LAB EXPERIMENT NO.

01

GENERAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Objectives:
▪ To demonstrate safety precautions

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
▪ Safety is of paramount importance in the Electrical Engineering Laboratories.
▪ Electricity never excuses careless persons. So, exercise enough care and attention in
handling electrical equipment and follow safety practices in the laboratory. (Electricity is
a good servant but a bad master).
▪ Avoid direct contact with any voltage source and power line voltage. (Such contact may
subject you to electrical shock).
▪ Wear rubber-soled shoes. (To insulate you from earth so that even if you accidentally
contact a live point, current will not flow through your body to earth and hence you will be
protected from electrical shock.
▪ Wear laboratory-coat and avoid loose clothing. (Loose clothing may get caught on an
equipment/instrument and this may lead to an accident particularly if the equipment
happens to be a rotating machine).
▪ Do not wear any metallic rings, bangles, bracelets, wrist watches and neck chains. (When
you move your hand/body, such conducting items may create a short circuit or may touch
a live point and thereby subject you to electrical shock).
▪ Be certain that your hands are dry and that you are not standing on wet floor. (Wet parts
of the body reduce the contact resistance thereby increasing the severity of the shock).
▪ Ensure that the power is off before you start connecting up the circuit. (Otherwise you
will be touching the live parts in the circuit)
▪ Get your circuit diagram approved by the staff member and connect up the circuit strictly
as per the approved circuit diagram.
▪ Check power chords for any sign of damage and be certain the chords use safety plugs
and do not defeat the safety feature of these plugs by using ungrounded plugs.
▪ When using connection leads, check for any insulation damage in the leads and avoid
such defective leads.
▪ Do not defeat any safety devices such as fuse or circuit breaker by shorting across it.
Safety devices protect you and your equipment
▪ Switch on the power to your circuit and equipment only after getting them checked up
and approved by the staff member.
▪ Take the measurement with one hand in your pocket. (To avoid shock in case you
accidentally touch two points at different potentials with your two hands)
▪ Do not make any change in the connection without the approval of the staff member.
▪ In case you notice any abnormal condition in your circuit (like insulation heating up,
resistor heating up etc. Switch off the power to your circuit immediately and inform the
staff member.
▪ Keep hot soldering iron in the holder when not in use.
▪ After completing the experiment show your readings to the staff member and switch off.
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Review questions:

1. What safety precautions should be taken in lab while performing practical in applied
electronics lab?

2. What is the importance of safety?

3. Write any two important safety precautions of equipment.

Conclusion:

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 LAB EXPERIMENT NO. 02

EQUIPMENTS AND ITS SAFETY

Objectives:
▪ To observe the behavior of equipment and their safety.

Discussion:

An oscilloscope, often abbreviated as "scope," is a widely used electronic test instrument that
allows you to visualize and analyze electrical signals in the time domain. It provides a graphical
representation of voltage changes over time, which is displayed on a screen as a waveform.
Engineers, technicians, and scientists use oscilloscopes for various applications, including
troubleshooting, testing, and debugging electronic circuits and systems.

Here are some key features and components of an oscilloscope:

▪ Display Screen: The primary component of an oscilloscope is its display screen, which
shows the waveform being measured. Modern oscilloscopes typically use LCD or LED
screens for high-resolution displays.
▪ Input Channels: Oscilloscopes come with one or more input channels, each equipped with
a probe. Each channel allows you to connect the oscilloscope to a specific point in a circuit
to measure voltage.
▪ Time base Control: The time base control allows you to adjust the horizontal scale of the
display, determining how much time is represented horizontally across the screen. This
setting is typically in units like seconds per division (s/div) or milliseconds per division
(ms/div).
▪ Probes: Probes are connected to the input channels and are used to make contact with the
circuit under test. They usually consist of a cable, connector, and a tip that attaches to the
circuit.
▪ Trigger Modes: Oscilloscopes offer various trigger modes, such as edge trigger, pulse
trigger, video trigger, and more, to help you capture specific waveform events.
▪ Oscilloscopes are essential tool used for diagnosing and characterizing electronic signals,
including waveforms from analog circuits, digital logic etc.
▪ A typical Oscilloscope is shown in figure 2.1

Figure 2.1 Oscilloscope

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FUNCTION GENERATOR:

Function generator is an electronic test instrument used in various applications to generate

precise and controllable electrical waveforms. It produces a range of periodic signals, including
sine waves, square waves, triangle waves, and more complex waveforms like arbitrary waveforms.
Function generators are widely used in electronics, telecommunications, research, and education
for various purposes, such as testing and troubleshooting circuits, simulatingsignal sources,
and conducting experiments, as shown in Figure 2.2.

