VLADAN @NUS-EDU. SG, Pressure and Fluid Statics Definition of Pressure Pressure is defined as the amount of force exerted on a unit area of a substance: p= farce _N _p, area mMDefinition of Fluids and Viscosity A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the action of an applied shear forces, or stress, r= F / A of any magnitude. Pz : Siwy —s HQ : What is the difference between ( and fluid? A: For a constant shear force the deformation of solid, the shear angle, is constant, but for the fluid the time rate of the shear angle is constant™Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. ®Units of pressure are N/m2, which is called a pascal (Pa). wSince the unit Pa is too small for pressures encountered in practice, kilopascal (1 kPa = 10° Pa) and megapascal (1 MPa = 108 Pa) are commonly used. mOther units include bar, atm, kgt/cm?, Ibffin?=psi, ait) & Other units include bar, atm, kgfem?, Ibtfin?=psi 1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa m1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars 1 kgficm? = 9.807 N/cm? = 9.807 x 104 N/m? = 9.807 x 10! Pa = 0.9807 bar = 0.9679 atm a1 atm = 14.696 psi. B1 kgflom? = 14.223 psiAbsolute, gage, and vacuum pressures Actual pressure at a given point is called the absolute pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and therefore indicate gage pressure, Paage = Pabs ~ Patm: mPressure below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressure, Pyac=Paim ~ Pavs- Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures Absolute AbsoluteCe eRe Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions m Pressure has a magnitude, but not a specific direction, and thus itis a scalar quantity. & Proof on the Blackboard 4 In the presence of a gravitational field, pressure increases with depth because ‘more fluid rests on deeper layers. To obtain a relation for the variation of pressure with depth; consider rectangular element Force balance in z-direction gives F ax Pas pgdxds=0 Dividing by 4x and rearranging 18 zis called the pressure head aaves lie} Consider the effect of a constant pressure at the top of the liquid. This could be Pan or some other pressure Po. mWe can neglect P, as long as it acts on both sides.Melee aco RTCA DY ToT Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape of the container. @ Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid.Scuba Diving and Hydrostatic Pressure Pressure on diver at 100 ft? = eco =rsir If you hold your breath on ascent, your lung volume would increase by a factor of 4, which ‘would resuitin embolism andlor death Pascal's Law ‘Two points at the same. elavation in a continuous fuid at rest are at the same pressure, called Pascal's fam, fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same ‘amount 1m In picture, pistons are at same hight: Ratio AJA; is called idea! ‘mechanical advantageBAe An elevation change of az ina fluid at rest corresponds to AP/ A device based on this is called a manometer. @ Amanometer consists of a U-tube containing one or more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil. @ Heavy fluids such as mercury are used if large pressure differences are anticipated Mutlifluid Manometer For multifluid systems Pressure change across @ fluid column of height his AP = pgh, Pressure increases downward, and decreases upward, Two points at the same elevation in @ continuous fluid are at the same pressure. Pressure can be determined by adding and subtracting pgh terms, P+ ph + p.gh, + pgh=Measuring Pressure Drops A ow section m Manometers are well = ten Gat suited to measure pressure drops across valves, pipes, heat exchangers, etc. Relation for pressure drop P,-P, is obtained by starting at point 1 and adding or subtracting pgh terms until we reach point If fluid in pipe is a gas, pP>p, and P,-P,=pgh P.+ pula +h) pxgh— pga =P, (Mistyped on page 73) a MaoR Lee ‘Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, almospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure. can be taken to be zero since there is only Hg vapor above point C, and itis very low relative tO Prigr Change in atmospheric pressure due to elevation has. many effects: Cooking, nose bleeds, engine performance, aircraft performance. 10BU esr oo @Standard atmosphere is defined as the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm (29,92 ink, or of water about 10.3 m ) in height at O'C (pj, = 13,595 kg/m?) under standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.807 mis?) 1 atm = 760 torr and 4 torr = 133.3 Pa Leslee mettle 4 Fluid Statics deals with problems associated with fluids at rest. W In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between adjacent fluid layers. ia Therefore, there is no shear stress in the fluid trying to deform it The only stress in fluid statics is normal stress § Normal stress is due to pressure & Variation of pressure is due only to the weight of the fluid — fluid statics is only relevant in presence of gravity fields. Applications: Floating or submerged bodies, water dams and gates, liquid storage tanks, etc 44Hoover Dam Hoover DamHoover Dam § Example of elevation head z converted to velocity head V2/2g. Welll discuss this in more detail in two weeks (Bernoulli equation). Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces On a plane surface, the hydrostatic forces form a system of parallel forces § For many applications, magnitude and location of application, which is called center of Pressure, must be determined, @_ Atmospheric pressure ‘ptt Pay CaN be Neglected Ofqstincee When itacts on both sides of the surface. 13Cova ke cy valavefranen The magnitude of Fz acting on a plane surface of @ completely submerged plate in a homogenous fluid is equal to the product of the pressure P, at the centroid of the surface and the area A of the surface The resultant force Fe is given by B, = [Pda = Je + pgysind)dA = PyA + pysind fydALOL Botello The integral is related to the y coordinate of the centroid (center) ei ko mat SI) 1 Lng of ation of resutant orca \ bie of aton «PA does nol pass throug x Ween of eau general, itlies undemeath there the pressure ls higher. 1 Vertical location of Genter of Pressure is determined by equation the moment ofthe resultant free to the moment githe distibvted prossure Jeeves © lacs tabulated for simple gBometres. 1 Dativation of Fg and examples on blackboard 15Pao Be-lalory mEquate the moment of the resultant force Fa to the moment of the distributed pressure force about the x- axis. yok, = JyPdA = fy + pgysind)dA =P, [ydA + pgsind fyda =PaycA + pgsind Ico mWhere Ixx9 = fy’dA. is the second moment of area (area moment of Dale smelt) w Most area moments of inertia are given about the centroid of the shape (Ixx)- p They are relate to the moment Ixy, about the x-axis by +YGA Tox, Area moments of inertia about the centroid are in Fig. 10-5 for some common shapes. Centroids are also givenMelee eden eRe common geometries abn B+ PopesCece ek at ae the Pye ARS asec Discussion A strong person can lit 100 kg, whose weight is 981 N or ‘about 1 kN. Also, the person can apply the force at a point farthest from the hinges (1 m farther) for maximum effect and generate a moment of 1 KN «m- The resultant hydrostatic force acts under the midpoint of the door, ‘and thus a distance of 0.5 m from the hinges. This generates a moment Of 60.6 KN * m, which is about 50 times the moment the driver can possibly generate. Therefore, itis impossible for the driver to open the Goor of the car. The driver's best bets to let some water in (by rolling the | window down a litle, for example) and to keep his orher head close to | he celng. The diver shoulé be abe to open the door shorty before the car's filled with water since at that point the pressures on both sides of the door are nearly the same and opening the door in water is almost as easy as opening it in air. 1 Fg 0n a curved surface is more involved since it requires infegration of the pressure forces that change direction along the surface. ® Easiest approach: determine horizontal and vertical components F, and Fy separately. 18Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces Horizontal force component on curved surface: F,=F,.. Line of action on vertical plane gives y coordinate of center of pressure on curved surface. Vertical force component on curved surface: Fy=F,+W, where Wis the weight of the liquid in the enclosed block W=pgV. x coordinate of the center of pressure is a combination of line of action on horizontal plane (centroid of area) and line of action through volume (centroid of volume), Magnitude of force F=(F,?+F\2)"2 WAngle of force is a= tanl(FWF,) Example: A Gravity-Controlled tee laterly Ceri the not upird Verileal force Pinko Then the: inagnitude and. director : tani Fur, ‘The weight of the cylinder is Fk! 49Buoyancy and Stability m Buoyancy is due to the fluid displaced by a body. Fe=pav. 1B Archimedes principal The buoyant force acting on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body, and it acts . upward through the pAaseA centroid of the displaced : volume, For floating bodies, Fe=W > pBVan Buoyancy force Fis equal only to the displaced volume PAV sesscee Three scenarios possible 1. ProwySPrats Floating body 2 Prasj7Pooc: Neutrally buoyant 3. Prooy?Pase! Sinking bodyee Tala mThe upward force from the bottom is obviously greater, and so the net buoyancy force is yer = P,Ah = p,gV wwhere /; is the density of the fluid, not the body, and Vis the volume of the body. ETT eRsie-]e)] mThe buoyant force for a constant volume system is equal to the weight W of the displaced fluid. E, = p.2V=WLee A w The gravity force downward on a submerged body acts through the centroid. Similarly, the buoyant force upward must act through the centroid or there would be a rolling moment. Thus, we have Archimedes’ Principle: The buoyant force acting on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fiuid displaced by the body, and it acts upward through the centroid of the displaced volume. Buoyancy For floating bodies, the buoyant force is given by the weight of the displaced fluid, or Fy = Pr8Vpispracen = WorsetacenTo Merl CeU Marae lla Galileo's thermometer is made of a sealed glass cylinder containing a clear liquid ™ Suspended in the liquid are a number of weights, which are sealed glass containers with colored liquid for an attractive effect. As the liquid changes temperature it changes density and the suspended weights rise and fall to stay at the position where their density is equal to that of the surrounding liquid 18 If the weights differ by a very small amount and ordered such that the least dense is al the top and most dense at the bottom they can form a temperature scale, ‘Auxiliary Floating Dry Dock Resolute Submarine undergoing repae work on. (AFDM-10) partly submerged Using buoyancy, a submarine witha displacement of 6,000 tons can be ited!Example: Submarine Buoyancy and Sree vias east To res a Bibren to Fired tesce Eile roo Ae [Foret at Tae Btn tee Submarines use both static and dynamic depth control. Static control uses ballast tanks between the pressure hull and the outer hull. Dynamic control uses the bow and stern planes to generate trim forces. Example: Submarine Buoyancy and Ballast ‘SSN 711 nose down after accident Normal surface trim which damaged fore ballast tanks 24Damage to SSN 711 (USS San Francisco) ater tunning aground on 8 January 2008. Example: Submarine Buoyancy and Ballast Ballast Control Panel: Important station for controling depth of submarine 25What about a case where the ball is ) cd ‘onan inclined floor? » y (sable It is not really appropriate to discuss stability for this case since the ball is not in a state of equilibrium. In other words, it cannot be at rest and would roll down the hill even without any disturbance. © Vasu 1 Rotational stability of immersed bodies depends upon relative location of center of gravity G and center of buoyaney B. 1 Ghelow 8: stable 1 Gabove B: unstable BG coincides with B: neutrally stable. 26Stability a Immersed bodies must be bottom-heavy to be stable. Thus the center of gravity G must below the center of buoyancy B so that any disturbance will provide a restoring moment about G. = Model a submarine as a horizontal tube with the top half empty and the bottom half filled with engines, crew quarters, and weaponry. Neglect the mass of the shell (tube). Where is the center of gravity G? Where is the center of buoyancy B? Do the two forces act to restore the sub to an upright condition if it starts to roll, or increase its rolling tendency? a7Srrog m Rotational stability criteria are similar for floating bodies. However, if the center of buoyancy shifts during rolling motion, it may be possible to have the center of gravity G above the center of buoyancy and still achieve stability. Stability of Floating Bodies mw If body is bottom heavy (G lower than B), itis always stable. 4 w Floating bodies can be I The metacenter may be considered to be a fixed point for most hull shapes for small rolling angles up to about 20°. stable when Gis higher than B due to shift in location of center buoyancy and creation of restoring moment. 1 Measure of stability is the metacentric height GM. If GM", ship is stable. 28raid u The metacenter M is required to be above G. The metacenter height is the vertical distance between G and M. For many hull shapes the metacenter is almost a fixed point for rolling angles up to about 20°. A boat can tilt to some maximum angle without capsizing, but beyond that angle it overturns (and sinks). We make a final analogy between the stability of floating objects and the stability of a ball rolling along the floor. Namely, imagine the ball in a trough between two hills. The ball returns to its stable equilibrium position after being perturbed—up to a limit.Fluids in rigid — ln this section we obtain relations for the variation of pressure in fluids moving like a solid body with or without acceleration in the absence of any shear stresses (i.e., no motion between fluid layers relative to each other). Fluids in rigid — body motion The differential fluid element behaves like a rigid body, Newton's second law of motion for this element can be expressed as “The forces con the fluid element insist of body forces such as gravity (and also electrical and magnetic forces), and surface forces such as the prossure forcesRigid-body motion of fluids aT + OFF + 6Fa gk aby | a> aP Bp BFE Ga ieg 2) ardya —gimk = —pgdxdy ak —(P + pgh dxdy dz Equation of Motion: 1, pa, P= plea.) Fon alee, Special Case 2: Free Fall of a Fluid Body 31Rigid-Body Motion mt A2.D (2, =0) container is accelerated on a straight path with a constant acceleration. wes pel =-pa Pressure variation: P= Po~ past ~ phe + ace Vertical rise ofthe free surface: (@-m) Isobars: for surfaces of constant pressure (On the same isobar, dP = 0) pa eos Conservation of mass implies the rise of fluid level on one side must be balanced by a drop of fluid level on the other side. 32Linear Acceleration How does the fluid behave as the car decelorates or moves with a constant speed? Container is moving on a straight path Total citfrental of P dP =-pa,én~ pede Pressure diference between 2 points FRe-pa,(%,—%)~ pe(a-4) Find the rise by selecting 2 points on free surface P, =P, (a=), Rotation in a Cylindrical Container A glass filed with water is rotated : about its axis at a constant angular anon velocity of w, The fluid is forced outward as a result ofthe so-called centrifugal force, and the free surface of the liquid becomes concave. This, is known as the forced vortex motion, After initial transients, the liquid will move as a rigid body together with the container. There is no deformation, and thus there can be no shear stress, and every fluid particle in the container moves with the same angular velocity 33,Rotation in a Cylindrical Container Container is rotating about the z- Total differential of P = P(r,z) dP = pro*dr~ pede Rotation in a Cylindrical Container The crginal volume of the fuid in the container V=aRihy The volume of the paraboloid formed bythe ee surface Is rar= aE +4) From conservation of mass, we can get d. ‘The equation of the free surfaceLoCo E-RON eli e- Roel tg Maximum height difference Taking point 4 to be the origin (r= 0, 2 = 0) where the pressure is Py and point 2 to be any point in the fluid (no subscript), the pressure distribution can be expressed as Pressure variation: In any horizontal plane, the pressure difference between the Center and edge of the container of radius Ris AP = pu?R%/2, Examples of Archimedes Principle 35The Golden Crown of Hiero Il, King of Syracuse m Archimedes, 287-212 B.C. mHiero, 306-215 B.C. mHiero learned of a rumor where the goldsmith replaced some of the gold in his crown with silver. Hiero asked Archimedes to determine whether the crown was pure gold. Archimedes had to develop a nondestructive testing method Piekcro Cake Rom aon ALLS Ros Syracuse The weight of the crown and nugget are the same in air: W, = Be = Wr = PoVer 1 Ifthe crown s pure gold, 2, which means that the volumes must be the same, V.