.2 – 1 bar 5 – 85 bar
(t i l)
(typical) 30 – 170 L/m
L/ 2h 1 – 50 L/m
L/ 2h

Membrane Filtration
y Typically
T i ll forf low
l t bidit ≤ 10 NTU;
turbidity NTU moderate
d t to t
low colour < 10 c.u.; low TOC < 4 mg/l

Membrane Filtration
y Membrane
M b material
t i l
{ polymeric (PES, PVDF, CA etc.)
{ ceramic
y Membrane configuration
{ hollow fiber (most common)
{ spiral
p wound
φ ~ 1 mm
Spiral wound Hollow fiber

Membrane Filtration
y Module
M d l configuration
fi ti Pressure vessel
{ Pressure
vessel
{ Submerged
Suction mode
Submerged
Membrane Filtration
y Flow
Fl R i
Regime
{ Dead end
(
(requires
i b k
backwash)
h)
{ Crossflow Dead end Crossflow
y Operation cycles
{ Filtration
Filt ti (30 – 90 mins)
i )
{ Backwash (1 – 3 mins)
{ Chemical
Ch i l cleaning
l i
(days to months)

Membrane Filtration
y Separation
S ti mechanisms
h i
Straining – particles Adsorption – small Cake filtration –

larger than pores are particles adsorb to smaller particles are
retained the walls of pores retained by cake of
(main mechanism) larger particles
Membrane Filtration
y Advantages
Ad t ( granular
(vs. l filtration)
filt ti )
{ MF is effective for removing protozoa e.g.
C
Cryptosporidium;
t idi b tt than
better th granular
l filtration
filt ti
which requires coagulation-flocculation step
{ Removal
R l off virus
i b UF e.g. 7-log
by l removall off MS2
MS
bacteriophage with 100,000 Dalton UF
{ High
Hi h packing
ki density
d it
Æ smaller footprint

Membrane Filtration
y Challenges
Ch ll – membrane
b f li
fouling
Pore blocking – Pore constriction Cake layer formation –

entrance to a pore – reduction of retention of particles
is completely sealed void volume due and formation of
byy p
particle p
to adsorption of porous cake layer
p y
particles
Membrane Filtration
y Performance
P f characterizations
h t i ti
Qp
ΔP J is flux (L/m2⋅h or m/s)
J= = Qp is
i permeate flow
fl rate (m
( 3/s)
/ )
A μR m A is membrane area (m2)
ΔP is transmembrane pressure (Pa)
μ is viscosity of water (Ns/m2)
Rm is membrane resistance (m-1)
Qp
Y= Y is recovery (dimensionless)
Qf Qf is feed flow rate (m3/s)
Cp R is rejection (dimensionless)
R = 1− CP is concentration in permeate (mol/L)
Cf Cf is concentration in feed (mol/L)
Membrane Filtration
y Example
E l
{ Typical
Rm of UF ~ 1 x 1011 m-1
{ Assume
A operating
ti flux,
fl J for
J, f UF is L/ 2⋅h
i 50 L/m h
⎛
⎜
50 ⎞
1000 × 36 ⎠
( )(
−3
⎟ 0.89 ×10 1×10
11
)
ΔP = J μ R m = ⎝ = 1.2 bar
100000

Reverse Osmosis
y Seawater
S d li i
desalination
seawater

Reverse Osmosis
y Water
W reclamation
l i – NEWater
NEW i produced
is d d from
f
treated used water (effluent from activated sludge
process)) that
h i further
is f h purified
ifi d using
i d l
dual
membranes and ultra-violet disinfection
Micro- or
Treated Reverse UV
Ultra-
Ultra NEWater
Used Water Osmosis Disinfection
filtration
Membrane Technology

Reverse Osmosis
y Membrane structure & material
{ Thin film composite structure
ÙActive
A i skin
ki layer
l ( 200 nm)) – polyamide
(~ l id
ÙPorous support (~ 50 μm) – polysulfone
ÙSubstrate (~ 100 μm) – polyesther non woven
fabric
Separation
or selectivity
Mechanical
support
Reverse Osmosis
y Membrane configuration
{ Spiral
wound
y Module
M d l configuration
fi i
{ Pressure vessel – multi elements (typically 6 to 8)
per vessel

Reverse Osmosis
y Flow regime F d
Feed R
Retentate
{ Crossflow
y Operation Permeate
{ No
N backwash
b k h
{ Chemical cleaning when membrane is fouled

Reverse Osmosis
y Osmosis
O i vs. Reverse
R O
Osmosis
i
Osmosis – water moves from Reverse osmosis – Apply

low solute concentration to external pressure higher than
high solute concentration osmotic pressure of solution
to reverse the
h flow,
fl water
moves from high solute
concentration to low solute
concentration
Reverse Osmosis
y Performance
P f characterizations
h t i ti
QpΔP − ΔΠ
J= =
A μR m
ΔΠ is osmotic pressure difference across
membrane (Pa), is a function of concentration
of solutes
ΔΠ = φ C

Reverse Osmosis
y Example
E l
{ Seawater, TDS = 35,000 mg/L, π ~ 27.5 bar
{ RO membrane has > 99 99.55 % rejection
j of TDS;;
{ Typical Rm of RO ~ 1 x 1014 m-1
{ At 50% recovery, the concentration is doubled, π ~ 55 bar Å this is
the osmotic pressure that needs to be overcome
{ Typical operating flux, J, for RO is 25 L/m2⋅h
⎛
⎜
25 ⎞
1000 × 36 ⎠
( )(
−3
⎟ 0.89 × 10 1× 10 )
14
ΔP = J μ R m + ΔΠ = ⎝ + 55
100000
= 6.2
62 + 55 = 61.2 61 2 bar
Membrane resistance Osmotic pressure

(~ 10%) (~ 90%)

Reverse Osmosis
y Challenges
Ch ll
{ Membrane fouling
ÙRO is non porous Æ cake layer formation
ÙDifferent
e e t types o
of fouling
ou g
|Colloidal particles
|Organic adsorption
|Scaling
|Biofouling

Reverse Osmosis
y Pre-treatment
P t t t is
i important
i t t to
t reduce
d membrane
b
fouling
{ Reduce turbidity to < 0.5 NTU for RO feed water
ÙConventional method (coagulation-flocculation,

granular filtration)
ÙMembrane
b filtration
{ Reduce scaling due to hardness (i.e. CaCO3)
ÙLowering pH
ÙAddition of anti-scalant

Reverse Osmosis
y Pre-treatment
P t t t is
i important
i t t to
t reduce
d membrane
b
fouling
{ Reduce biofouling
ÙClorination – but the RO feed water must be

de-chlorinated before entering RO system
because RO membrane has poor tolerance to
free chlorine
ÙNon chlorine based biocides