Here are some key features and capabilities of a typical function generator:

1. Waveform Generation: Function generators can produce different types of waveforms,

including:
▪ Sine Wave: A smooth, continuous waveform that mimics the behavior of ACpower
sources.
▪ Square Wave: A waveform with sharp transitions between high and lowvoltage levels,
commonly used for testing digital circuits.
▪ Triangle Wave: A waveform with linearly increasing and decreasing voltagelevels.
▪ Arbitrary Waveform: Some advanced function generators allow you to createcustom
waveforms with specific shapes, amplitudes, and frequencies.
2. Frequency Control: Function generators typically allow you to set the frequency of the
generated waveform. You can adjust the frequency over a wide range, from very low
frequencies (e.g., Hz) to high frequencies (e.g., MHz or even GHz, depending on the
model).
3. Amplitude Control: You can adjust the amplitude (voltage level) of the generated
waveform. Some function generators provide options for setting peak-to-peak amplitude,
RMS amplitude, or offset voltage.
4. Synchronization: Function generators can be synchronized with other test equipment or
instruments, ensuring that generated waveforms align with other signals or measurements.
5. Output Impedance and Protection: Function generators usually have selectable output
impedance.
6. A typical Function Generator is shown in figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 Function Generator

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Precautions for safety:

▪ Do not use in high temperature and high pressure, humidity, strong vibration and strong
magnetic fields and storage.
▪ Please use in relatively stable environment, and provide good ventilation and cooling
conditions when the fuse blows, please correct the causes of failure.
▪ Ensure proper grounding.
▪ Read the warning labels and specifications.
▪ Ensure proper instrument cooling (air flow).

Review questions:

1. Why oscilloscope is used?

2. Why function generator is used?

3. Write any two important safety precautions of function generator.

Conclusion:

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 LAB EXPERIMENT NO. 03
LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTER (LDR)

Objectives:

▪ To analyze the response of light dependent resistor (LDR).

Equipment’s and materials required:

▪ Breadboard
▪ LDR (light dependent resistor)
▪ Lux meter
▪ Multimeter
▪ LED
▪ BATTERY (5V)

Discussion:

An LDR, or Light Dependent Resistor, is a type of electronic component that changes its
resistance in response to changes in light levels. It is also known as a photoresistor. When exposed
to light, the resistance of an LDR decreases, and when it is in the dark, its resistance increases,
LDRs are commonly used in various applications like light sensors, dusk-to-dawn switches and
in photography for controlling exposure settings. These are fundamental component in many
electronic circuits that need to react to changes in ambient light.
Circuit Diagram:

The Circuit diagram of LDR is shown in Figure 3.1

Figure 3.1 circuit diagram of LDR

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Connection Diagram:

▪ Connect the positive terminal of LED with first terminal of LDR.

▪ The negative terminal of LED and second terminal of LDR is connected in positive and
negative terminal of the battery.
The connection diagram of LDR is shown in Figure3.2

Figure:3.2 Connection diagram of LDR

Procedure:

▪ Turn on the power supply.

▪ Connect the multimeter across the LDR to measure the resistance of LDR on intensity of
light.
▪ Place a lux meter to measure the intensity of light.
▪ Observe the brightness of LED and measure the resistance on multimeter, and intensity of
light on lux meter.
▪ Cover the lux with your hand or an object to reduce incoming light in figure 3.3
▪ Observe changes in brightness of LED and measure the resistance on multimeter, and
intensity of light on lux meter in Figure 3.3

Figure: 3.3 Measurement diagram of LDR

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Table 3.1. Relation between Light Intensity and Resistance:

Sr no. Light intensity in Lux Resistance (KΩ)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Draw a response curve between light intensity and resistance:

Review Questions:

1. What is light dependent resistor?

2. What is working principle of light dependent resistor?

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 3. What is the relationship between light intensity and the resistance of LDR?

