gINDIAN LITERATURE (HISTORICAL & LITERARY BACKGROUND)

Overview

This module provides the historical background as well as the literary background of Indian Literature.

I. Objectives

Historical Background

Literary Background

• Two periods of Indian Literature

• Poetry
• Prose

• The Secular Woks

Epics, Drama and Tales

• Hinduism

II. Learning Activities

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

About 2000BC, a branch of the Aryan race invaded India from the NW. We know very litter of their
history until the conquest by Darius in 512BC. Their civilization appears to be very ancient; religion,
philosophy, ethics, and literature all seem to have reached a high level of development before authentic
records were kept.

Their religions are Brahmanism*, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism*.

Gautama Buddha (563-483BC) made many changes in the old religious creeds and rituals; his teaching
later became the basis for one of the five major religions of the world.

LITERARY BACKGROUND

Most of the literature of ancient India was written in Sanskrit, the oldest extant Aryan language.

The Two Periods of Indian Literature

1. The Vedic Period – Extends from about 1500BC to about 200BC. Writings were made up of religious
and lyric poetry (there were a few successful attempts to establish the prose style.)

2. The Sanskrit Period – Extends from ca. 200BC well into the middle ages and in a sense down to the
present. Many types of literature achieved distinction - epics, lyric and didactic poetry, drama, fairytales,
fables, romances, and philosophy.
3. Epic and Buddhist Age (500 B.C. – A.D.). The period of composition of the two great epics,
Mahabharata and the Ramayana. This time was also the growth of later Vedic literature, new Sanskrit
literature, and Buddhist literature in Pali. The Dhammapada was also probably composed during this
period. The Maurya Empire (322-230 B.C.) ruled by Ashoka promoted Buddhism and preached goodness,
nonviolence, and ‘righteousness’ although this period was known for warfare and iron-fisted rule. The
Gupta Dynasty (320-467 B.C.) was the next great political power. During this time, Hinduism reached a
full flowering and was evident in culture and the arts.

4. Classical Period (A.D. – 1000 A.D.). The main literary language of northern India during this period
was Sanskrit, in contrast with the Dravidian languages of southern India. Sanskrit, which means ‘perfect
speech’ is considered a sacred language, the language spoken by the gods and goddesses. As such,
Sanskrit was seen as the only appropriate language for the noblest literary works. Poetry and drama
peaked during this period. Beast fables such as the Panchatantra were popular and often used by
religious teachers to illustrate moral points.

5. Medieval and Modern Age (A.D. 1000 – present). Persian influence on literature was considerable
during this period. Persian was the court language of the Moslem rulers. In the 18th century India was
directly under the British Crown and remained so until its Independence in 1947. British influence was
strong and modern-day Indians are primarily educated in English. Many have been brought into the
world of Western learning at the expense of learning about their own culture.

Poetry

Poetry was essentially lyrical and was marked peculiarly by Indian blend of subjectivity and detachment.
In the first half of the first millennium BC, the Vedas, religious scriptures, were written in Sanskrit. In the
second half of the same millennium, there developed a narrative literature in verses.

The Four Vedas (Books of Knowledge):

1. Rig Veda – Prevailing religion is Hinduism pantheism. Brahma is the eternal, self-existent god and is
the chief object f worship. Creation Hymn is the most notable single poem.

2. Sama Veda – Book of Chants

3. Yajur Veda – Prayer Book. In addition to the liturgical hymns, it contains many original prose formulas.

4. Atharva Veda – Book of Spells

Prose

1. The Brahmanas (perhaps 1000 BC) – commentaries on the Vedic hymns and rites. These are possibly
the earliest extant pieces of Indo-European prose.

2. The Upanishads (c. 800-500 BC) – is a collection of 108 discourses of the Brahman religion. They give
information concerning the conceptions of Maya (the illusory world) and Nirvana (absorption into the
Universal Soul).
3. The Sutras (c. 500-200 BC) – are often unintelligible treaties concerning rituals.

The Secular Works

1. Epics

• Present a view of life on a vast and magnificent scale.

• They have elevated style, polished diction and dignified tone, which complemented the
grandeur of the subject.