Wastewater Generation and

Characteristics
By
Dr Chong Tzyy Haur
Dr.
1
Sewer System
y Sewer
S S t
Systems
{ Separate systems for storm
water and wastewater
{ Combined system
Ùdry weather and wet weather flow

Sewer System
y Types
T off Sewers
S
{ Gravitysewers
{ Pressure or vacuum sewers
combined system separate system

Wastewater Flow Estimation
Domestic
Industrial
Municipal
Wastewater
Infiltration
Stormwater Only for combined

sewer system
y Domestic
D ti wastewater
t t
{ Fieldmeasurements
{ Water supply records
Ù60 – 85% (75%) of water supply

{ References from similar establishments

y Industrial
I d t i l wastewater
t t
{ An allowance of 50 m3/ha·d is often used
y Infiltration
{ 3 – 15 m3/ha
/ha·d
d

y Stormwater
St t
{ Rainfall ↔ runoff
Rational Formula:
C⋅i ⋅ A
Qp =
360
Qp = the estimated peak discharge, m3/s
A = total
t t l catchment
t h t area, ha
h
C = runoff coefficient
i = average rainfall
i f ll intensity,
i t it mm/h
/h
y Example
E l
Determine the peak hourly flow in m3/s for a 300-
ha community having the following characteristics:
p
Population densityy = 5
50 p
persons p
per ha
Domestic flow = 340 Lpcd
Commercial flow = 60 Lpcd
Infiltration = 5 m3/ha·d
Assume an overall hourly peaking factor of 3.1 for
the community

y Example
E l
Wastewater Component Flowrate (m3/d)
Domestic = 0.340 x 50 x 300 5100
C
Commercial i l = 0.060
6 x 50 x 300 900
Infiltration = 5 x 300 1500
Average wastewater flowrate 7500
Peak flow = Average flow x Peaking factor

= 7500 x 3.1 = 23,250 m3/d
Wastewater Characteristics
y Physical
Ph i l
{ Solidscontent, temperature, pH, colour, odour
y Chemical
{ Organics: Carbohydrates, proteins, fat, oils,
grease, BOD5, COD, TOC
{ Inorganics: Alkalinity,
Alkalinity heavy metals,
metals nutrients
(N, P), dissolved ions, hydrogen sulphide, gases
y Biological
Bi l i l
{ Bacteria, algae, protozoa, viruses, coliforms

Solid Content
y Total
T t l solids
lid refer
f tot material
t i l left
l ft in
i a dish
di h after
ft
sample is evaporated and dried in oven (~ 105oC)
mg of dried residue × 1000
mg/l total solids =
ml of sample
y Suspended solids refer to material retained by a
standard glass
glass-fibre
fibre filter
y Dissolved solids refer to material that pass through
a standard glass-fibre filter
y Volatile solids refer to material lost when dried
solids
lid are burnt
b t
Solid Content
Total Solids Total Solids
(TS) (TS)
Passing 0
0.45
45 Ignite at
μm filter? 500 oC?
Yes No Yes No
Totall
T Totall
T Totall
T Totall Fi
T Fixed
d
Dissolved Suspended Volatile Solids
Solids (TDS) Solids (TSS) Solids (TVS) (TFS)
Organic Matters
y Biodegradable
Bi d d bl organici matter
tt i
in municipal
i i l
wastewater is classified into
{ Carbohydrates consist of sugar units containing
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
{ Proteins are long strings of amino acids
containing
g carbon, hydrogen,
y g oxygen,
yg nitrogen
g
and phosphorus
{ Fats are biochemical substances that are soluble
to varying degrees in organic solvents but only
sparingly soluble in water
Organic Matters
Organics % biodegradable
C10H19O3N Proteins (40 – 60%) 40 – 50%
M W = 200
M.W.
Carbohydrates (30 – 50%) 75 – 80%
C – 60%
H – 9% Fats (10%)
( ) 80 – 85%
O – 24%
Other organics:
N – 7% S h i detergents
Synthetic d
Organic solvents
Petroleum products
Biological polymers
Phenols
Pesticides
Organic Matters
y Bacterial
B t i l decomposition
d iti off organic
i compounds
d
{ Hydrolysis of carbohydrates to sugars, proteins
to amino acids, and fats to short fatty acids
{ Further aerobic biodegradation
g results in
formation of carbon dioxide and water
{ Anaerobic digestion end products are organic
acids, alcohols, carbon dioxide, methane,
hydrogen sulfide, etc.

Organic Matters
y Major
M j parameters
t used
d to
t indicate
i di t organic
i waste
t
strength include:
{ Biochemical Oxygen Demand BOD
{ Chemical Oxygen
yg Demand COD
{ Total Organic Carbon TOC
{ Theoretical Oxygen Demand ThOD

Biochemical Oxygen Demand
y BOD is
i widely
id l used
d parameter
t t define
to d fi th
the
organic strength of a wastewater
y Definition: quantity of oxygen utilized by a mixed
population of microorganisms in the aerobic
oxidation (of the organic matter in a sample of
wastewater) at a temperature of 20°C ± 1°C in an
air incubator or water bath
y BOD represents
p biodegradable
g organic
g matter
dissolved oxygen
Organics
g CO2 + biomass
microorganisms
y BOD
{ Carbonaceous Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(CBOD)
ÙOxygen
yg demand for oxidation of organic
g
carbon
{ Nitrogenous Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(NBOD)
ÙOxygen demand for oxidation of ammonia to
nitrate Å interference for BOD test

y Nitrification
Nit ifi ti vs. carbonaceous
b oxygen demand
d d
NBOD
BODult
BOD5
CBOD

y Limitations
Li it ti
{A high concentration of active, acclimated seed
bacteria is required
{ Pretreatment is needed when dealing with toxic
wastewaters
{ Effects of nitrifying
y g organisms
g must b
be reduced
{ Only the biodegradable organics are measured
{ No stoichiometric validity
{ An arbitrary long period of incubation time

(t i ll 5 days
(typically d i BOD5) is
i.e. i needed
d d for
f the
th test
t t
y Example
E l
Wastewater Flowrate BOD BOD
Component (m3/d) (mg/L) (kg/d)
Domestic 5100 150 5100 x 150/1000 =
= 0.340
0 340 x 50 x 300 765
Commercial 900 200 900 x 200/1000 =
= 0.060 x 50 x 300 180
Infiltration = 5 x 300 1500 0 0
Total 7500 945
Average BOD concentration = 945 x 1000 / 7500
= 126 mg/L
Chemical Oxygen Demand
y COD test
t t measures amountt off oxygen needed
d d for
f
chemical oxidation of organic matter in the sample
t CO2 and
to d H 2O
y Dichromate (Cr2O72-) is used to oxidize organic
matter
tt
y Since many organic substances can be oxidised
chemically
h i ll butb t cannott be
b oxidised
idi d biologically
bi l i ll
Î COD > BODult
Organics + Cr2 O 27 − + H +
⎯→ CO 2 + H 2 O + 2Cr 3+
⎯heat
COD vs. BOD
y Merits
M it
{ Fast & reliable for wastewater treatment
operation & monitoring
{ COD data can be interpreted
p in terms of BOD,, if
reliable correlation factors have been established
y Demerits
{ Does not distinguish between biodegradable &
non-biodegradable organic matter