Conclusion:
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

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 LAB EXPERIMENT NO. 04

INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

Objectives:

▪ To investigate and understand the inverting operational amplifier

▪ To understand the phase shift introduced by an inverting amplifier
▪ To observe the corresponding voltage gain in an inverting operational amplifier.

Equipment and materials required:

▪ Function Generator,
▪ Oscilloscope,
▪ De Lorenzo DL3155M16,
▪ Connecting wires,
▪ Power supply.

Discussion:

The inverting amplifier is an important circuit configuration using op-amps, and it uses a negative
feedback connection. An inverting amplifier, as the name suggests, inverts the input signal as well
as amplifies it. A positive-going signal at the input of an inverting amplifier would result in a
negative-going signal at the output, and vice versa. An AC sinusoidal signal at the input would
produce 180o out of phase sinusoidal signal at the output.

Circuit diagram:

The connection diagram of a typical inverting amplifier is presented in figure 4.1

Figure 4.1 Inverting Operational Amplifier

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Experimental Results:

Table 4.1 To check the effects of changing frequency on Output Voltage, Voltage Gain, and Phase
shift.

Frequency (Hz) Input Voltage Output Voltage Voltage Gain Phase Shift
(Vin) (V out) (Av)
100 5.0 V
500 5.0 V
1k 5.0 V
5k 5.0 V
10k 5.0 V

Review questions:

1. What is an inverting operational amplifier?

2. Where is the input voltage applied in an inverting amplifier?

Conclusion:

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 LAB EXPERIMENT NO. 05

NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
Objectives:

▪ To investigate phase relationship and voltage gain in Non inverting Amplifier

▪ To observe the impact of changing resistance on amplification/gain.
▪ To observe the impact of changing frequency on saturation of signal.

Equipment’s and materials required:

▪ DL315M16 Amplifier kit
▪ Function generator
▪ Oscilloscope
▪ Source
▪ Connecting probes
Discussion:

Non-inverting amplifier produces an output signal that is in phase with the input signal. The
circuit designed for a non-inverting amplifier consists of a basic op-amp where the input is
connected to a non-inverting terminal. The output obtained from this circuit is a non-inverted
one. This is again feedback towards input but to the inverting terminal via a resistor. Anamplifier’s
non-inverting input refers to the pin configuration. The non-inverting input is the terminal marked
with a plus (+) sign, and the inverting input is marked with a minus (-) sign. These can also be
referred to as positive and negative terminals.

Circuit diagram:
The circuit diagram for non-inverting amplifier is presented in Figure 5.1

Figure 5.1 Schematic diagram of

noninverting amplifier

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Experimental Results:

Table 5.1
Observe calculated and measured values of non-inverting Operational Amplifier.
NON- INVERTING O.A
Ri [W] Rf [W] U0 [V] A measured A calculated
R2 R4
R2 R3
R1 R4
R1 R3

Circuit diagram:

The connection diagram of non-inverting amplifier is presented in figure 5.2

Figure 5.2 Connection Diagram of non-inverting amplifier

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Review questions:

1. What is non inverting amplifier?

2. Write few applications of non-inverting amplifier?

3. Why negative terminal is connected with ground in non-inverting amplifier?

Conclusion:

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 LAB EXPERIMENT NO. 06
VOLTAGE FOLLOWER

Objectives:

▪ To analyze voltage follower or buffer circuit.

▪ To learn about the construction and working of voltage follower.

Equipment’s and materials required:

▪ Op-Amp kit DL1155M16

▪ Function generator
▪ Oscilloscope
▪ Operational amplifier circuit
▪ Connecting wires

Discussion:

A voltage follower is also known as a buffer amplifier. It is an operational amplifier

circuit whose output voltage always equal to the input voltage. Hence a voltage follower
operational amplifier does not amplify the input signal and has a voltage gain of 1A. Voltage
follower is a circuit, where the magnitude and the phase of signal remains the same.