=V,, In water, the buoyancy force is =Pr20V- If the scale becomes unbalanced, this implies that the V, # Vay which in turn means that the p, # Po Goldsmith was shown to be a fraud! 36Water Resource Engineering --Hydrology + General overview + Statistics and probabilities in hydrology + Precipitation and losses + Stream flow + Hydrograph + Flood routing and design + Reservoirs + Ground water Water Resource management + Proper planning and designs - Municipal water supply - Inrigation, hydroelectric-power development + Avoid damage from uncontained water - Storm drainage - Flood mitigation + Water quality management - Pollution controlThe hydrologic cycle [Cera es) p IPF Qn os _ i o a Cao Of 44 2 a gh Statistics and probabilities in Hydrology + Deterministic - Follow a definite law of certainty : - Enabling forecast + Probabilistic - Follow a definite probability distribution - Variables are time independent + Stochastic - Sequence of occurrence of variables is considered - Variables are time correlated :- Enabling prediction Hydrologic models are mostly deterministic or stochasticFrequency factor-return period relation + Retum period: =p 4 : Ly * Probability of occurrence within n years: { 1 -(-4) } + When variate is arranged in some order, it can be represented as : X,=x,, tax * Chow’s equation: X54, tok; k= frequency foctor Statistics and probabilities in hydrology -- Frequency analysis + Binomial Distribution : romero we + Normal Distribution : 1p Hfecet |} wee + Extreme Value Distribution --Type I or Gumbel distribution : fo=e"e"" , Faj=e” y=(araNVe ; c=(6/a)o,a=ye-x, ,y=05TRLFrequency factor-return period relation + With large record length (n~100) , Gumbel distribution gives: 1--(Efoom nore + With record length 1 <=100: Selection of type of distribution + Graphical method: Plot observed data on probability paper + Estimation of distribution parameters ~ Least squares, Method of moments, Method of likelihood Gumbel distribution (method of moments) x, =ye-a(y=05772), o=(ne) 6, ‘Skewness(y,)=1.1396, Kurtosis(/,)=5:4002 + Confidence limits : Kya Hy Slee, b= aS Gumbel: Assume $= Normal , a=(1+ky,+E(, 4? = (141.1396k41.1P))?Correlation of data + Linear regression ee ey Setting 5,/0a=0 and d8,/86=0 give peMQeeLan | L-8Ds, Nye ay v + Coefficient of correlation: DYN Cov) * Serial Correlation: Cov 84)Precipitation data Dad curve Hyetograph Precipitation + Recommended for temperate, mediterranean and tropical zones - Flat 600-900 (ideal), 900-3000 (difficult) = Mountainous : 100-250 (ideal), 250-1000 (difficult) + Computation of mean aerial rainfall - Arithmetic average, Thiessen polygon, Isohyetal, etc AP AAP yt AP tent AP At ht hy eot A, Thiessen polygonDesign storm ~A period of heavy rainfall associated with a critical depth considered for design of a structure in terms of its potential of producing flood acceptable for the safety of the structure * Statistical storm: with rainfall data available at project catchment + Standard project storm (SPS): ~ The largest storm the regions has experience in the period of available rainfall record Probable maximum precipitation (PMP): ~ Critical storm rainfall in the regions x MAF x other adjustment factor Design storm + Other adjustment factor ~ Distance from coast, elevation, topography + MAF (moisture adjustment factor): ¥ MAF = Won AF a Woax + Likely maximum precipitable water at project site Ween’ Previpitable water during storm Data required to calculate Wig atid Wyn if: Dew point temperature and elevation at storm location and at projec sitePseudoadiabatic diagram I i | a i Stream flow ‘A stream flow is that part of precipitation which appears in a stream as surface runoff. It represents the total response of a basin undergoing frequent interactions between its various processes and storages o~Hydrograph Hydrograph is a graphical representation of stream flow at a location (0 Hyg ee i nett, 7 s (tyeagh ina harin Ay 70 Ae raison vst a kM Ah atyingriens Showa 6 oc digs O44 TS ase Formation of hydrograph Components of a Hydrograph theta b> === ~Time to Peak: 4, (4?) + Time Lag : ¢, (‘ime interval between center of mass of hyctograph and peak of hydrograph, ~0.6-0.7,) ~ Time of Concentration J, (longest avel time, time to equilbeium ot ‘ine when rate of raiafillerat of runoff) + Time Base of Hydrograph : «, (4~D) ~ Base Flow ; that part of hydrograph below a seperation line drawn between A-DLosses from precipitation *Total loss = Precipitation - Surface runoff Components of losses are: Minor: Evapotranspiration - Evaporation : air/open surface - Transpiration : plants Surface retention = Interception : vegetation, building = Depression storage : surface depressions Major: Infiltration : movement of water into the soil through soil surface Evaporation Continent Precipitation Evaporation % Loss Runott (mmiyear) (mmtyear) (mmivean) Atnea 620 430, 62.3 260 ela soo 310 S17 290 Avsteslia 470 420 eos so Europe 640 390 60.9 250 North America 880 320 fos 340 South America 1830 quo ae aad Pandiameter(m) 4 3-2 18 105 O4 Pan coeficient 080 085 0.83 0.78 075 07 058 Lake evaporation=Pan coefiicient x Pan evaporation B= k flue, 6.) Empirical equations : k = coefficient, u = windspeed e,,e, = surfaceair vapour pressure 10Evapotranspiration AET = actualevapotranspiration PET = potential evepotranspiraion My * aetualsollmoisturestorage max Maas = Maximum soil moisture content {1 IN s = Lo Empirical equations : Relationship between measured ET and climatic factors Surface retention Interception : Mostly satisfied from initial precipitation, ~1% - 2.5% of precipitation Depression storage : Difficult to measure. Estimate indirectly by ‘measuring all other terms in the precipitation relation Infiltration Infiltration capacity is function of many factors such as surface and soil characteristics (percolation, temperature), antecedent moisture content, rainfall intensity and duration. ILInfiltration For small basins, infiltration capacity curve can be constructed through experimentation: Infiltrometer is used for field ‘measurement “raha Infiltration Theo index: ‘The average rate of rainfall above which the rainfall volume equals to runoff volume The W_ index : W =(P-S,,.-D,) P: precipitation, :surfacerunoff , D, :surfaceretention 12ee Base flow separation a Determine point C, with N ~ 0.834°? , A = drainageareain km? 1, Joint A and C with straight line, or 2. Obtain point B beneath D by extending the recession curve prior to A , and joint A, B, C with straight lines Components of a Hydrograph ~Time to Peak: ¢, (4-P) ~ Time Lag: ¢, (time interval between center of mass of hyetograph and Peak of hydrograph, ~0.6-0,7 «.) ~ Time of Concentration : (, (longest travel time, time to equiibiium or time when cate of ranfallerete of run) ~ Time Base of Hydrograph : 1, (4-0) ~ Base Flow : that part of hydirograph below a separation line drawn between A-D 1BConstruction of effective rainfall hyetograph (ERH) from hydrograph ‘A direct runoff hydrograph (DRH) is that part of the hydrograph above the base flow line Volume of direct runoff can be computed from DRH as (hy thy hy tot) where hy, fy, yn hy a the ordinates of DR at time interval 4, ‘The depth of direct runoff can be obtained by diving the runoff volume by the catchment area. This enabling the estimation of fosses, such as the® index, and subsequently the effective rainfall hyetograph (ERH) Construction of effective rainfall hyetograph (ERH) from hydrograph yoga tee 7 A Sires Z Peak rset ORI) rar 8s Toe 14Unit Hydrograph ‘An unit hydrograph is a direct runoff hydrograph (DRH) resulting fiom a unit depth of rainfall excess generated uniformly over a basin fora specified duration (4) renee de eg Unit Hyctograph intensity ()=1/1, storm of t, time