Total Organic Carbon
y Measurement
M t off the
th total
t t l organic
i carbon
b (TOC) in
i
a wastewater sample by a TOC analyzer
TOC = Total Carbon (TC) – Inorganic Carbon (IC)
HCO3-
y TOC vs. BOD or COD
CO32-
{ Merits
ÙFast& convenient (~ 10 mins analysis time)

ÙOn-line monitoring & process control

Total Organic Carbon
y TOC vs. BOD or COD

{ Demerits
ÙDoes not differentiate between organics which

are biodegradable
g and which are not
ÙHigh capital cost
ÙTOC has to be interpreted in terms of BOD or
COD, and that valid relationship has to be
established for a specific wastewater or process

Theoretical Oxygen Demand
y If a wastewater
t t contains
t i id tifi bl organic
identifiable i
compounds (C,O,H,N), the ThOD required for the
complete
l t oxidation
id ti off organics
i can beb calculated
l l t d
y Carbonaceous Oxidation
C → CO2
N → NH3
y Nitrogenous Oxidation
NH3 → HNO3

y Total
T t l th
theoretical
ti l oxygen d
demand
d
C → CO2
N → HNO3
Total
ota ttheoretical
eo et ca o
oxygen
yge demand
de a d = Ca
Carbonaceous
bo aceous
Oxidation + Nitrogenous Oxidation
y Calculation of ThOD
{ Step 1
Write the equation describing the oxidation of
the organics to carbon dioxide and water
Example: C6H6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
y Calculation
C l l ti off ThOD
{ Step 2
Balance the equation
Example: C6H6 + 7.5 O2 → 6 CO2 + 3 H2O
{ Step 3
U the
Use th stoichiometry
t i hi t off the
th balanced
b l d chemical
h i l
reaction, applying unit conversion to determine
th ThOD
the

y Example
E l
Calculate the ThOD of glucose having the formula C6H12O6
MW of C6H12O6 = (6 x 12) + (12 x 1) + (6 x 16) = 180 g/mol
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
180 192
ThOD = 192 g O2 / 180 g glucose
= 1.07 g O2 / g glucose
Assume 100 mg/L C6H12O6 ,
ThOD = 1.07 x 100 mg/L = 107 mg/L

Correlations: BOD, COD, TOC
y BOD5 ≈ 0.70 BODult ; BODult ≈ 0.92 COD

y COD > 0.95 ThOD
y COD > BOD > TOC
y BOD test is not a useful test for routine plant
control & monitoring. It is necessary to develop
correlation between BOD & COD or BOD & TOC.
y BOD correlates well to COD for readily degradable
organics There will be no correlation for
organics.
wastewater containing refractory or slowly
degradable organics
Correlations: BOD, COD, TOC
y Biological
Bi l i l treatability
t t bilit
BOD/COD Treatability
> 0.5 Good
0.3 – 0.5 Acceptable
< 0.3 Not recommended
d d
< 0.1 Non–biodegradable
y Comparison
C i off parameter
t ratio
ti
Wastewater BOD5/TOC BOD5/COD
Untreated 1.20 – 1.50 0.50 – 0.65
Final effluent 0.25 – 0.50 0.10 – 0.25

Week 7
Fundamental of biological treatment
By Dr Chris Cai
Email: chriscai@simtech.a-star.edu.sg
Tel: 6793 8987
Biological treatment of wastewater
• Wastewater treatment overview
– Treatment stages
• Pretreatment
• Primary treatment
• Secondary treatment
• Tertiary treatment (advanced treatment)
• Sludge
• Typical treatment
– Readings
Davis , Chapter 6, p437-443, 447-449, 493-497
CV3015 Environmental Engineering Week 8
Tricking filter and

wastewater microbiology
By Dr Chris Cai
Lecture
• Recap last lecture
– Pre-Treatment
• screening, grit removal, FOG removal, and
equalization
– Primary Treatment
– Secondary Treatment
• Trickling Filters
• Activated Sludge Processes
• Rotating Biological Contactors
• Stabilisation Lagoons
• Anaerobic Processes
– Tertiary or Advanced Treatment
Fig 6-
6-19
19:: Conventional activated sludge plant
2/3 TSS
1/3 BOD
The major goal of primary treatment is to remove from

wastewater those pollutant that will either settle or float
Surface loading rate= V0 =Q/A:
Detention time = V /Q=

Davies and Cornwell, 2008
Fig 6-
6-29
29:: Trickling filter plant

Weir loading = average daily flow/ weir length
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT SYSTEMS
• Most efficient way of removing organic
matter from municipal wastewaters
• Mixed microbial cultures used to
decompose and remove colloidal and
dissolved organic substances from
solution
– Desirable biological cultures generated by
careful control of factors and retained to
process the pollutants
Heterogeneous microorganism population employed in
wastewater treatment
• Bacteria are classified according to their
optimum temperature range for growth
Types of Decomposition
• Aerobic
• Anoxic
• Anaerobic
Aerobic Decomposition
• Electron Acceptor = O2
• End Products = CO2 and H2O and
Bacterial Cells
• Odor Potential = Low
• Ecosystem = Healthy Systems
• WWT = Dilute Wastes
Anoxic Decomposition
• Electron Acceptor = NO3-
• End Products = N2 and CO2 and
H2O and Bacterial Cells
• Odor Potential = Low
• Ecosystem = Upper Hypolimnion
• WWT = Denitrification
Anaerobic Decomposition
• Electron Acceptor = CO2 + organics
• End Products=CH4+CO2+H2O+bacterial
• Odor Potential = High
• Ecosystem = Sediments
• WWT = Sludge Stabilization
Microorganisms reproduce by binary fission

Fig 6-
6-15
15:: Bacterial growth in a pure culture “log-
“log-growth curve”

Fig 6-
6-14
14:: General Scheme of bacterial metabolism.