Circuit diagram:

The schematic diagram for voltage follower circuit is shown in figure 6.1

Figure 6.1 Schematic diagram of Voltage follower

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Connection diagram:

The connection diagram for voltage follower is presented in figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2 Connection Diagram of Voltage Follower

Experimental Result:

Table 6.1 Find input and output values.

Value Input Output (Vout)

Vpp

Frequency

Impedance

Review questions:

1. What is the importance of voltage follower?

2. Write applications of follower circuits

Conclusion:

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 LAB EXPERIMENT NO. 07
OP-AMP OPERATING AS A SUBTRACTOR

Objectives:

▪ To demonstrate the working of op-amp as subtractor.

▪ To understand the role of feedback resistor in subtractor circuit.

Equipment’s and materials required:

▪ Time electronic board Model DL 3155M16.

▪ Multimeter.
▪ Function Generator.
▪ Oscilloscope.
▪ Connecting Cables and wires

Discussion:
The subtractor amplifier amplifies the voltage difference present on its inverting and non-inverting
inputs operational amplifier is used for either the “inverting” or the “non-inverting” input terminal
to amplify a signal, one input signal is supplied with voltage and other is connected to ground.
In subtractor amplifiers connecting one voltage signal into one input terminal and another voltage
signal into the other input terminal the resultant output voltage will be proportional to the
“Difference” between the two input voltage signals of V1 and V2. The output voltage of subtractor
amplifier is given by equation:

𝑅3
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ( )(𝑉2 − 𝑉1)
𝑅1

Then subtractor amplifiers amplify the difference between two voltages making this type of
operational amplifier circuit a Subtractor unlike a summing amplifier which adds or sums together
the input voltages.

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 Circuit diagram:

The schematic diagram of op amp as Subtractor is presented in Figure 7.1.

Figure. 7.1 Subtractor Configuration

Procedure:

▪ Time module DL3155M16 is used.

▪ Power supply module DL315AL2 is used.
▪ Connect the output of function generator to terminal labeled G.
▪ Supply the signal generator and adjust the output with a square wave signal of l V peak to
peak – l KHz
▪ Now connect the Ch1 and Ch2 of oscilloscope.
▪ Power up the supply module, function generator and oscilloscope. Set output of function
generator to 50 HZ Sinusoidal.

Experimental Results:

Table 7.1:

V(s)fixed V(variable) V(out) V(calculated)

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Review questions:

1. How many inputs are used in subtractor?

2. Why subtractor are used?

Conclusion:

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 LAB EXPERIMENT NO. 08

OP-AMP OPERATING AS INTEGRATOR

Objectives:
______________________________________________________________________________
▪ To analyze how integrator works.
▪ To Give different types of waves and analyze the role of capacitor.

Equipment’s and materials required:

______________________________________________________________________________
▪ Multisim simulator
▪ Multi-meter
▪ Function generator
▪ Oscilloscope
▪ Op amp or IC 741 as (in place of op-amp)

Theory:
______________________________________________________________________________
The operational amplifier integrator is an electronic integration circuit. Based on the
operational amplifier (op-amp), it performs the mathematical operation of integration with respect
to time; that is, its output voltage is proportional to the input voltage integrated over time.

initial

Discussion:
_____________________________________________________________________________
Op-amp can be configured as an integrator using a simple circuit configuration. An
integrator produces an output voltage that is proportional to the integral of the input voltage over
time. In mathematical terms if the input voltage is Vin(t) , the output voltage is Vout(t) of the op-
amp is given by
initial

Where: R is the resister connected in series with the input of op-amp.

C is the capacitor connected between input and the output terminals of the op-amp. V-initial
is the initial voltage across the capacitor at t=0.