will produce rainfall of ¢,/4, 1 unit of rainfall Unit Hydrograph Assumption and limitations: ~ Time invariance + Linearity - Time base of hydrograph (7) is the same regardless of rainfall intensity in the specified (;,) duration ~ Catchment area < 5000 km? Usage of Unit Hydrograph: ‘omputation of design hydrograph, based on probable maximum precipitation ~ Comparing the characteristics of catchments 15Derivation of unit hydrograph from simple storms + Compute unit hydrographs from various storms of nearly ‘equal durations + Compute the average of the computed hydrographs with the following order: peak (Q,), time to peak (t), time base(t,), all other ordinates. Adjust the resulting hydrograph ordinates such that the runoff depth of the average UH is 1 unit iaiiatiay “seg a Tange ‘The ordinates of the unit hydrograph U,, Ur, Us, ...of duration D can be computed from the following system of equations Q,= RU, RU y+ RW, RU + RU + RO, RU 4 RU y+ RU + RU, 16S-Hydrograph A S-hydrograph is produced when a continuous rainfall at a constant rate occurs for an infinite time Peper eer in Ten{tenfis rent ant Stott S-Hydrograph A arbitrary unit hydrograph of df duration can be derived from a S-hydrograph 55,= DRH in de time unit 3 a with depth di/D unit 1 Unit DRA in dt time t 1 —s,-s, ii aarp 1 ~ $2) i l = dus,-5 iar $2) When di -> 0, an instantaneous unit hydrograph (IUH) is obtained as u(t) =ds/ide 17Synthetic unit hydrograph ‘When a catchment is ungauged, unit hydrogeaph is synthesized based on empirical relationships 1: Preseribe D and t, 2: Compute L and t, 3: Compute Q, from area of UH =Ix area of basin A simple synthetic unit hydrograph: U.S. Soil Conservation Service Estimation of design flood Flood: frequency analysis: data sample >10 + Applicable when records of peak discharges are available ~ Compute the statistics ofthe sample data such asthe standard deviation(c7,) , coefficient of variation (C,) and the coefficient of skew (C,) ~ Obtain desiga flood X; with retum period Fusing Chow's equations %, LX, the - Obtain frequency factor appropriate for various distributions such as Gumbel, Pearson Type II, lognormal, ete - Compute confidence interval when data associated with large Tis to be extrapolated 18Estimation of design flood Unit hydrograph approach: computation of probable maximum. flood (PMF) + Applicable when complete runoff hydrograph along with the ‘corresponding rainfall data and PMP are available ~ from PMP value and rain guage data, compute the time distribution of PMP + from available UH, derive a design UH by increasing is peak by 25-50% and adjust the area ofthe resulting design UH such that its area is equal to I unitx eatchment area + from the time duration of PMP and design UH, obtain the critical sequence of PMP which gives the most critical condition of runoff ~ compute the design direct ranoff hydragraph (DDRH) from the critical sequence of PMP. Obtain PMF by adding initial loss, ‘miform loss rate and base flow to DDRH. Stage ~ discharge relation Stage measurement : Stage is the elevation of water surface at a location ina river abovea reference datum [aay 19Stage — discharge relation Discharge measurement : - Direct measurement : Weir, flume, spillway Channel Conveyance'at a section is defined as K = AR”? ‘The equivalent K between two sections is K = KK, Stage — discharge relation Rating-Curve: Q=C(G-Gy" Ordischarge , G: stage , Gy:stageat zerodischarge Fin ase 20Stage — discharge relation Unsteady stage correction: oe Stay sane | ot le [stn enge weber Ary =[ S55] Qo. n~0s . (a) 7 Q,,AY : discharge and fall in normal flows condition @,,AY, : discharge and fall in rising/falling condition Flood routing and design — Estimation of design flood Rational Method: applicable for watershed ‘up to 50 km? Q, =0.278CIA, O,(m'/s) ,1(mmih) , A(an) * Tan be estimated from the intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curve or using empirical relationships, given the duration of rainfall * Duration of rainfall is assumed longer than the time of concentration (¢) 4, can be estimated from the Kirpich formula: ‘bry= 00008231875" Lm * Coan be computed from ceY aia Ay Ay... are sub zones of A 21Estimation of design flood Flood-frequency analysis: data sample >10 + Applicable when records of peak discharges are available = Compute the statistics ofthe sample data such as the standard deviation(o2,) , coefficient of variation (C,) and the coefficient of skew (C,) = Obtain design flood X;, with return period T using. Chow's equations X,=X_ ko = Obtain frequency factor appropriate for various distributions such as Gumbel, Pearson Type Il, lognormal, ete = Compute confidence interval when data associated ‘with large T's to be extrapolated Estimation of design flood ‘Unit hydrograph approach: computation of probable maximum flood (PMF) « Applicable when complete runoff hydrograph along withthe .- corresponding rainfall data and PMP are available «from PMP value and rain guage data, compute the time distribution of PMP ~ from available UH, derive a design UH by increasing its peak by 25-50% and adjust the area of the resulting design UH such that its area is equal to unit x catchment area «from the time duration of PMP and design UH, obtain the critical sequence of PMP which gives the most critical condition of runoff = compute the design direct runoff hydrograph (DDRH) from the critical sequence of PMP. Obtain PMF by adding inital loss, uniform loss rate and base flow to DDRH 22Flood routing A hydrograph is a record of movement of a wave past a gauging station. To determine the hydrograph at a downstream location from the knowledge of hydrograph at upstream is a process of routing. The modification of inflow hydrograph as a result of channel effect is named channel routing. If the effect is due to reservoir, then itis a reservoir routing Flood routing Equations to be satisfied in a routing process are the St. Venant equations comprising of : Continuity equation Momentum equation a, (ae Bi rfeg(Zses,)a0 witness) 23Flood routing ‘The St, Venant equations can be applied to wide range of 1-D flow problems, such as: = Dam break flood wave routing - Evaluation of flow conditions due to tidal fluctuations ~ Routing of flows through irrigation and canal system Depending on the relative importance of the terms, various form of simplification have been made for the momentum equation, as follows A a - Steady Uniform Flow (kinenlatc wave approx.) - Steady Nonuniform Flow (éiffusion wave approx.) «Steady Nonuniform Flow (quasi-steady dynami¢ approx.) = Unsteady Nonuniform Flow (fill dynamic wave equation) Flood routing {only the continuity equation is considered in the system of Si Tenant equations, then te routing approach is refered as the hydrlogee routing, ‘This approach assumes discharge i only function of storage in.a steam reach at an jstant of time In this regard, the continuity equation can be represented as J-0=dS/dt inflow rate, O:ousflow rate, d/dt: change of storage Assuming the subscripts ‘7” and ‘2° denote the beginning and end of a routing process with interval A¢, the continuity equation is written as: $:-S Nth O40, ar 2 2 {and independent relationship between O, and S, is established and siven initial O,, the outflow hydrograph can be computed from the inflow hydrograph I ee 24Flood routing Muskingum routing equations Continuity equation ; 0 Muskingum equation: 5-9 LU, 1)+(1- 210-0) @) Solving O, ftom (1) and (2) gives the system of Muskingum routing equations 0, = cyls + el, + 6,0, Kx 050 AX+058 | K-Kx-05a1 Renrsosa . Rake s0sm' °" RoRy Osa arate, 2K cate k Given an inflow hydrograph, the routing interval At, and the estimates for K and.X, the outflow hydrograph can be computed Flood routing Muskingum method : example X02, K=40 min, A130 min PAX +058 40(0.2)40500) 54g KX +0581” W—40(0.2)+0.500) 4000.2) 0.563% Sat 49=40(0.2) +0500), 49~40(02)~0.5(0) _ 10(0.2)+0.5(30) ~ 0.489 0362 a+ 058¢ = Cala +L, #0, = 0.1451, 404891, 40.3620, Attime 60 min, Su1=25m%, [= 105, OF 10m 0,4 *0.149(25)+0.499010) +0.362(10) 3122350715 25Flood routing: Working R&D method ‘Muskingum routing method isa hydrologic routing method that assures & Tinear relationship between storage and discharge (the parameter K is constant). The Working R & D method avoid this