Factors Affecting Growth
• Most important factors affecting biological
growth
– Temperature
– Availability of nutrients
– Oxygen supply
– pH
– Presence of toxins
– Sunlight (for photosynthetic plants)
Effect of Temperature
• Rate of biological activity generally doubles or
halves for every 10 to 15°C temperature rise of
decrease within the range of 5 to 35°C
k  k 20  T  20 [ 3 - 17 ]
where k = reaction-rate constant at

temperature T, per day
k20 = reaction-rate constant at 20°C per
day
θ = temperature coefficient
T = temperature of biological reaction,
degree Celsius
Example
• A municipal wastewater has the following
characteristics:
– Population eqv. = 20,000 @ 225 Lpcd
– Influent BOD5 = 360 mg/L
– Treated effluent BOD5 = 25 mg/L
– Wastewater temperature = 20 oC
• What is the effluent BOD at 15 oC?
Q=20,000 Influent Effluent

@225 Lpcd 25mg/L
360mg/L
20oC
Solution
BOD removal efficiency = ( 360-25)/ 360 x 100% = 93%
Temperature-activity coefficient=1.035
Trickling Filters (Percolating Filters)
• The first major breakthrough in secondary

treatment.
• Developed in early 1900s based on an
observation that the flow in a thin stream
of wastewater trickled through a bed of
gravel resulted in substantial removal of
organics.
Fig 6-
6-29
29:: Trickling filter plant

Trickling filter
Source: Viessman and Hammer

Packing materials
Source: Viessman and Hammer

Types of trickling filter
Source: Metcalf & Eddy

Design Parameters of Trickling
Filters
• Hydraulic Loading
• Organic (BOD) Loading
• Recirculation Ratio
Design parameters
Typical design parameter
Unit Conversion
A wastewater contains 200 mg/l BOD is treated by
a trickling filter of 250 m3. The flow rate is 500
m3/d. Compute organic load (in units of kg/m3.d).
200 mg/l  500 m 3 /d
BOD in kg/d  6 -3 3
 100 kg/d
10 mg/kg  10 m /l
100 kg/d 3
Organic load  3
 0.4 kg/m .d
250 m
In short:
-3
200  500 10
Organic load   0.4 kg/m 3 .d
250
Example 3.3
• A 2-m deep trickling filter with a diameter
of 20 m is operated with a recirculation
ratio of 2. The raw wastewater flow rate is
2000 m3/d and BOD5 of the raw sewage is
250 mg/L. Assuming that the BOD
removal efficiency of the primary tank is
30%, compute the hydraulic load and the
organic load on the trickling filter.
Example 3.3
R=2
Q = 2000 m3/d
BOD = 250 mg/L Primary Trickling
Tank Filter
30% BOD Diameter 20 m

removal Depth 2m
Q + Qr Qx BOD conc
hydraulic loading= organic load =
As V
Solution
Solution
Treatment Efficiency of Trickling
Filters
• Treatment efficiency depends on:
• BOD loading
• Recirculation ratio
• Volume of filter
• Temperature
Organic load
Design Formulae of Trickling Filters
• US NRC Formula
• Velz Formula
• Schulze Formula
• Eckenfelder’s Formula
• Galler & Gotaas Formula
• Ten States Design
NRC Formula
• Empirical equation based on data collected from
military installations by the US National Research
Council
100
E=
1  0.448 ( W )
VF
• E = efficiency of BOD removal at 20oC, %
• W = BOD loading to filter, kg/d
• V = volume of filter media, m3
Note: W/V is the organic loading in kg/m3.d
• F = recirculation factor
1 R
F
(1  0.1R ) 2
Two-Stage Trickling Filters
• Generally used for:

– High removal efficiency
– High organic waste strength
– Low temperature
Typical Configuration for Two-
Stage Trickling Filters
Recirculation
Influent Effluent
Primary First-Stage Second-Stage Secondary

Tank Filter Filter Tank
Recirculation Recirculation
Influent Effluent
Primary First Stage Second-Stage Secondary

Tank Filter Filter Tank
Efficiency of Two-Stage Trickling Filters
Overall efficiency
Effect of Temperature
• ET = E20 x 1.035(T-20)
where
ET = efficiency of BOD removal at T oC
E20 = efficiency of BOD removal at 20 oC
1.035 = temperature-activity coefficient
Example 3.4
• A municipal wastewater has the following
characteristics:
– Population eqv. = 20,000 @ 225 Lpcd
– Influent BOD5 = 360 mg/L
– Treated effluent BOD5 = 25 mg/L
– Wastewater temperature = 20 oC
• Determine the BOD5 loading and volume of a
single-stage trickling filter with a recirculation
ratio of 2.
• What is the effluent BOD at 15 oC?
• What is the volume of the trickling filter
R=2
Recirculation
Q=20,000 Influent Effluent

@225 Lpcd 25mg/L
360mg/L
Single
tricking
filter
Solution
Solution
Solution
Week 9
Activated Sludge Pocess
By Dr Chris Cai
Email: chriscaisg@gmail.com
Lecture
– Trickling filter
• Today’s topic
– Activated sludge process
Recap
Activated Sludge Process (ASP)
• The second major breakthrough in
secondary treatment after trickling filters.
• Developed in England in 1914 based on
an observation that the wastewater flow
through a suspended growth of biological
solids (biomass) under aerobic condition
resulted in substantial removal of organic
wastes.
Activated Sludge Process (ASP)
• The term “Activated” is referring to the
return of active biomass from the
secondary clarifier to the aeration basin.
Types of Activated Sludge
Processes
• Conventional
• Step-aeration
• Contact stabilisation
• High-rate or completely-mixed
• Extended aeration
• Required reading:
– Course notes p47-49.
Design Parameters for ASP
• Food To Micro-organism Ratio (F/M)

• Volumetric Loading Rate
• Hydraulic Retention Time
• Mean Cell Residence Time (or Solids
Retention Time or Sludge Age)
Activated sludge process
F/M Ratio
• An important design and operation parameter
indicating the relationship between the organic
loading and the amount of micro-organisms in
the activated sludge aeration tank.
• Synonymous Terms To Be Noted
– The F of the F/M ratio refers to: Food, influent,
substrate, feedstock, BOD, organics or organic
wastes.
– The M of the F/M refers to: Micro-organism,
microbes, biological solids, biomass, or microbial
cells.
– Aeration tank, aeration chamber, aeration basin,
reactor, or bioreactor.
F/M Ratio
• The food is expressed as kg of BOD supplied to
the aeration tank per day.
F = Q · So · 10**-3 kg BOD/d
Q = influent flow rate, m3/d
So = influent BOD, mg/L
• The micro-organisms are expressed as kg of
volatile suspended solids of the ‘mixed liquor’ in
the tank.
M = Vr · X · 10-3 kg MLVSS
Vr = volume of aeration tank, m3
X = micro-organism concentration, mg/L
F/M Ratio
• Expressed as kg BOD/kg MLVSS.d