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Circuit diagram:
_____________________________________________________________________________
The Circuit diagram of typical operational Amplifier as an integrator is shown in figure 8.1

Figure 8.1 Op-amp as integrator

The application of this integrator is mainly in waveform generation. It can be used to generate
various waveforms. For instance, by the square wave as an input. You can get the triangular wave
as an output, as shown in the figure 8.2. By feeding a triangular wave in to another integrator you
can generate a sine wave.

Figure 8.2 Output of Integrator

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Procedure on Multisim:
_________________________________________________________________________

▪ Take an IC 741 in place of OP-amp as an integrator

▪ Make a ground V=0 on non-inverting side.
▪ On inverting side connect resistor of 1K ohm and capacitor of 10 uF between input and output
of inverting side of OP-amp.
▪ Give the two power supplies of 12V, which means it needs both positive and negative voltage
supplies. This allows the OP-amp to handle both positive and negative input signals and
produce an integrated output.
▪ Use oscilloscope for output results.

Simulated Circuit:
The model of typical Integrator is presented in figure 8.3

Figure 8.3 Simulated circuit of op amp as integrator

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Experimental Results:
______________________________________________________________________________

Graph 8.1: shows curve between Vin and T(s).

Observation:

Both of channel A and B is set to scale of 1volt/div. by giving square wave as input we get triangular
wave as shown in figure 8.5, by changing the value of capacitor we get better results of waveform.

Figure 8.5 Op-amp as integrator

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Review questions:

1. Why we use two supplies in integrator amplifier using 741 IC?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

2. What is role of capacitor in Integrator?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

3. When we give the triangular wave then which waveform we obtained?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Conclusion:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

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 LAB EXPERIMENT NO: 09

TEMPERATURE CONTROLLERS

Objective:

▪ To show the types and principle of temperature controllers

Equipment’s and materials required:

▪ Power supply unit kl-51001

▪ Isolation transformer kl-58002
▪ Module kl-53008
▪ Multi-meter

Discussion:

Figure 9.1 Wiring diagram of experiment

VR2 and thermistors TM1 and TM2 form a resistive bridge. The VR2 is used to control the bridge
operating in balance. The VR1 is used to control the voltage applied to the bridge. Resistor R1 is to limit
the current flowing in bridge when VR1 at turn low value of resistance. When the output voltage of the
resistive bridge is set to zero, diode D1 and SCR are off so that LED1 lights. If the resistance of TM1
decreases as the temperature increases, the output voltage of the bridge increase and reaches 0.6 V to
force D1 to conduct. Hence the SCR turns on and energizes the relay on LED2 lights to indicate
temperature over the setting range. To turn off the SCR push SW once. Similarly, the resistance of TM2
decreases as the temperature increases. The increase of the bridge output voltage triggers the SCR to
conduct. Then LED2 lights to indicate the temperature too high. Since the output voltage of the bridge
is an AC voltage, therefore diode D1 should be used to protect SCR against a negative pulse applied to
the gate.

Page | 25
Procedure:

1. Select Thermistor Type: Choose the appropriate NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) or PTC
(Positive Temperature Coefficient) thermistor based on the application's requirements.

2. Temperature Sensing Circuit: Create a circuit with the thermistor, a pull-up resistor, and a voltage source.

3. Calibration: Measure the thermistor's resistance at specific temperatures to create a calibration curve.

4. Continuous Monitoring: Continuously measure the thermistor's resistance using an ADC or

temperature measurement circuit.

5. Control System: Implement a control system (e.g., microcontroller) to interpret resistance readings
and adjust temperature-controlling devices.

6. Set Temperature Set point: Set the target temperature as a reference point for control.

7. Feedback Loop: Create a feedback loop to compare measured temperature with the setpoint and
generate an error signal.

8. Control Actuation: Control heating or cooling elements based on the error signal to maintain the
desired temperature.

9. PID Control: Consider using a PID control algorithm for precise temperature regulation.

Experimental Results:

Graph 9.1 Curve between temperature and time

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Review Questions:
1. How thermistor works?

2. Write some applications of thermistor.

Conclusion:

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 LAB EXPERIMENT NO: 10

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF 555 TIMER OPERATING AS OSCILLATOR

Objectives:

▪ To demonstrate the working of 555 IC.

