SCIENCE 5

QUARTER 2
Name

Grade and Section

 HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

Parts and Functions of Male Reproductive System

Penis – The external male organ that delivers semen to the female
reproductive organ.
Urethra – A muscular tube that serves as a passageway of the
semen from the gland outside the male reproductive organ.
Prostate Gland – A gland located between the bladder and the
penis. It produces fluid that nourishes and protects the sperm.
Seminal Vesicle – A saclike attached to the vas deferens. It
contributes to the semen production which provides energy for the
sperm cells’ motility.
Vas deferens – Is a long, muscular tube that serves as the
passageway of the sperm cells released from the epididymis. It also
connects the testes to the urethra.
Epididymis - It is a long-coiled tube. The function of Epididymis is to store and transport sperm cells which is created
in the testes.
Testes/Testis – Two egg-shaped located behind the penis inside the scrotum that produce sperm cell a male sex cells
and testosterone a male sex hormone.
Scrotum – A pouch of skin that hangs below the penis and holds the testes. Scrotum provides a cool place where the
testes can provide healthy sperm.
Cowper’s Gland - Responsible for releasing fluid that flushes out foreign matters and neutralized the acidic urine in
the urethra.

Parts and Functions of Female Reproductive System

OVARIES- Is the primary female sex organs. Every female has two
ovaries, one on the each side of the uterus. At birth, a girl has
already thousands of underdeveloped egg cells in her ovaries.
These egg cells become mature when the girl reaches puberty. It
also releases female sex cells called estrogen and progesterone.
OVIDUCTS- also known as fallopian tubes. It connects the ovaries
to the uterus. When the egg cell matures, they travel through the
fallopian tubes. The egg cell meets the sperm cell in this tube.
UTERUS- Also known as “womb”. The uterus is about the size of a
clenched fist. Its walls are largely made of muscles which can
contract and expand. The fetus or unborn baby develops inside the
uterus for a period of 9 months.
CERVIX- the narrow end of the uterus. It is also known as the neck
of the uterus. It connects the uterus to the vagina. During childbirth the cervix expands.
VAGINA- is also known as the birth canal. It is a hallow, muscular tube that extends from the cervix to the vaginal
opening called vulva. It expands during childbirth.

HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

MALE FEMALE
PARTS FUNCTIONS PARTS FUNCTIONS
Sex Organs Testes/Testis produce sperm cell a male sex Ovaries It releases egg cells and
cells and testosterone a male female sex hormones
sex hormone. such as estrogen and
progesterone
Hormones Testosterone Male sex hormone Estrogen and Female sex hormones
Progesterone
 Sex Cells Sperm Cells Male sex cells Egg Cells Female sex cells
Epididymis store and transport sperm Fallopian Tube . It connects the ovaries
cells which is created in the to the uterus. It is the
testes. passageway of egg cell
from ovary. It is a place
where egg cell and sperm
cells meet. Site of
fertilization
Vas Deferens that serves as the passageway Uterus It where the fetus or
of the sperm cells released unborn baby develops
from the epididymis
Seminal . It contributes to the semen Cervix . It is also known as the
Vesicles production which provides neck of the uterus. It
energy for the sperm cells’ connects the uterus to
motility. the vagina. During
childbirth the cervix
expands.

Prostate Gland . It produces fluid that
nourishes and protects the
sperm.
Vagina also known as the birth
canal. It is a hallow,
muscular tube that
extends from the cervix
to the vaginal opening
called vulva. It expands
during childbirth.

Cowper’s Responsible for releasing fluid

Gland that flushes out foreign
matters and neutralized the
acidic urine in the urethra.

Urethra that serves as a passageway of

the
Penis The external male organ that
delivers semen to the female
reproductive organ
Scrotum Scrotum provides a cool place
where the testes can provide
healthy sperm.

PHASES OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE

Menstruation is part of the menstrual cycle. It is referred to as woman’s monthly bleeding.
Menstrual cycle is when menstruation or periods come regularly. The menstrual cycle provides important body
chemicals, called hormones to keep you healthy. The rise and fall of levels of hormones during the month is responsible
in the control of the menstrual cycle.
The levels of estrogen, the female hormones, start to rise in the first half of the cycle. The hormones play an
important role in keeping you heathy, especially by helping you build strong bones and keep them strong as you get
older. Estrogen also makes the lining of the uterus (womb) grow and thicken. The lining of the womb is a place that will
nourish the embryo if pregnancy occurs.
The day count for menstrual cycle begins on the first day of menstruation when blood starts to come out of
the vagina. In this section, the length of menstrual cycle has been assumed to be 28 days (which is the average among
women). The entire duration of a Menstrual cycle can be divided into four main phases:
 PHASE 1 - Menstrual Phase
Menstrual phase begins on the first day of menstruation and
lasts till the 5th day of the menstrual cycle. The following events occur
during this phase:
• The uterus sheds its inner lining of soft tissue and blood
vessels which exits the body from the vagina in the form of menstrual
fluid.
• Blood loss of 10 ml to 80 ml is considered normal.
• You may experience abdominal cramps. These cramps are
caused by the contraction of the uterine and the abdominal muscles to
expel the menstrual fluid.