• Typical design values: 0.2 – 0.5
• It should be noted that some references
express the F/M ratio in terms of MLSS.
(VSS = 60  85% TSS)
• Equilibrium system is achieved when the food and
the micro-organisms are in balance.
• Organically overloaded when the food is excessive.
Remedies need to be taken.
Volumetric Loading Rate (VLR)
Example 3.5
• Two identical activated sludge tanks are

fed with a combined 4000 m3/d of
wastewater at a volumetric loading of 525
g BOD/m3.d. The BOD of the raw
wastewater is 450 mg/L. If the MLVSS is
2500 mg/L, compute the F/M ratio for the
system. Assume 30% of the BOD is
removed in the primary tank.
Example 3.5
Aeration
Q = 4000 m3/d Tank
BOD = 450 mg/L Primary Effluent
Tank Aeration
30% BOD Tank
removal
VLR = 525 gBOD/m3.d
MLVSS, X = 2500 mg/L
Solution
Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT)
Example 3.6
• Compute the mean hydraulic retention time for
the aeration tank of volume Vr = 1200 m3 and
wastewater flow rate Q = 4000 m3/d. If the
volume of the sedimentation tank is 1600 m3,
determine the mean HRT for the system.
Important
• Food To Micro-organism Ratio (F/M)
• Volumetric Loading Rate
• Hydraulic Retention Time
• Mean Cell Residence Time (or Solids Retention
Time or Sludge Age)
Mean Cell Residence Time
• Also termed sludge age or solids retention time
c = mean cell residence time, d

X = microbial concentration in the aeration tank, mg/L
Xe = microbial concentration in the secondary effluent,
mg/L
Xr = microbial concentration in the waste sludge, mg/L
Qe = flowrate of effluent wastewater, m3/d
Qw = flowrate of waste sludge, m3/d
Example 3.7
• If the wasting rate from the sedimentation
tank is 40 m3/d, and the waste sludge has
a solids concentration of 1%, determine
the mean cell residence time in the system.
Assume that solids in the effluent is
negligible and the volatile content in the
solids is 75%, volume of reactor 1200 m3
having MLVSS of 2500 mg/L.
Solution Xe  0
40m3/ d
For 1% solids,
Solution
Return Activated Sludge
Example 3.8 (Cont’d Ex 3.6 & 3.7)
• Compute the rate of return activated sludge necessary to
maintain the required amount of MLVSS in the aeration
tank. (1% solids in the waste sludge with 75% volatile
solids, 2500 mg/L MLVSS, wastewater flowrate 4000
m3/d)
Q=4000m3/ d MLVSS 2500mg/L
10, 000mg/L x 75%

solution
Sludge wasting rate (Qw)
If Xe ~ 0,
Example 3.9 (Cont’d Ex 3.6 & 3.7)
• If total solids in the effluent is 20 mg/L,
determine the sludge wasting rate.
Assume mean cell residence time remains
at 10 d. (wastewater flowrate 4000 m3/d,
volume of reactor 1200 m3 and 75%
volatile solids)
Solution
Sludge production
Sludge production
• P = sludge produced kg MLVSS/d
• Q = influent flow rate m3/d
• SO = influent BOD5 mg/L
• S = effluent BOD5 mg/L
• Yobs = observed yield, kg cell produced per kg
organic matter removed
• Y = cell yield coefficient, kg cell produced per
kg organic matter removed
• kd = endogenous decay coefficient, d-1
• c = mean cell residence time, d
Oxygen Requirement
kg O2 /d = total mass of BODL utilised
- total mass of BODL wasted
Oxygen Requirement
Sludge Sedimentation/Settling
• Functions of sedimentation tank/clarifier:
• Solids-liquid separation
• Thickening of return sludge
• Tank depth selection
– Range: 3.7 – 6.1 m, recommended > 4 m
Sludge Sedimentation/Settling
• Design of secondary sedimentation tank:
• Surface overflow rate: 15 to 30 m3/m2.d
• Solids loading rate: 20 to 100 kg/m2.d
• Tank area selection
– Tank diameter < 10 times side water depth
– Typical diameter: 10 – 60 m
Sludge Bulking
• Flowing out of sludge with effluent as a
results of excessive growth of filamentous
or stringy microbial in the aeration tank.
• Control/Remedy:
– Adjustments of MLSS or/and F/M ratio
– Amount of aeration
– Chlorine addition
Sludge Volume Index (SVI)
Sludge Volume Index (SVI)
Example 3.10
• An aeration tank has a MLSS
concentration of 2000 mg/L. After settling
for 30 min in a 1-L graduated cylinder, the
sludge volume is measured to be 150 mL.
Compute the SVI, SS concentration in the
recirculated sludge, and the recirculation
ratio.
Solution
Week 10
Other Process
Sludge Treatment and Disposal
By Dr Chris Cai
Mobile : 9655 2837
Lecture
• Mean Cell Residence Time (or Solids Retention
Time or Sludge Age)
• Mass balance analysis
• Recirculation and wasting
• Secondary settling
Mixed ‘liquid’ suspension in the aeration tank contains
wastewater, living and dead microorganisms, as well as
foods, non-biodegradabel suspended and colloidal matter
(MLSS).
The volatile portion of the suspended solids mixed liquor
volatile suspended solid (MLVSS)
sludge
The mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS)

in the aeration tank is maintained at
3000 mg/L, 80% of which are
biodegradable solids.
If Xe ~ 0,
Wastewater Treatment
• Pre-Treatment
• Primary Treatment
• Secondary Treatment
• Stabilisation Lagoons Other
processes
• Tertiary or Advanced Treatment
• Sludge Treatment and Disposal

Sludge Treatment and Disposal
• Residues from wastewater treatment

- Primary setting tank
- Secondary treatment tank
• Sludge treatment
• Sludge disposal
Schematic of a Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant
Primary Secondary
Pre-treatment Settling Biological treatment Settling
Influent Effluent
primary
sludge return-sludge
excess
sludge
thickener
biogas
Anaerobic electricity
digester gas generator
storage
stabilised tank
sludge
disposal
dewatering
Sludge Treatment & Disposal
• Sources, Characteristics & Quantities
– Weight-Volume Relationship
• Treatment Processes
– Thickening
– Digestion
– Dewatering
• Ultimate Disposal of Sludge
– Land Application
– Landfilling
– Ocean Disposal
– Incineration
– Co-disposal with Refuse
– Chemical Fixation
– Deep Well Injection
– Innovative Reuse
Sludge treatment
• Definition of ‘SLUDGE’
– The residual from wastewater treatment in the form of
liquid or semisolid, odious and usually
unmanageable.
• Objectives of Sludge Treatment
– Volume reduction
– Safe disposal
– Resource & reuse
• Sources, Characteristics & Quantities
– The characteristics and quantities of sludge must be
determined for proper design of sludge handling,
treatment and disposal facilities.
Example 4.1
• A volume of 100 m3 of liquid sludge