Equipment’s and materials required:

▪ Base frame with power supply and interface to pc i.e. DL 3155AL2.

▪ Time electronic board Model DL 3155M16.
▪ Multimeter.
▪ Function Generator.
▪ Oscilloscope.
▪ Connecting Cables and wires.

Discussion:
The 555 timer consists basically of two comparators, a flip-flop, a discharge transistor,
and a resistive voltage divider, as shown in (Figure.10.1). The flip-flop (bi-stable multi vibrator) is a
digital device. Briefly it is a two-state device whose output can be at either a high voltage level (set, S)
or a low voltage level (reset, R). The state of the output can be changed with proper input signals.

Figure 10.1 Basic 555 Internal construction

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The resistive voltage divider is used to set the voltage comparator levels. All three resistors are of equal
value: therefore, the upper comparator has a reference of 2/3VCC, and the lower comparator has a reference
of 1/3VCC. The comparators` outputs control the state of the flip-flop. When the triggering voltage goes
below 1/3VCC, the flip-flop sets, and the output jumps to its high level. The threshold input is normally
connected to an external RC timing circuit. When the external capacitor voltage exceeds 2/3\/CC, the upper
comparator resets the flip- flop, which in turn switches the output back to its low level. When the device
output is low, the discharge transistor (Qd,) is turned on and provides a path for rapid discharge of the
external timing capacitor. This basic operation allows the timer to be configure with external components
as an oscillator, a one-shot, or a time-delay element. The operation of the timer 555 as a stable multi
vibrator is obtained by imposing that Us = Ut= Uc (Figure10.3) therefore both the threshold and the trigger
voltage depend on the voltageat the ends of the capacity C external to the 555.

Circuit Diagram:

The figure (10.2) shows that C is unloaded,

Figure: 10.2 Connection Diagram

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Experimental Result:

Figure: 10.3 Output waveform of 555 timer

Table 10.1 calculating values for F(hz)

RA(Ω) RB(Ω) C1(µF) F(hz) F(hz)

calculated measured

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Review Question:

1) What is 555 timer IC?

2) What functions can be achieved by 555 timer IC?

Conclusion:

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 LAB EXPERIMENT NO: 11
PHOTO-COUPLER

Objectives:

▪ To analyze the characteristics of photo couplers

▪ Performing the photo-coupler control circuit

Equipment’s and materials required:

▪ Power supply unit kl-51001

▪ Isolation transformer kl-58002
▪ Module kl-53008
▪ Multi-meter
▪ Function generator

Discussion:

Light emitting devices and light sensing devices have major applications in areas where electrical
isolation between the input signal and the output is important. Figure 11.1 and 11.1.1 show the
appearance and circuit symbol of a photo coupler respectively, optical isolator or phototransistor
coupled pair.
A C

Figure: 11.1 Photo coupler circuit Figure:11.1.1 Photo coupler shape

The advantage of photo-coupler over relays and transformer are low cost
▪ Small size and light weight
▪ High speeds switching with bounce less4 No contact spikes
Transistor Q1 and photo coupler form the photo coupler controller. Transistor Q3 and Q4 and relay
form the control circuit. When DC 5V is applied to the base of Q1, the collector current of Q1 drives
the LED of the photo coupler to light and the phototransistor conducts. The voltage across R3 drives
Page | 32
 both Q3 and Q4 to conduct. Thus relay is energized and LED2 lights.

Circuit diagram:

Figure 11.2 shows circuit diagram of photo-coupler.

DC 12 V

Figure: 11.2 Circuit diagram of photo coupler

Procedure:

The experiment begins by setting up the photocopier module on a stable surface, carefully identifying the
input and output sides. The input side is connected to a power supply, ensuring proper polarity and voltage
levels. Upon powering on, the LED in the photocopier emits infrared light, a phenomenon observed during
this step. It is crucial to confirm that there is no direct electrical connection between the input and output
sides, emphasizing the device's purpose of electrical isolation. The output side is then connected to an
oscilloscope or amplifier to observe the electrical response generated by the photo detector. Variations in
the input signal are introduced to demonstrate the modulation of the optical signal. The experiment
highlights the significance of electrical isolation by briefly interrupting the optical path, showcasing the
impact on the output signal. Finally, a discussion ensues on the practical applications of photocopiers in
scenarios requiring electrical isolation, such as power supply circuits or communication systems. Safety
precautions are emphasized throughout the experiment, urging careful handling and adherence to voltage
and current limits.