assumption by using a concept of ‘working discharge (D)’, which is a hypothetical steady flow that ‘would result in the same natural channel that occurs with the passage of ood wave. Through this approach, nonlinearity between storage and discharge is ‘accommodated’ Following this approach, the wedge storage (WS) defined in the Muskingum ‘method is considered as proportional tothe difference between the working discharge(D) and outflow(0). WS = KX(1-0)=K(D-0) Substituting #7 in the Muskingum ‘equation with K(D-O), gives ae De Ik + (1-190 aa Flood routing: ‘Working R&D method From D=IX+(1-X)0, we get corner owo--Apu-oy Substituting O in the continuity equation Sth O40, u z z sires ts x) +0.SD,A=[50-X)-OSDANHOSAM*L) — CO Define ‘Working Storage =8(/-XP+0.5D4r, equation (1) canbe writen as ALR Fay Be osyehy- Bre Boosh +t)- Dy Given the relationship between R and D, routing interval 4t and the initial 2, the outflow hydrograph can be computed from the inflow hydrograph I Pot 26Flood routing Reseroic routing computation of level, storage and outflow of a reservoir ‘given an. inflow hydrograph By sing X=0 in the Muskingum equation, and assuming unique ‘lationship between song and dscnrge instead ofa ingen ling loop evel pool assumption $0), aero atone ‘Modified Puls method , can be established as follows: Following this method, the continity equation is written as (8) (GeB)eontg o (Be2)-Gea)ican Similac tothe Working ‘R & D method, for a given routing interval At the relationship between storage and outflow is established using e Storage indeation suive, defined as o= (240) ay Given an inflow hydrograph, the routing interval At, andthe inital value for Othe corresponding storage-indication curve canbe selected and te outflow hydrogzaph can be computed Flood routing ‘Modified Puls method : example (4-30 min) Crest of weir 5.5m, Weir discharge: Q=1.83 H "9 (H height above crest of weit) wT, [oa] Mase] © Stage=ém, Ea | | eer Bete 1.830.) 1S eee = 0.647e Is At time=60 min : 2S_,=104, 1224, 256 Bso.e¥ apetsoisteasous0uas From curve 5/4140 vs 0, we get 26 ms v0), 04-1428) 052m 27Flood routing: Applicability. of routing techniques ‘All Hydrologic models eannot handle backwater effects, except the mealfed pls method where backwater effects can be incorporate into the storage- tischarge relationship. All hydraulic models can handle backwater effec, except the kinematic wave technique. When the effects of floodplains are significant (differences in roughness, variation of storage and discharge associated with significant variation in ‘Channel geomeiry) appropriate composite analysis of floodplain and min hannel can be carried out using all ofthe the routing techniques, besides the linear Muskingum method. Only the complete unsteady hydraulics model is capable of routing flood ‘wave through channels that range from very steep to very flat slopes. Kinematic wave model should be applied when the channel slope is Sofi, All hydrologic models should be applied only when the chanel is Saini, (besides the Muskingum-Cunge method, where for flatter slope its range of applicability is restricted by its diffusion approximation.) 28Reservoir-storage design (GeH=7560sc-93 zl SE Rippl mass curve at a potential reservoir site Reservoir-storage design Storage demand can be analyzed based on synthetic stream flows, such as the Markoy series: %- T= HQ D4, If variance g~ 7, then U~T*HGa~ D+ od Hye, &, = standard normal variate i LLL fief Romie sonnge is< 615000 ace 4 reyeh Movsncont ts wh bill” A reservoir reliability curve 29Reservoir sedimentation + %ofinflowing sediment that is retained in the reservoir is a function of the rato of reservoir capacity to total inflow. This is measured asthe trap efficiency ofthe reservoir + ‘The tap efficiency of a reservoir decreases with time as the capacity of the reservoirs reduced by sediment aocumulation Ground water + An important segment of the hydrologic cycle, it constitutes ~ 1/3 of the world’s water reserves + Classification of earth material: = Aquifuge no porosity and permeability ~ Aquiclude : porous but not permeable = Aquitard : porous with litle permeability = Aquifer: porous and permeable 30Ground water + Darey’s law rath aL ah -KAhy Gor aE -Kid Us ah an K thydraulicconductivisy TTT es a cl a ‘ec intinsic permeability ewww eof ee vi kinematic viscosity Se a faa Ground water flow + Unconfined aquifer : steady flow ah we aK geek By ’ ee ect Kh? x (him), Dupuit's equation ag), Dupuis substituting 9(e = 2) ca} =a} ting g(x = L) gp an). in the Dupuit's equation we get n= {n-(2-a) Assumptions = flow ishorizontal + flow is proportional to dh instead of dfs Owing to above assumptions, computed water table is lower than the ectual water table ee eee 31Ground water flow + Confined aquifer : steady flow mean rom the Laplace equation: oh, Phy 4 Mag, heGeec xo ne foinca s bx 4 Ke and C can be solved by using boundary conditions at x, and x, Ground water flow + Unconfined flow : recharge from rainfall (steady state condition) “Assume steady state piozometric profile in equilibrium with rate of infiltration (P,) 4a _ p uta? | dx : Integrating with boundary conditions atxpand x, give 2p mys nade nahi Se ae gu-a From dh/dx, we get ee | acer = S(a2 = aE) r= 12 32Ground water flow + Hydraulics of well wells are dug for ~ lowering of water table or piezometric surface, eg in mining areas ~ dewatering of water logged area for foundation excavation’ ~ to meet the demand of water for irrigation, industry or domestic supply Ground water flow — Hydraulics of well + Unconfined aquifer : steady state cs o=-1u=K 24 (Danson) rg = 24 Dip sassapton) ri : cn [tI Nusa ele it eri Tbe a mL eatin Integrating from r, tor, we get ) + Confined aquifer: steady state , tt (2) hapa = -Kiu ek Shaan EK UH = h}) = ee oe + Dupuit’s assumption does not hold good near the well, where the vertical component of velocity becomes significant 33Ground water flow — Hydraulics of well + Unsteady flows - solutions that satisfied the differential equation 3h area coordinates recta u ‘One solution proposed by Theis using Dupuit’s assumptions and that \water is released from aquifer as an instance response tothe decline in Water table (holds good for confined aquifer) is given by: Drawdown(s) =H —h (z Wu) is called the well function, defined as Wa) = [Eden 08772 nad ne Ba “The Theis equation i usually used to estimate transmissibility (7) and storage coefiicient (S) from given drawndown data (sand Q) Ground water flow — Hydraulics of well for u <0.01 or large ¢ (€> r28/0,047), the well function can be approximated by the first two terms, whichis the Cooper-Jacob equation H-h=2-05772-In(w)]) ur Oj, 224s07 | ~ fon art ps 30 ge 2: 24597" 2 waar as} “The Cooper aca equation canbe writen a Mi =a4 ble) 23 (2242") 230 ant aa Ls ‘Tan be computed from the slope ofthe semictog plot, and S ean be obtained from the interception s()=0 which is equa to log(2.2459TI¢/rs)=0 34Ground water flow — Hydraulics of well + Well interference ~ Drawdown as a result of multiple wells interference can be evaluated by principle of superposition, such that Spat = 5) +5, to. $5, Unsteady flow Sage) 1a) Ground water flow ~ Hydraulics of well + Well near boundary ‘The principle of superposition applied for well located near impermeable and/or recharging boundaries Impermesble boundary Recharging boundary 35Ground water flow + Flow from flownet ~ seepage of water through soil can be computed using the ‘method of flownet With n, number of equapotential drops and n,number of flow channel, we have *h=W/n,and Om my 9 Ifdm=dl, Qis computed as. 0 = SKA 36Unit 3 - Steady Flows in Pressurised Networks Main concepts & definitions, Hydraulic losses, Single pipe calculation, Network layouts, Pressure related demand, Hydraulics of storage & pumps Water Transport & Distribution So Unit 3 - Steady Flows in Pressurised Networks Main concepts & definitions, Hye! Single pipe calcula Slide 2Main Definitions ‘Steady and Uniform Flow (4, Uniform: yi) =v) Avi? = Va (2) Slide 3,4 Main Definitions Steady and Uniform FlowConservation Laws Mass, Energy,Momentum Mass Conservation Law The Continuity Equation Slide 6Mass Conservation Law The Continuity Equation “Slide 7 Mass Conservation Law The Continuity Equation ‘Side ‘iMass Conservation Law The