contains 10,000 kg of dry solids. What is
the solids content of the sludge, expressed
in mg/L and %?
Solution
organic
enlarge
Inorganic enlarge
Are the specific gravities of volatile and fixed solids of the sludge in secondary
tank (excess sludge) the same as those sludge generated in primary tank ?
Weight-Volume Relationship of Sludge
Inorganic organic
Sludge = Solids + Liquid
solid
Water
5% 95%
Percentage of solid
Example 4.2
• Using the following operating primary settling
tank data, determine the daily sludge production.
– Wastewater flow rate = 0.15 m3/s
– Removal efficiency = 60%
– Volatile solids = 60%
– Fixed solids = 40%
– Influent SS = 280 mg/L
– Solids concentration = 5%
– SG of volatile solids = 0.99
– SG of fixed solids = 2.65
Solution
Solution
Solution
Extra Example
• A primary sludge of input equal to 150 m3/d is
digested in an anaerobic digester. The
characteristics of the primary sludge and the
digested sludge are shown in Table below.
Calculate the amount of volatile solids destroyed
daily in the digester. Assume the density of
sludge is 1000 kg/m3.
Solution
Fixed solids 40% 60%
Primary Sludge
Amount of total solids = 150 x 1000 x 0.05
= 7500 kg/d
Amount of volatile solids = 7500 x 0.60

= 4500 kg/d
Amount of fixed solids = TS - VS

=7500 - 4500
=3000 kg/d
Solution
Digested Sludge
Percent of fixed solids = 100 – 40 = 60%
Assume amount of fixed solids in digested sludge

equals the amount of fixed solids in primary
sludge.
60% : 40% = 3000: ?
If 60% fixed solids = 3000 kg/d

Amount of volatile solids in digested sludge
= 3000 x 40/60 = 2000 kg/d
Amount of volatile solids destroyed

= 4500 – 2000 = 2500 kg/d
Sludge Treatment Objectives
• Stabilisation
– To reduce problems of disposal arising from
odour, nuisance and health hazard.
 environmentally safe & acceptable by
general public.
• Volume reduction
– To ease handling, i.e. pumping, storage,
transportation.
 reduce handling costs.
Sludge volume
and treatment cost
Treatment processes
• Thickening
• Stabilisation
• Conditioning
• Dewatering
• Incineration
Sludge Thickening
• Gravity Thickening
– Solid-liquid separation through gravity settling to >
10% solids content. Effective for dense sludge having
density > water.
• Flotation Thickening
– Solid-liquid separation through buoyancy by air
bubbles. Effective for thin sludge having non-
settleable particles. Chemicals such as polymers,
alum, ferric chloride are commonly used to enhance
flotation process.
• Flotation systems
– Dissolved-air flotation (DAF)
– Vacuum flotation
– Dispersed-air flotation
Example 4.3
• The sludge produced in Example 4.2 is to

be thickened to 8% solids. What is the
approximate volume of the sludge after
thickening? (43 m3 of sludge produced
daily having 5% solids concentration)
Solution
Solution
• The concentration of solids has a very
significant effect on the total volume
occupied by the liquid sludge.
• The example above demonstrated that by
increasing the solids concentration by 3%,
the total sludge volume can be
significantly reduced by 37 %.
• This reduces the cost of handling, treating
and disposing of the sludge.
Sludge Digestion
• Aerobic Digestion
– Oxidation of sludge under endogenous decay. High
energy requirements for aeration. Common for small
plants.
• Anaerobic Digestion
– Decomposition of sludge in the absence of oxygen to
gaseous products. It reduces mass of sludge besides
destroying pathogens. Conditioning for subsequent
dewatering. Offers attractive energy saving and
energy source. Used by most large treatment plants.
Basic Types of Digesters
• Single-Stage
– Standard Rate
– High Rate
• Two-Stage
• Digesters can be designed either in

cylindrical or Egg-shaped concrete or steel
structures.
Sludge and gas production
Biotech
people use it
Sludge dewatering
Dewatering Techniques
• Sand Bed Drying

• Vacuum Filtration
• Pressure Filtration
• Centrifugation
Ultimate Disposal of Sludge
• Land Application
• Landfilling
• Ocean Disposal
• Incineration
• Co-disposal with Refuse
• Chemical Fixation
• Deep Well Injection
• Innovative Reuse
Rotating Biological Contactors (RBC)
• Biological degradation of wastes based on

attached growth (or fixed-film) on rotating
plastic disks.
• Design Parameters:
– Hydraulic loading rate: 0.1 – 0.2 m3/m2.d
– Organic loading rate: 0.01 – 0.17 kg
BOD/m2.d
Fig 6-
6-33
33:: Rotating biological contactor (RBC) and process arrangement
Davis and Cornwell 2008

Stabilisation Lagoons (Oxidation
Ponds)
• Flow-through lagoon
– Facultative
– Aerated
– Anaerobic
Comparison of design parameters of stabilisation lagoons

Fig 6-
6-32
32:: Schematic diagram of facultative lagoon pond relationships
Davis and Cornwell 2008

Example 3.11
• Two stabilisation lagoons are in series (a
60,000 m2 one followed by 30,000 m2 one)
The average daily wastewater flow is 900
m3/d containing 200 kg of BOD
• What is the influent BOD concentration?
• Calculate the BOD loadings based on both
the total pond area and the first cell only.
Solution
BOD concentration = 200/900 x 1000 = 222 mg/L
= 3.3 g/m2.d
Anaerobic treatment
Wastewater Treatment
• Pre-Treatment
• Stabilisation Lagoons
Advanced Wastewater Treatment (AWT)
• Any process/system after conventional

secondary treatment to remove remaining
contaminants.
• The purposes of AWT are:
– To meet stringent discharge limits
– To reclaim or reuse wastewater
• The contaminants may exist as:
– Organics (dissolved, suspended, complex)
– Inorganics (Ca, K, NO3, P………)
– Specific toxic compounds (Cd, As, Pb, Ni, Zn, Cr, Hg
………)
Water factory 21
Found estrogen in wastewater
Do you have estrogen problem in Singapore’s new water ?
Week 11
Solid Waste Management
By Dr Chris Cai
Tel: 9655 2837
Recap last lecture
• Pre-Treatment
• Stabilisation Lagoons Other
processes
• Sludge Treatment and Disposal