Page | 33
Experimental Results:

Table 11.1 Relation between V and I

ILED(mA) Vce (V) IR2(mA) VR2(V)

Graph 11.1 curve between V and I

Review questions:

1) How a photo coupler works?

2) What are main components of a photo coupler device?

3) Write few applications of photo coupler device.

Conclusion:

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 LAB EXPERIMENT NO.12

HARTLEY OSCILLATOR

Objectives:

▪ To demonstrate the working of Hartley Oscillator.

▪ To design and set up a Hartley oscillator using BJT and to observe thesinusoidal
output waveform.

Equipment’s and materials required:

▪ Transistor.
▪ Capacitors & Inductors
▪ Function Generator.
▪ Oscilloscope.
▪ Connecting Cables and wires

Discussion:

The Hartley oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit in which the oscillation frequency is determined
by a tuned circuit consisting of capacitors and inductors, that is, an LC oscillator. The Hartley oscillator
is distinguished by a tank circuit consisting of two series-connected coils (or, often, a tapped coil) in
parallel with a capacitor, with an amplifier between the relatively high impedance across the entire LC
tank and the relatively low voltage/high current point between the coils. The Hartley oscillator is the
dual of the Colpitts oscillator which uses a voltage divider made of two capacitors rather than two
inductors. Although there is no requirement for there to be mutual coupling between the two coil
segments, the circuit is usually implemented using a tapped coil, with the feedback taken from the tap,
as shown here. The optimal tapping point (or ratio of coil inductances) depends on the amplifying
device used, which may be a bipolar junction transistor.
Typically, Hartley oscillator shown in Figure 12.1:

Figure 12.1 Hartley tank-circuit

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Circuit diagram:

The schematic diagram of Hartley is presented in Figure 12.2

Figure 12.2 Hartley Oscillator

Procedure:

▪ Connect +5V DC Power Supply at their indicated position from external source
▪ Connect the capacitors of C1=1uf.
▪ Connect the capacitors of L1= L2=1mh.
▪ Record the value of output frequency on oscilloscope.
▪ Calculate the frequency by given equation.

Experimental Results:

Graph 12.1 Shows curve between frequency and time

Page | 36
Table 12.1 Shows relation between calculated and measured values of frequency.

Calculated Value Measured Value

Review questions:

1. What are the applications of Hartley Oscillator?

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

2. What type of feedback must be given to Hartley oscillators?

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

3. How many Capacitors are there in the tank circuit of Hartley Oscillator?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

Conclusion:

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

Page | 37
 LAB EXPERIMENT NO.13
COLPITTS OSCILLATOR

Objectives:

▪ To demonstrate the working of Colpitts Oscillator.

▪ To design and set up a Colpitts oscillator using BJT and to observe the
sinusoidal output waveform.

Equipment’s and materials required:

▪ Transistor.
▪ Multimeter
▪ Capacitors & Inductors
▪ Function Generator
▪ Oscilloscope.
▪ Connecting Cables and wires

Discussion:

The Colpitts Oscillator design uses two center-tapped capacitors in series with a parallel inductor
to form its resonance tank circuit producing sinusoidal oscillations The basic configuration of the
Colpitts Oscillator resembles that of the Hartley Oscillator but the difference this time is that the
center tapping of the tank sub-circuitis now made at the junction of a “capacitive voltage divider”
network instead of a tapped autotransformer type inductor as in the Hartley oscillator. The Colpitts
oscillator uses a capacitive voltage divider network as its feedback source. The two capacitors, C1
and C2 are placed across a single common inductor, L as shown. Then C1, C2 and L form the tuned
tank circuit with the condition for oscillations being: XC1 + XC2 = XL, the same as for the Hartley
oscillator circuit. The advantage of this type of capacitive circuit configuration is that with less self
and mutual inductance within the tank circuit, frequency stability of the oscillator is improved along
with a simpler design.
The Colpitts Oscillator is shown in Fig 13.1