PHASE 2 – Follicular Phase

This phase also begins on the first day of menstruation, but it
lasts till the 13th day of the menstrual cycle. The following events occur
during this phase:
• The pituitary gland secretes a hormone that stimulates the egg
cells in the ovaries to grow.
• One of these egg cells begins to mature in a sac-like- structure
called follicle. It takes 13 days for the egg cell to reach maturity.
• While the egg cell matures, its follicle secretes a hormone that
stimulates the uterus to develop a lining of blood vessels and soft tissue
called endometrium.

PHASE 3 – Ovulation Phase

On the 14th day of the cycle, the pituitary gland secretes a
hormone that causes the ovary to release the matured egg cell.
The released egg cell is swept into the fallopian tube by the cilia
of the fimbriae. Fimbriae are finger like projections located at the end of
the fallopian tube close to the ovaries and cilia are slender hair like
projections on each Fimbria.
• The egg then travels into the uterus. It takes about three to
four days for the egg to travel toward the uterus.

PHASE 4 – Luteal Phase

This phase begins on the 15th day and lasts till the end of the
cycle. The following events occur during this phase:
• The egg cell released during the ovulation phase stays in the
fallopian tube for 24 hours.
• If a sperm cell does not impregnate the egg cell within that
time, the egg cell disintegrates.
• The hormone that causes the uterus to retain its
endometrium gets used up by the end of the menstrual cycle. This
causes the menstrual phase of the next cycle to begin.
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS OF ANIMALS

Reproductive System of a Butterfly

Animals, like humans also reproduce to increase and propagate their kind. Have you seen your pet dog give
birth to puppies or your cat to kittens? In the farm, perhaps you have seen a cow suckling its calf, or piglets sucking
milk from their mother. In this new lesson, we will learn about the different ways animals reproduce.

Butterflies undergo INTERNAL FERTILIZATION which means that the male butterfly inserts and deposits his sperm
cell inside the female butterfly’s body.
• Reproduction, the process where sperm meets the egg, occurs internally (inside the body of the female butterfly)
• When butterflies reach adulthood, they are now ready to mate and reproduce.
• Male butterflies compete with other male butterflies to win a female butterfly.
• They undergo courtship period, a stage where male butterflies fly above the female butterfly, and they flirt.
• During mating, the male and female butterfly joins their abdomen where the male inserts his aedeagus (penis) to
the female butterfly’s vagina.
• When a butterfly lays and egg, a caterpillar will emerge, and a new life cycle will begin.

Reproductive System of a Mosquito

The female reproductive system of mosquitoes are made
up of a pair of ovaries, accessory glands, one or more
spermathecae, and ducts connecting these parts. The ovaries make
eggs and accessory glands produce the substances to help package
and lay the eggs. Spermathecae store sperm for varying periods of
time and, along with portions of the oviducts, can control sperm
use.
The components of the male reproductive system are the
testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicle, accessory glands and
aedeagus. The main functions of the organs are to produce,
maintain, transport and nourish sperm and protective fluid
(semen).To discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract.
Every living organism reproduce by either of the two
modes, sexual reproduction or asexual reproduction. Sexual
reproduction takes place when sex cells from two parent animals ( one male and one female) unite to form a new
animal. Animals have sex organs that produce sex cells or gametes . There are two types of sex cells or gametes . The
egg cell for females and sperm cell for males. Fertilization takes place when a sperm cell unites with the egg cell.
Asexual reproduction does not need one male and one female parent to produce an offspring . A single parent organism
simply makes identical copies of itself.
 Based from the process of reproduction above mosquitoes reproduce sexually. A female mosquito lives for
about a month and mates only once. Male mosquito continues to mate until they die. The sperm received by the
female, is stored in special organ called spermatheca. The female then suck blood to get the basic compounds they
need to produce eggs. These molecules help bring sperm and eggs together.