Schematic of a Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant
Primary Secondary
Pre-treatment Settling Biological treatment Settling
Influent Effluent
primary
sludge return-sludge
excess
sludge
thickener
biogas
Anaerobic electricity
digester gas generator
storage
stabilised tank
sludge
disposal
dewatering
organic
enlarge
Inorganic enlarge
Are the specific gravities of volatile and fixed solids of the sludge in secondary tank
(excess sludge) the same as those sludge generated in primary tank ?
Inorganic organic
Sludge = Solids + Liquid
solid
Water
5% 95%
Percentage of solid
Do you have estrogen problem in Singapore’s new water ?
• Control of generation, storage,
collection, transport, processing,
recovery and disposal of solid wastes
• Considerations are given to public
health, economics, engineering,
conservation, aesthetics and other
environmental conditions
Interrelation between elements in a

solid waste management system
9
• Municipal solid wastes (MSW) – include both residential and
commercial solid wastes
Residential: Place where you live
Commercial: Offices, shopping centers, schools
Industrial: Factories, construction sites
• Refuse – term used interchangeably with MSW; excludes
treatment plant sludges, bulky items and large objects requiring
special handling
• Hazardous Wastes – wastes that are considered dangerous to
human health e.g. ignitable, corrosive, reactive, and toxic
materials
10
Sources of Solid Wastes (excluding
industrial and agricultural
11
MSW moisture content
a = initial mass of sample (kg)
b = mass of sample after drying (kg)
Moisture content, M = (a-b)/a x 100%
13
Moisture Content
Based on 100 kg
solid waste sample,
Moisture content,
M = 27.61/100 x
100 = 27.61%
Moisture Content
Based on 100 kg solid

waste sample,
Density = 100/0.9818
= 101.85 kg/m3
Chemical properties and energy content
of MSW
• Chemical composition
• Proximate analysis - to determine the fraction of volatile
organics and fixed carbon in the waste
• Ultimate analysis - To characterize elemental composition
(C, H, O, N, S and ash) of organic matter in MSW
• Energy content
Typical proximate analysis in MSW (% by
mass)
According to ASTM D3172 method, proximate

analysis is~
Moisture content: 105 degree C for 2~3 hr

using an oven
Volatile content: 925 degree C for 7 min using
a furnace
Fixed carbon: 800 degree C for 3hr using a
furnace
100 (%) - M.C (%) - V.C (%) - F.C (%) = Ash
content (%)
Typical composition of MSW
100
Ultimate analysis of MSW
Ultimate analysis of MSW
Dulong formula for approximate energy content
Hu= 337C + 1419[H2 – (1/8)O2] + 93S + 23N
Hu = energy content, kJ/kg
C = carbon, % by mass
H2= hydrogen, % by mass
O2= oxygen, % by mass Calculate the percentage
S = sulfur, % by mass
N = nitrogen, % by mass
Heat content
• Heat value (dry basis)
 100 
= Heat value (as discarded)   
 100  % moisture 
• Heat value (dry and ash free)

 100 
= Heat value (as discarded)   
 100  % moisture  % ash 
Heat content
Heat content
Hu = 337C + 1419[H2– (1/8)O2] + 93S + 23N
= 337(51.1) + 1419[(6.6) – (1/8) (41.2)] + 93(0.3) +
23(0.8)
= 19325 kJ/kg (dry basis)
Heat content
Example 11.4
 100 
Heat value (dry) = Heat value (wet)   
Heat value (as discarded or original wet state)

 100 
 19325   
 100 
 19325   
 100  27.61 
 13989 kJ/kg
Solid waste generation rates
• Information needed to estimate amount of waste to be
managed
e.g. Number of trucks, number and capacity of
incinerators, manpower for sorting waste etc.
• Generation rates influenced by:
• Source reduction and recycling activities
• Public attitudes and legislation – through education, legislation on
recycling
• Geographical and physical factors – e.g. climatic influence on yard
waste produced; use of kitchen food grinders; waste collection
frequency etc.
For every 100 kg
of as-collected
waste, 25 kg is
recycled
75kg is not
recycled
11+26.85=37.85
Waste generation and recycling rates
(Singapore in 2005)
36,500/531,500= 7%
Processing of MSW
• Mechanical volume reduction – volume reduction or
densification where initial volume of waste is reduced by
application of force or pressure
Processing of MSW
• Chemical volume reduction – commonly incineration
• Can reduce volume by 80-90%
• Remaining disposed at landfills
Refuse disposal in Singapore
1997 – 2004
Disposal of solid wastes: Sanitary landfill
• MSW disposed of in landfills is compacted and covered with a

soil layer
• Daily cover is minimum of 15 cm of soil (to keep away animals,
flies; prevent fire)
Disposal of solid wastes
• Open dumping – dumping and/or spreading of MSW on

open ground (no longer acceptable)
Pulau Semakau
• The only landfill in Singapore
• Operations started in 1999
• Area = 3.5 km2
• Space created by 7 km rock bund
• Capacity = 63 x 106 m3
(will last until 2045)
Pulau Semakau
Ash and construction waste sent

to Tuas Marine Transfer Station Waste discharged into barges Transport to P. Semaukau
Unload at designated landfill cell Load to dump truck Unload from barge
Week 12
Air Pollution & Control
Dr Chris Cai
Tel: 9655 2837
Outline of Topics
Air quality (Standards)

Causes of air pollution
o Particulate matters
o VOCs and hydrocarbons
o Sulfur oxides: SOx
o Nitrogen oxides: NOx
o Motor vehicle pollutants
o Bioaerosols
 Effects of air pollutants

 Air pollution control (stationary/mobile source)
Air pollutants
Particulate matters
Gases
Biological pollutants - bioaerosols
Influenza virus
- Cause flu
Adverse effects of air pollutants
 Health effect Coal burning, anticyclone /inversion effect
London Smog (1952), caused by SO2 and

particulates => ~4000 deaths
 Nuisance
Poor visibility
Bad smell
Aerial photos of a street of chimneys
Adverse effects of air pollutants
Damage to vegetation and materials

Acid rain
Global climate change
Global warming (CO2)
Damage caused by acid rain

Sources of air pollution
 Man-made pollutions
Transportation some countries counts up to 50% of air pollution
Industrial process (petroleum, cement, etc.)
Fuel combustion (power plants, SOx)
Solid waste disposal
Miscellaneous
 Natural sources
Vegetation (organic compounds, bioaerosols, pollen)
Volcanic eruption (CO, CO2, NOx, SOx)
Forest fires (forest fires in neighbouring countries)
Biodegradation (H2S, 2/3 of SOx in atmosphere)
Miscellaneous
Example of air pollution by man-made
How to control air pollutions?
 Process change and pollution prevention

 Downstream pollution control devices
 Improved dispersion
Process change and pollution prevention
 Replacing oil-based paints with water-

based paints to reduce HC emission
 Changing open burning of wastes to
closed burning
 Switching fuels
Coal => Mineral oil => Natural gas =>
Hydrogen
Example: HDB  use a lot of paint
10
Replacing of solvent based paint with water based paint
Finishing on building facades
 Paint finish widely used on residential buildings
 Problem of unsightly disfigurement of paint by
microbial fouling became serious from 1970s
 Microbial fouling on facades was caused by algae,
not by fungus – latter advocated by paint
manufacturers
 Main fouling algal species : Trentepohlia odorata
 Conventional emulsion paint short lived – 3 yrs
 Frequent repainting caused social disruption for
urban living
 HDB tried solvent-based paint for repainting fobs
from early 1980s – emission of 900 tons of solvent
per year
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Old days
Now
Water based paint with anti-

General microbial fouling on building facades
algae effect
12
Downstream air pollution control
 Examples
 Filtration
 Chemical scrubbing
Dispersion
 Dilution
Tall stacks
Relocate plant
 Is dilution the real solution ?