Figure 13.1 Colpitts tank circuit

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Circuit diagram:

The schematic of Colpitts Oscillator is given in Figure.13.2

Figure.13.2 Colpitts oscillator

Procedure:

▪ Connect +5V DC Power Supply at their indicated position from external source
▪ Connect the capacitors of C1=C2= 10nf, C3=150nf, C4= 20nf.
▪ Connect the capacitors of L1=10mh, L3=1mh.
▪ Record the value of output frequency on oscilloscope.
▪ Calculate the resonant frequency using equation 1.

Experimental Results:

Graph 13.1 Shows curve between voltage and time

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Table 13.1 Shows Relation between Calculated frequency and measured frequency.

Calculated Value Measured Value

Review questions:
1. What are the applications of Colpitts Oscillator?

2.What is the advantage of using Colpitts oscillator over other types of oscillators?

3. How many Capacitors are used in Colpitts Oscillators?

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Conclusion:

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 LAB EXPERIMENT NO: 14

ACTIVE LOW PASS FILTER

Objectives:

▪ To demonstrate and understand the active low pass filter.

▪ To understand the working of active low pass filter.
Equipment’s and materials required:

▪ Multisim simulator
▪ Operational amplifier
▪ Capacitor
▪ Resistors
▪ Oscilloscope
Discussion:

An active low-pass filter is an electronic circuit that allows low-frequency signals to pass
through while attenuating high-frequency signals.
An active low-pass filter, using resistors and capacitors in an op-amp feedback loop, lets low-
frequency signals pass while attenuating high frequencies. The filter's configuration sets the
cutoff frequency, beyond which high frequencies are reduced. At low frequencies, most of the
signal is fed back, minimizing attenuation. As input frequency surpasses the cutoff, high
frequencies are shunted to ground. The filtered output contains mainly low-frequency
components.
The frequency response of the circuit will be the same as that for the passive RC filter, except
that the amplitude of the output is increased by the pass band gain, AF of the amplifier. For a
non-inverting amplifier circuit, the magnitude of the voltage gain for the filter is given as a
function of the feedback resistor (R2 ) divided by its corresponding input resistor ( R1 ) value
and is given as:

DC gain = (1+ 𝑹𝟐/𝑹𝟏)

Circuit diagram:

The circuit diagram of active low pass filter is shown in figure 14.1

Figure 14.1 active low pass

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Frequency Response Curve:

The frequency curve of active low pass filter shown in Figure 14.2

Figure 14.2 Frequency curve

Changing the external impedance at the filter input alters the corner frequency. To avoid this,
place the capacitor in parallel with feedback resistor R2, as shown in Figure 14.1 isolating it
from the input while preserving the filter's characteristics.

However, the value of the capacitor will change slightly from being 100nF to 110nF to take
account of the 11k1Ω resistor, but the formula used to calculate the cut-off corner frequency is
given by:

FC = 1

2ΠRC2

Procedure on Multisim:

▪ Take an OP-amp as an active component

▪ Make passive low pass filter with resistor and capacitor
▪ Connect the low pass filter with the active component (op-amp) on its non-inverting side
▪ Give input voltage of 12 v peak-to-peak
▪ Give feedback with feedback resistor to inverting part of Op-amp and make it ground v=0
at inverting side
▪ Connect channel B of oscilloscope with input and channel A with output to see the results
and to analyse input and out waveforms

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Simulated circuit:

The model of active low pass filter shown in figure14.3

Figure 14.3 simulated model of active low pass filter

Output Results:

Graph 14.1 Shows curve between amplitude and frequency

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Review questions:

1. What is the purpose of a low-pass filter in electronic circuits?

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2. What is the main advantage of using an active low-pass filter over a passive one?
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3. What types of applications are low-pass active filters commonly used in?
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4. What are the limitations or drawbacks of low-pass active filters?

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Conclusion:

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