• Focused on a central character that typifies the salient quantities of a race or nation. His
exploits and adventures may embody the struggles and aspirations of a whole race or nation.

2. Drama

• Origin:

▪ Very little is known about the origin of Indian drama. It may be that origins are rooted
in Indian mythology.

▪ It was said that Brahma invented the drama for the pleasure of the deities.

• Place:

▪ There were no special theaters. And that the dramas were presented in

banquet halls or ballrooms of the rulers’ places.

• Chronology:

▪ It is uncertain. But the 60 odd plays are extant were probably written between 100 BC
– 600 AD.

• Qualities:

▪ Indian plays show a mixture of joy and sorrow but the ending is always happy.

▪ Each drama has a prologue and is divided into scenes and acts (from 1-10).

▪ Characterization is realistic.

▪ There is a mixture of prose dialogue and lyrical poetry.

▪ There is the mixture of using Sanskrit (for the high-born) and Prakit (for lower classes)
in the same play. This practice probably led to the death of the drama.

3. Tales

• The several collections of Indian tales have often been considered the sources of many of the
folktales, which have appeared in various forms all over the world.
 • A large percentage of the tales were written for didactic or religious purposes.

• Examples:

▪ The Jatakas (c. 300BC?) tells the 550 births of Buddha and his early if supposedly
related by himself.

▪ The Panchatantra or Five Books (c. 300-500 AD) is a series of tales probably intended as
a manual of instruction for kings’ sons: 1) separation of friends; 2) acquisition of friends;
3) war of the crows and the owls; 4) loss of what has been acquired; 5) ill-considered
action. The arrangement of tales, fables and poems is such that they are within a
framework. This ancient device had been used later in some European as well as Asian
work. Some of the fables and tales in The Panchatantra have also turned up in The
Arabian Nights, in Aesop’s Fables an in the work of the Persian poet, Sadi, entitled
Gulistan, which like The Panchatantra is Machiavellian in character.

▪ The Hitopadesa or Book of Good Counsels, one of its sources is The Panchatantra.

▪ The Sukasaptati or Seventy Stories of a Parrot

▪ Gita Govinta by Jayaveda

HINDUISM

• It is a religion based on tolerance. It is the sum total of doctrines and religious beliefs of the
majority of the people of India.

• It accepts the caste system and the supremacy of Brahmanism. Caste: Brahmans (Priests,
leaders and guardians of law and religion), Khatriyans (nobles), Vaisyas (merchants), Shudras
(workers: farmers and manual laborers) and the Untouchables.

• It reverses the cow, which symbolizes the power and vitality of the gods.

• Bases their doctrine on the Upanishads.

• Replaces some of the gods of Brahmanism and others were retained.

Examples: Dyaus Pitar not in Hinduism while Rudra was replaced by Shiva. Agni and Indra are still
in Hinduism.

Triad: Brahma is the god of creation

Vishnu is the god of preservation

Shiva is the god of destruction

Accepts the four stages of life:

▪ Life of student – preparation for calling

▪ Life of householder – family

▪ Life of hermit – retires to the forest to prepare for the next life when he finished his duty.

▪ Life of ascetic

It believes in the four ends of life:

▪ Dharma is the pursuit of duty.

▪ Artha is the pursuit of material gains.

▪ Kama is the pursuit of pleasure and love.

▪ Moksha or Mukti is the spiritual emancipation.

• Hindu deities are characterized by the anatomical abundance. These represent the power of the gods.
i.e. Shiva with four arms.

• The different levels of gods:

▪ The Devas – the highest level of creation. They are the gods who are in continual

conflict with the Asuras (demonic forces).

The Devas are: Vishnu, Shiva, and Indra

▪ The Elemental gods: Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Water), Surya (Sun), Soma (Moon), Kama
(Love)

▪ Lower Level deities are the Gandharvas, who play heavenly music and the Apsarases (Dance).
References:

This lecture is from the Literature 103 Reader from the Faculty of Arts and Letters, University of

Santo Tomas.

Buck, W. 1979. Mahabharata. N.Y.: The New American Library, Inc.

Buck, W. 1978. Ramayana. N.Y. The New American Library, Inc.

Mascaro, J. 1962; rpt.: 1975. The Bhagavad Gita. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin

Books, Ltd.