Continuity Equation ‘lide 9 ‘€ a Energy Conservation Law The Energy Equation ‘Slide 10, ‘€Momentum Conservation Law The Dynamic Equation Momentum at oss-section a M Momentum (N) p = Mass density of water (kgim*) Q Flow (m°/s) v Velocity (mm/s) SS OO Sle 1 Pipe Thrust The Dynamic Equation parr =e praeveiNat) fo roe nto) ea west had) rage otmebant Equilibrium in vertical direction: pOv, sing =—p,A, sing +w+F, Hide 12, Sle TlPipe Thrust Spreadsheet Calculation (1) Lesson tt Pipe Theust ti atitana Pipe Thrust Spreadsheet Calculation (2) Lesson tt Pipe That Hm bio sauarey Parr,Pipe Thrust ‘Spreadsheet Calculation (3) Lesson 4-1 a ibe Tt Pipe Thrust Spreadsheet Calculation (4) Lesson 1-1 Pipe Must Silde 18, ‘iEnergy Potential Energy Volume V (m) under pressure p (Nim), Positioned at elevation Z (m), possesses the potential energy: Ey = mgH or per unit weight: | m = Mass (kg) = Gravity (m/s) g (= Potential energy (J, kWh, ntwo)____ ie Soe EE Reference level Sie 7 ‘€ Energy Kinetic Energy 2 The kinetic energy is generated mv by the mass (volume) motion: Bag = or per unit weight: won Energy Conservation Law ® The Bernoulli Equation 1 E, = E, + AE becomes: Grade Lines Energy, Hydraulic Slide 2Energies, Heads Summary Velocity Head (kinetic) |E, Energy Head (total) 2° H5 Piezometric Head Reference level Energies, Heads Water Distribution Practice iHydraulic Grade Line Reservoirs Reference level Hydraulic Grade Line Reservoirs Side 2Hydraulic Gradient Slope of The Hydraulic Grade Line ‘Slide 25, Hydraulic Gradient Slope of The Hydraulic Grade LineHydraulic Gradient Slope of The Hydraulic Grade Line ‘lide 27,Unit 3 - Steady Flows in Pressurised Networks Main concepts & definitions, Hydraulic losses. Single pipe calculation. Netw related demand, Hydraulics of Hydraulic Losses Friction, Minor Friction, Minor loss (respectively) Pipe resistance Flow Exponentstion Losses Darcy-Weisbach Friction factor -) Pipe length (rm) Pipe diameter (m) Pipe flow (m/s) none por> or proportional to the kinetic energy: Friction Factor Colebrook-White d Friction factor (-) Reynolds number (-) ‘Absolute roughness (mm) Pipe diameter (mm) ‘Simplified form of Barr (error £1%): Side a,v Flow velocity (m/s) D Pipe diameter (m) v Kinematic viscosity (m*/s) Kinematic viscosity: Temperature,T(°C) Slide & Reynolds Number Flow Regimes Laminar flow The Reynolds number falls under 2000 Transitional zone ‘The Reynolds number falls between 2000 and 4000 Turbulent flow ‘The Reynolds number is above 4000 with two zones: 1. Zone of transitional turbulence 2. Zone of developed (or rough) turbulence For laminar flow: Side___ Flow Regimes For transitional zone: For zone of transitional turbulence: ‘lide 74 ee The Moody Diagram Slide 5,Absolute Roughness Pipe material Kk anh Asbestos cement 0.015 - 0.03 Galvanised/Coated cast iron 0.03 - 0,15 Uncoated cast iron 0.15-0.6 Ductile iron 0.03 - 0.06 Uncoated steel 0.015 - 0.06 Coated steel 0.03 - 0.15 Concrete 0.08- 1.5 Plastic, PVC, PE 0.02 - 0,05 Glass fibre 0.06 Brass, cooper, lead 0.003 Source: Wessex Water, 1983 Friction Losses Hazen-Williams Pipe length (m) Hazen-Williams factor () Pipe diameter (mm) Pipe flow (m*/s) ‘Slide 10, ‘iHazen-Williams Factors Pipe material /D (mm) 7 150 300 600 1200 ‘Uncoated cast iron yar 125.«190=«132— 184 Coated cast iron jag 193198140141 Uncoated stee! 442. 145° «(147,150,150 Coated steel 137142145 148148 Galvanised iron 129 133 . Uncoated asbestos cement 142 145 147, 180, Coated asbestos cement 147 149 150,182 = Gonerete, min, values 6 790 «8480S Concrete, max.values «129-«133-—=« 138140 N44 Prestressed concrete ee tar 150 180) Pvc, brass, cooper, lead 147 149—=« 150,182,183 ‘Wavy PVC 142 1450««17— 150,180 Bitumen/cement fined 147 149150152153, ementiined _-147_'149_—*160_182_188_ ‘Source: Bhave, 1997 Slide 1, Correction of C,,,-values The C,,-values are established for v = 0.9m/s and have to be corrected for extreme velocities. Ge VES O.8mis v>> 0.8mis ae per halving _per doubling less than 100 35% 5% 400-130 43% 3% 130-140 4% 1% “greaterthan 140 -1% H1% ‘Source: Bhave, 1991 SRS ‘lide 12, €Friction Losses Manning Manning factor (m’"*s) Pipe length (m) Pipe diameter (m) Pipe flow (m*/s) Sie Manning Factors Poem eee Wise) PVC, brass, lead, copper, glass fibre 0.008 -0.011 Prestressed concrete 0.009- 0.012 Concrete 0010-0017 Welded steet o012-0.013, Coated cast iron 0.012- 0.014 Uncoated cast ron 0.013-0.015 Galvanised iron 0.018-0.017 Source: Bhave, 1994 . Slide 14 @The Best Formula? Darcy-Weisbach (the most accurate) Hazen-Williams (straight-forward) ‘Slide 15 Comparison of Friction Factors ia lide 16 SiegFriction loss (mwe) Friction Formulas Mid-range Diameters, v = 1m/s, L = 200m Friction loss (mwe) Friction Formulas Large Diameters, v = 1mls, L = 2000m ‘Side 1, ‘iFriction Formulas PVC, v= 1mis BNZO.011 wK=0.05 mk=0.02 @Chw HN-0.008 Friction loss (mw) 7510.15 150/03 3000.6 600/1.2 1200/24 D (omm) FL (kr) a Slide 19 € Friction Losses Iron Corrosion Percentage of the original cross-section (the same network) i ‘Slide 20, asa Friction Losses Corrosion from Magnesium Silicate neeyink, Summary In theory, the friction losses grow by: sincrease of discharge sincrease of pipe roughness ~teduction of pipe diameters “increase of pipe lengths sdecrease of water temperature In practice, this happens by: “higher consumption or leakage scorrosion grovtn snetwork expansion Slide 22, ‘Minor LossesMinor Losses General Formula = Minor loss factor (-) = Pipe diameter (m) = Pipe flow (m/s) pom or proportional to the kinetic energy: vis the velocity downstream the obstruction, Slide 25 Minor Loss Factors Valve Characteristics (1) cents ¢ with fly open ERHARD Butory Valve Tastee Tao oss Source: ErhardMinor Loss Factors =Valve Characteristics (2) Minor loss (mwe) Pipe flow (m*sh) Slide 27 & Minor Loss Factors Elbows, Bends, Knees Gadston Rao THR ‘Stemi ean C08 Fetes 7 Rm 10440 = Se 2 Oe one ot ¢ Fiemme ey Or a Kawogieces Detect ac ee eee 2 13 Sr dos 02 ot ‘Senne af i oc lb bee ‘Fe Cate ola angle 90" eon shi abn ETS, BE SG7eS sulin by te sie gaa on Psa riba Sonbinmon sows tune wes Source: KSBMinor Loss Factors Branches Qa= 02 04 06 08 1 we a G&~ -04 008 O47 O72 091 a Got ow an cao CSP 8 G~ 088 089 095 1.10 1.28 “A Gs -08 -008 097 on * “BF? G~ 038 0 022 037 037 & G~ 017 019 009 -017 - CSG ~ 068 060 038 095 048 "Gq = 008 -008 007 020 — Source: KSB Minor Loss Factors Enlargers, Reducers CC “HL eI Ft ees Form! 4 " Vv Form d= 05 08 a7 08 08 i> fee of oa og a fe © (% Gor O08 003 Gas aot um { e=1& (~ 015 a1 007 003 001 a2 (= 023 017 0.14 005 ane ” = 480 201 088 da¢ a1 Nior20° Single Pipe Calculation Optimal Diameter Start "Slide 25 ‘€ Single Pipe Calculation Pipe Charts & Tables ‘Slide 26, ‘|Single Pipe Calculation Pipe Charts & Tables Single Pipe Calculation Pipe Charts rer Se Sats ae ot heey: CO Na e x sie 2H 14Single Pipe Calculation Hydraulic Tables Shi Sensitivity of T & k Hydraulic Gradient in Pipe D = 400 mm, Q = 200 lis Parameter k=0.0Imm —k=0.imm — k=imm ‘doa 0.0082 0.0082 0.0042 0.0081 0.0082 0.0040 0.0049 0.0081 Slide 2, ‘Equivalent Diameters vet ‘Sori arrangement “Fair ‘Slide 3, Pipes in Parallel Maximum Capacity Lesson 240 ‘assur Capacity ov] sae,Pipes in Parallel Optimal Diameter Lesson 2-2 ‘Optimal Diameter poor. Slide 33, € Pipes in Parallel Equivalent Pipe Diameter Lesson2-9 Equivalent Diameter 7198 orea Pipes in Series Equivalent Pipe Diameter (1) Lesson 24 Pipes in Svies sra8 Pipes in Series Equivalent Pipe Diameter (2) Lesson 25 equivalent Dlamete! ee 009 "Sh [ii ehig=he | Gs=O,+ Ga) Side | 18Water Transport & ibution Unit 3 - Steady Flows in Pressurised Networks Main concepts & definitions, Hydraulic losses, Single pipe calculation, Network layouts, Pressure related demand, Hydraulics of storage & pumps Branched Systems ‘Supply at One Point ‘slide €)Branched Systems 10 Flows. Supply at One Point = For known nodal demands, the ratos can be easily determined (the Continuity Equation). — Flow diretions are known based on the pipes’ connectivity + Velocities = For known flow rates and pipe diameters can be easily determined. — The velocity directions are known, + Pressures ~ if there is atleast one point of reference (xed) piezomettic head, the pressures can be easly determined from known nodal elevations. ~The fixed piazometrc head