 Rank air pollution control measures
o 1st choice: Process change and pollution prevention
o 2nd choice: downstream control device
o Last choice: dispersion
Particulate Matter (PM)
Homogeneous pollutants (gaseous)

 SO2, CO, etc.
Nonhomogeneous pollutants (particulate)
 Particulate matter (PM)
 Fine solids or liquids suspended in the atmosphere
 0.0002 – 500 mm in size
 Also termed aerosols
Characteristics of particulate matter
 Important characteristics
 Size, shape, density, composition (toxicity, corrosivity,
reactivity), phase (liquid, solid)
 PM10 and PM2.5
 PM10 – particulate matter less than 10 mm
 PM2.5 – particulate matter less than 2.5 mm
 Primary and secondary PM
 Primary PM – emitted directly into the atmosphere from
the source and remaining unaltered
 Secondary PM – formed by primary PM reacting with
gases or moisture in the atmosphere
Impacts of particulate matters
Health impacts
 Allergy & diseases
Environmental impacts
 Physical – deposition & abrasion
 Chemical – discoloration & corrosion acid rain
Efflorescence
Toxicity of nano material  Nano technology’s concern
PM collection options
 Gravity settlers
gravitational force
 Cyclones
inertial force, i.e., centrifugal force
 Electrostatic precipitators
electrostatic force
 Fabric filters
interception & diffusion
 Scrubbers
removing particles by contacting dirty gas with fine liquid
drops
VOCs and Hydrocarbons (HCs)
 Volatile organic carbons (VOCs) are volatile liquids or

solids that contain organic carbons
 Considered as the 2nd most widespread and diverse
class of emissions after PM
 Examples
Formaldehyde, acetaldehyde
Benzene
Impacts of VOCs
Some of them are toxic and carcinogenic

They can participate in the formation of
ozone, secondary particles (PM2.5) and
photochemical smog
Some of them are smelly
How does TiO2 work?
Photocatalytic oxidation process
Oxides of Sulphur
Source of SOx
Anthropogenic sources
 Combustion of sulphur-containing fuels (coal,
oil) – about 2/3 of all man-made SO2 emmision
– S + O2  SO2
 Other industrial processes
 Natural sources (2/3 of total SOx)
 Natural decay of organic matter
 Volcanoes
Example:
 Do you agree with the statement: “Combustion

of carbon-based fuels that contain no nitrogen
does not produce NOx”
Pollutant Standards Index (PSI)
 A scale for air quality, devised by the U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
 The index is based on measurements of the
concentrations of five pollutants:
particulate matter (PM10)
sulfur dioxide (SO2)
carbon monoxide (CO)
nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
ozone (O3)
 Air quality standards have been developed for each of

these.
 After determining a value for each of the five pollutants,
the highest of the five numbers is reported as the PSI for
the day.
How to calculate PSI
PSI PSI Descriptor General Health Effects
<50 Good None for the general population

50-100 Moderate Few or none for the general population
100- Unhealthful Mild aggravation of symptoms among susceptible
200 people, with irritation symptoms in the healthy
population
200- Very unhealthful Significant aggravation of symptoms and
300 decreased exercise tolerance in persons with heart
or lung disease; widespread symptoms in the
healthy population
>300 Hazardous Early onset of certain diseases in addition to
significant aggravation of symptoms and decreased
exercise tolerance in healthy persons. At PSI levels
above 400, premature death of ill and elderly
persons may result. Healthy people experience
adverse symptoms that affect normal activity
A PSI level of 400 or above would constitute an “Emergency,” and would require
a cessation of most industrial and commercial activity, plus a prohibition of almost
all private use of motor vehicles
Question
The concentrations of five criteria pollutants for three consecutive days
are given in Table 2. What Pollutant Standards Index (PSI), and what air
quality description, should be reported for the air pollution on the days
given? PSI breakpoints are listed in Table below.
Pollutant Day 1 Day 2 Day 3
O3, 1 hr (ppm) 0.15 0.18 0.12
CO, 8 hr (ppm) 12 9 14
PM 10, 24 hr (μg/m3) 150 385 90
SO2, 24 hr 0.12 0.28 0.14
NO2, 1 hr 0.4 0.3 0.5

O3, 1 hr (ppm) 0.15 0.18 0.12
CO, 8 hr (ppm) 12 9 14
PSI index
PM 10, 24 hr (μg/m3) 150 385 90
SO2, 24 hr 0.12 0.28 0.14
NO2, 1 hr 0.4 0.3 0.5
0.12 <100
12 =100
0.15
0.12 <100 <100
=100
0.15 12
Day 1
O3 subindex = 100 + 100 x (0.15-0.12) / (0.20-0.12) = 137.5
CO subindex = 100 + 100 x (12-9) / (15-9) = 150
Therefore, PSI = 150 (unhealthy)
O3, 1 hr (ppm) 0.15 0.18 0.12
CO, 8 hr (ppm) 12 9 14
PSI index
PM 10, 24 hr (μg/m3) 150 385 90
SO2, 24 hr 0.12 0.28 0.14
NO2, 1 hr 0.4 0.3 0.5
<100
=100
0.18 0.28 <200
385
Day 2: Highest is PM 10,

PSI = 200 + 100 x (385-350)/(420-350) = 250 (very unhealthy)
Example lime scrubber
- Power plant burns 2 x 1010 kg of coal/year
- Coal has 2.5% S
- Limestone scrubber removes 85% of SO2
- How much limestone is required?
S + O2  SO2
CaCO3 + SO2 +1/2 O2  CaSO4 + CO2
(limestone) CaCO3 + SO2  CaSO3 + CO2
(lime) Ca(OH)2 + SO2  CaSO3+ CO2

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Sources of Collection &

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y Decreasing rate of increase or declining growth:

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