should be specified either atthe source or a node whore cortain (minimum) pressure isto be maintained + Hydraulic ealculation tt follows the principle of single pipe calculation for pipe pressures and optimal diameters (at fixed hydraulic gradient). site, “Single Source Diameters & Nodal Elevations aa ‘iePANEL ~ Siroare Single Source Flows & Nodal Demands Single Source Velocities & Nodal Demands ‘Slide 6Single Source Head Losses & Piezometric Heads ~~ Single Source © . Head Losses & Pressut om ‘SlideSingle Source Spreadsheet Application Single Source Spreadsheet Application Side 1, ‘€Branched Systems ‘Supply at Several Points (1) cr arear40e03%O4 — — a=? Oe er} ‘lie 1, Branched Systems ‘Supply at Several Points (2) Or Orgear 02403404 oi Side 1,Branched Systems Supply at Several Points + Pipe Flows ~ For known nodal demands, the rates can be partially determined ~ Flow rates & dlrections inthe pipe routes connecting the sources depend on the piezometrc heads atthe sources and the ditributon of nodal demands. + Velocities ~ Also partly known, + Pressures ~ Conditions are the same as in case of the single source, once the flows and velocities have been determined. + Hydraulic catculation ~ Single pipe calculation can only partially solve the system, ~ Additional condition is necessary. Multiple Source __Source 1 {60 msl) & Source 11 (75 msi)Multiple Source and Shifting From Node 8 to Node 4 7 — Bide 15, € ~ “Multiple Source Source 1 (60 msl) & Source 11 (70 ms!) Sidee enor eS sae we alesUnit 3 - Steady Flows in Pressurised Networks Main concepts & definitions, Hydraulic loss Single pipe calculation, Network layouts, P: 3 ‘elated demand. Hydraulics of storage & pumps System Characteristics Single Pipe _ | a 2 | 2 Pee : Dynamic head Home) 0 100 200 300? 400 “8 509 gayHerve) System Characteristics Effects of Pipe Ageing System Characteristics ‘Spreadsheet Application (1) Pie Gharactoists Sle &System Characteristics Spreadsheet Application (2) Lesson 1-5 Pipe Craractretes System Characteristics ‘Spreadsheet Application (3) Lowson 24 Pipes Charactersoe wo Na Gravity Systems Regular Supply tedoy Zing AH aH P 0 Sie, Gravity Supply System Characteristics SideGravity Systems ‘System Characteristics (1) Side 9 ————————— Gravity Systems System Characteristics (2) Side 1, ‘€Gravity Systems Residual Pressure (1) Lesson St Residunl Pressure Gravity Systems Residual Presst re (2) boston St osm PreosureGravity Systems Residual Pressure (3) Lesson 5-1 a esa Pressure Sl ide 13. ‘€ Gravity Systems Maximum Capacity (1) Lesson 52 Maxi Capacty, Slide “@Gravity Systems Maximum Capacity (2) Lesson5:2 pe axerurn Capa) Gravity Systems Optimal Diameter (1) Lesson 5-3 Side 16 KyGravity Systems Optimal Diameter (2) Lesson s3 ‘Obtinal ameter Gravity Systems Two Supply Points Flow mixing Slide 16, ‘iGravity Systems Two Supply Points (1) Gravity Systems Two Supply Points (2) ‘sump teen Two Stee B Spin chunctersies =Gravity Systems ‘Two Supply Points (3) eee Sl Side 2 Gravity Systems Two Supply Points (4) Slide 72 ‘€Gravity Systems Conclusions Pumped Systems Pumping Head ‘| Silde 24ee Pumped Systems Pump Characteristics Slide 25, ‘1000) in wide rectangular channel: ‘k= coughness (ram) Logarithmic distrbution of velocities!Steady Uniform Flow with Friction Losses (cont.) ‘Turbulent flow (Re>1000) in wide rectangular channel: oven 9-a15 fm (22) Find: Maw? Mee? Me Solution yonesrfle (2 - Steady Uniform Flow with Friction Losses (cont.) ‘Turbulent flow (Re>1000) in wide rectangular channel: Solution cont, Pa Lt fow 5 ff frie Ba] Pl eaaate de 33H (334 ranSteady Uniform Flow with Friction Losses (cont.) ‘Turbulent flow (Re>1000) in wide rectangular channel: ‘Solution (cont): L t=. fi u(y) 22) (22) sf 153 [a2] -e(224)]esrs ft, 295 ns) oe] nsf 1 A 1 i { fre Vio 4) 5.75 fret - esl onfiaate) see ttt] — A) & | (2 Jota teas sense} (Jeet ey — Velocity distribution in Channels of General Shape Complex!Bernoulli Equation Terms 1H (Energy Grade Line) Bernoulli Equation Terms (cont.) H (Energy Grade Line) Water Surface rade Line) ‘Assume u=u,=const Husuyjeconst Hasthe Hertheas= 2g 2gUniform Channel Flow (ESL) \ Uniform flow: Uniform Channel Flow (cont.) By same arguments 2s for pipe flow: Lit uyR k AH=h,=A5= where A,=f{Re= ta”, 7 Rig v oR ‘Open channel ton factor (yd) + Note as follows: ~ Hydraulic raclus R (and therefore function f changes with fow cross ‘section shape and depth ~ more complex to handle than inthe pipe diameter ease ~ Valty of he above approach is questionable duet the presence of tee surface which has considerable efect on velocity distibuton ~ In practice, flow in open channel is normally inthe rough turbulent zone ~ Itls possible to use simpler, empirical formulae to relete fiction losses to flow velocity and channel characteristics R=DIE for crew pipes 11Empirical Formulae for Uniform Flow + Generally u,=(R, So & friction coefficient) + Chezy's formula: = Assume: 7=K-Un? = Before: 1=pgRSy CA[RS)| where Cis Chezy's concent (m!25") Empirical Formulae for Uniform Flow + Chezy's formula: 1, = CRS, ~ Chezy thought that C was a constant. However:) Empirical Formulae for Uniform Flow (cont.) + Manning's formula: calp 5 = te RS, =1 n 7” ad gag si ania ‘Manning's coefficient (mr!) + Widely used because it is simple and accurate Empirical Formulae for Uniform Flow (cont.) * Manning's formula: Channel Conveyance—— Manning’s Coefficient n Changes with roughness, size, shape, velocity of flow in the channel Can change during a storm event Different parts of channel sometimes treated as having different Manning’ coefficients Beds, changes in section geometry, etc. can all be incorporated into n values for a ‘reach’ of river Large range of typical n values Typical Manning’s n values 5 mune: Ear sagt 0.020025 Earth. meendeing 0300050 Gravel (75-150mm), straight ~~ [0.030-0.040 Gravel (5-150, whingorbraded 0040-0000 Trine canals | Ear, saint 6-000 Rock salt [oo 0.045, [Lined canals | Concrete 0.012-0.017 Horr cotrats [Models Perspex 0.009Channel Design + Assume known: — Design flow Q (m*/s) = Manning’s number n (ms) ~ Bed slope S, (-) — Wetted area of fixed shape t (e.g. trapezoid: m and x=h/b known) aoe Unknown: = Width b (m) fh nw Channel Design (cont.) 42} b+b-+2ni) ha (4 mh)he8 (Us male Pa be dlient =O l+2x) iizm) pao A_, (lem) ie — pee Oe aalemt a / Noe Se eee = o-uaa Lan oS peep (og) bay 8°) [mslOpen Channel Flow in a Pipe Het tae Boos | Open Channel Flow ina Pipe (cont.) o=n(g-snor-S2e)” ttean be shown that Qray=1.08Q9 10° 00.24 important for storm drainage design where — time of flow is used to calculate design rafal Well designed sewer wil have velocities close to fll bre velocities, pa MggSummary * Open channel flow * Channel capacity * Bernoulli equation for open channel flow * Chezy equation + Manning Equation * Open channel uniform flow in pipesOpen Channel Flow: Gradually Varied Flow Outline * Definitions + Gradually varied flow * Critical, subcritical and supercritical flows * Transition from subcritical to supercritical flow and vice versa + Hydraulic JumpGradually Varied Flow + Non-uniform flow due to changes in: —cross sections —bed slope — entry to channel ~ exit from channel — Obstructions + As a consequence, gradual variation in surface profile (elevation of free water surface) exists Definitions + Normal depth h,; — Depth of water in a channel assuming uniform flow (S-S.) — Can be calculated using the Ah), Rin) Manning's equation for a known: Cross-section geomet 7 a = 1 ars! + Bed slope S,, ' | Flow tea + Manning's roughness coefficients nDefinitions (cont.) Normal depth +h, for a wide rectangular (b>>h) cross-section: a =r i a P be2h 142h/b A=bh P=b42h =[6>>AJ J atematve ‘water tevels Critical Flow (cont.) + Consider now a general cross sectional shape of a channel Q= Ain fel& B= LO) Deine critical low as a fow where (is ma) “The corresponding depth i te erica depth yl oA, a ae a ace ximurn fora given specific energy E=E ee a Ey Bao mag=u'a > dh = Bq) —~Critical Flow (cont.) Subtle fow F<, ron) [eet torre ny Seca fom Ft hy An) (toragien Ee) SE Critical Flow (cont.) Critical depth A, for a rectangular cross-section: Critical depth /, for any other cross section: Can be found iteratively from condition Fr=1!Critical Flow (cont.) an ~~ _4 ci ee h Fetny 4 supe fom (ys a @ Citical depth hfeross-section geometry, specific eneray E) Acca conton nhethel eratoul= Bhat [ loui=e For sectangular cross-section: Acthak = Bakr fatbeh = okey Critical Flow (cont.) ‘ternative way of explaining jy critical fowidept Q=1d=const ‘Note he duly : o Buen eh Fe Cae Me A two; valves fo alven El Pot E(h) on graph!Critical Flow (cont.) xan contin ty Fh) h 8 a , ~ 20.,,21 et & a sub-ciial a1 28 pe he 1 ea * super-critical SB noe Fret Citic flow occurs at, Summary of Critical Flow At critical conditions: -Fr=1 — Qis maximum for a given specific energy E ~ Eis minimum for a given flow rate Q For a given cross section geometry, critical depth h, can be found from either: — Q (steady flow along a channel) or ~ E (discharge from a fixed head reservoir)Summary of Critical Flow (cont.) + Duality: ~ For given E and non-critical Q there are two possible flow depths, one subcritical and one supercritical — For a given value of Q and non-critical E there are ‘two possible flow depths, one subcritical and one supercritical + Critical slope S,: = The uniform slope that for a given flow Q produces uniform critical fow Q, i.e, S,=S, where S, is a channel bed slope = If §,S, then: supercritical slopeffiow (‘steep") Gradually Varied Flow + General Equation: —Relates depth of flow in channel to distance along channel ~ Gradually varied means gradual changes in ctoss-sectional area, channel slope and depth (ie. surface profile)Gradually Varied Flow (cont.) Hath 2 oe Sff).4( oe (of 24, ata) sm entaae ae\2g)” ail 20 A) a ah de soe ce 24 wale Gradually Varied Flow (cont.) ah a ~Fr) At critical conditions: Frt, hence S,=S, (or dhidx—ce) ‘As conditions are only gradually varying, itis assumed that friction losses are the same as for uniform flow conditions with the same flow and depth, ie. SS. Therefore, at critical section (prismatic channel, gradual variation) ‘SES,Transition From Subcritical to Supercritical Flow cetieat condition Subcttical ow TE Supercitical fow SPSi8. et : L sata 11 Water surtace CChanno bed Z 5-5, -B-n Using the above equation we can determine the location ofthe cial flow section and can sketch in ines showing citical, normal and actual depth ‘and specific energy. : Transition from Supercritical to Subcritical Flow act Specific ‘i ' —| Specie Energy ne ee, Hydraulic | ia ump Suberitical Flow bh, ==> Poa + Smooth transition not possible, hydraulic jump forms + Gradually varied flow equation violated Discrete fall in specific energy across jump as fluid energy is converted into heatHydraulic Jump + Assumptions: ~ General cross-section ~ Bed slope small (horizontal bed) — Friction negligible Cross-sections 1-1 and 2-2: Centos Hydraulic Jump (cont. ) Cross-sections 1-1 and 22: Z Pe 41 Control Volume ‘Momentum equation (steady-state: nett force = tt momentum flux): 2 ee R-R=M-M, on(tsi~ayij=a( 4-0 Fe fpgit= py’ . a [An 4vt M=pig= p= Ee aHydraulic Jump (cont.) anon OH | = Problem: assuming known Q and h, calculate h,. Solution for rectanaular cross-section: ) a Fr 1 2 Problem: assuming known Q and h, calculate h, Solution for general cross-section: Numerically: by solving the for Graphically: by poting Fee against ‘he folowing equation teratvey e FEM = pa-Aiy"(h)+ 0S = FH) 405 Ah: )— Aled) = -a Energy Loss in Hydraulic > Jump Cross-sections 1-1 and 22: penn P02 | [0 ee remamtemntin 1 -at-(aet) (4-2) 2) ha S iw “)- -[vsveny-22 taal Marya] oo aA + Jump will position itself such that hy and h, Hydraulic Jump consistent with the momentum equation Length of hydraulic jump: ~ Rectangular channel: 5-7-(h,-h,) ~Non-rectangular channel: longer Weak jumps: spread over long distance Strong jumps: direct and compact 13Hydraulic Jump (cont.) + Useful as: — Energy dissipation —Fluid mixing + Drop in specific energy across jump, which can be readily calculated from height of jump + If downstream level increases jump moves upstream Summary * Critical, subcritical and supercritical flow + Gradually varied flow + Transition from subcritical to supercritical flow and vice versa + Hydraulic Jump 14Open Channel Flow: Surface Profiles Outline + Introduction + Assumptions * Characteristic water surface profiles + Water surface profile sketching procedure * Calculation of surface profiles: Analytical ~ Numerical (step-by-step method)Introduction + Change in depth along channel, between sections at which we know the depth (e.g. uniform flow regions and critical flow sections) + Solution of a general equation for gradually varied flow in a prismatic channel: Assumptions + Assume rectangular (or wide general) channel with constant bed slope (R=h): k E aaa + Let us use Chezy equation (could also use Manning) to calculate friction head losses: w= CRESS9S = CHS? = CHESS?Surface Profiles ee * The value of dir/ax (rate of change of depth, not quite the same as the surface gradient) will change significantly at eh, and A= ~ Ath, dhiar=o: Water surface asymptotic to the hh, line ~ Athen, dhldy—: No solution (violated gradually varied flow assumptions) ~ Ath eo dhidk=s, Water surface asymptotic toa : horizontal fine ~ Ath=0 dhich=S,(hh* ——(dhidrso, 8. no solution it Manning's equation is used)Classification of Flow Profiles For a given flow and cross-section: + S)he): Class M (Mild) + Si>S_(hysho): Class S (Steep) + S,=S, (h,=h.): Class C (Critical) + S,=0 (h,%): Class H (Horizontal) + S,<0 (h,, not defined): Class A (Adverse) oO Surface Profiles (cont.) IFS, < S_ (hy > hg: Class M (Mild) surface profilesSurface Profiles (cont.) If S,> S, (hy ~): Class H (Horizontal) surface profiles Surface Profiles (cont.) If S, <0 (h, not defined): Class A (Adverse) surface profilesSurface Profiles (cont.) + Depth ranges: ~ Classes M and S: 3 ranges separated by h, & h, ~Class C (h,=h,): 2 ranges separated by h, ~ Class H (h,—): 2 ranges separated by h, ~ Class A (h, undefined): 2 ranges separated by h, + Remember assumptions of gradually varied flow in the derivation of equations! Control Points * Sections at which there is a definite relationship between depth and flow Therefore, if flow rate is known, then the depth is known, e.g.: ~At section of critical flow: flow changes from subcritical to supercritical ~ Where water level is independent of flow: subcritical flow into reservoir —At certain stretches such as sluice gate flow/depth relationship is known |6. Surface Profile Sketching . Identify control points (channel entry and/or exit, sluice gate, etc.) . Calculate flow (if possible and if unknown) . Calculate critical depth and plot on longitudinal section Calculate normal depths and plot on longitudinal section Work downstream from control points for supercritical, upstream for subcritical flows Identify hydraulic jump location(s) Surface Profile Sketching: Example | Control ee Hysrautejume TY Point (CP) Wivsrenon intronco) WO) Calculation of Surface Profiles + Determine h(x) by solving the following differential equation : atx) _ SSC) ae 1-Fr(A@) + Two general methods: — Analytical (by integration) — Numerical (step-by-step methods) + Analytical solution only possible in some special cases Calculation of Surface Profiles: Analytical Method Example ‘Assumptions: + Horizontal bed, ie. $,=0 + Wide rectangular channel => Rh * Chezy equation for head losses w= CRYSY = CHRISCalculation of Surface Profiles: Analytical Method Example (cont.) leo -o*)an= faa ‘ Can be determined for © const “7 shen st, at 1 —gb*h' -Oh=-g fab -O'h= 88 Calculation of Surface Profiles: Numerical Methods + Problems (known Q, S;, cross section geometry): — Find h, from known h (suberitical flow) or find f from known h, (supercritical flow) for known Ax — Find 4x from assumed h, and known h (suberitical flow) or assumed h, and known h, (supercritical flow)Calculation of Surface Profiles: Numerical Methods + Solutions (step-by-step methods): ~ Standard step method (calc. depth from distance, slightly different methods for regular and natural channels) ~ Direct step method (cale. distance from depth, regular channels only) ee aaa -———— Standard Step Method Caloulation procedure: 1) Divide channel into reaches and determine x and bed slope S, for each reach 2) Suberitical flow: given conditions at point 2 (hy B, A.) calculate iteratively n, (and hence B,,/4,) - do opposite for supercritical flow 3) Move on to next reach "1