TWO TYPES OF REPRODUCTION TWO TYPES OF FERTILIZATION

Reproductive System of Frog

Almost all frogs species utilize external fertilization. During the
breeding months, the female call to its mate using a special code (we hear
this as a “croak-ing” sound. The female frog leaps its way to a pond or pool
of water while the male frog, characterized by its smaller size, clings to its
back in what referred to as mating embrace or amplexus.
The female then lays thousands of eggs in the water. In turn, the
male releases his sperm cells which will swim toward the eggs and fertilize
them. The sperm typically has flagella, a threadlike body part that helps it
to swim.
There are more eggs to be fertilized in species that utilize external
fertilization than those that have their egg of eggs fertilized internally. The
same can be said of their sperm. There are a lot more risks to the egg that
is fertilized in the environment, like environment conditions and predators,
thus, the quantity of eggs ensures that more will survive.

Reproductive System of Dogs and Cats

Sexual reproduction is the production of a new organism from two parents by making use of their sex cells
or gametes. In this process male gametes fuses with a female gamete to form a new cell called ‘zygote’. This zygote
then grows and develops into a new organism in due course of time. Sometimes sex cells or gametes are also called
as germ cells. The cats and dogs are all reproduced by the method of sexual reproduction.
 Four Phases of Female Dogs Reproductive Cycle
Female dogs that have not been spayed (bitches) typically have 2 estrus or “heat” periods per year
(about 6 months apart), each lasting about 2 to 3 weeks. In some dogs, the intervals between estrus are
much longer. The first heat occurs between 6 and 15 months of age, depending on the size of the dog (later
in larger breeds). Females can become pregnant during their first heat or any later heat period.
Male dogs do not have a sexual “cycle.” Rather, they respond to females in heat at any time of year.
Males are most fertile when fully mature.
 REPRODUCTIVE PARTS OF A PLANT
Plant reproduction is the production of new offspring in plants, which can be accomplished by sexual or
asexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction produces offspring by the fusion of gametes, resulting in offspring genetically different
from the parent or parents.
Asexual reproduction produces new individuals without the fusion of gametes, genetically identical to the
parent plants and each other, except when mutations occur.
Flowers are the attractive parts of the plant which are used for reproduction.

• The receptacle is the enlarged upper end of a flower stalk which

bears the flower or group of flowers.
• Sepals are modified leaves which enclose and protect the other
parts of a flower when it is still a bud. When the flower blooms, the
sepal supports the bottom of the flower. A group of sepals is called
calyx.
• Petals form the most obvious part of a flower. Most petals are
brightly colored to attract insects for pollination. A group of petals
is called corolla.

• Stamen is the male part of a flower. It consists of the filament

and the anther. The filament holds the anther in a position tall enough to release the pollen (male sex cells).
The anther consists of two lobes that contain pollen sacs. Pollen sacs have pollen grains that are released by
the anther when they mature.
• The pistil is the female part of a flower. It consists of the stigma, style, and ovary.
stigma is a swollen structure at the end of the style. It receives the pollen grains. The mature stigma
secretes a fluid that stimulates the pollen grains to germinate.
style is a stalk that connects the stigma to the ovary.
ovary is the female reproductive part of the flower.
• Plant sexual reproduction happens when pollen grains are transferred from the anthers (male) into the
stigmas (female). The transfer of the pollen grains from the anther to the stigma is called pollination.
NATURAL VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
The method of growing a new plant without using seeds and reproducing new plants from some of their
body parts is called asexual reproduction.
Most non-flowering plants are able to reproduce on their own without the need for a partner plant nor a
pollinator. These plants actually grow from a part of the parent plant instead. They become exact copy of the parent
plant. New plants can grow either from a leaf, stem, or root of a single parent plant.
TUBER- a fleshy thick underground stem. They bear small scale-like leaves and tiny buds called eyes. When
the eyes are separated from the parent plant, they may sprout new shoots. (examples: potato stem, sweet potato-
root) CORM- a short, vertical stem (examples: gladiolus, taro or gabi)
RHIZOMES- is an underground stem which grow horizontally, sideward at or just below the soil surface. -It
has eye-like structures called nodes. It produces leaves and flowers that rise above the soil and roots below. It also
produces buds that develop into branches. (examples: ginger, lotus)
BULBS- a large, fat rounded underground stem from which a new plant grows. – Large-rounded buds with a
small basal stem at the lower end. - The bud has fleshy, scale-like, overlapping leaves. - Simply taking a bulb or two
from a parent plant and transferring them to a new location will enable you to grow ne plants. (examples: onion,
tulip)
STOLON/RUNNER- modified stem that crawls horizontally along the surface of the ground. It has nodes
where the new plant gets separated from the parent plant. The runner can be cut, and the new plant can be
transferred to another place for it to continue growing. (examples: strawberry, bermuda grass)
SUCKERS/SHOOTS- are small plants that grow around the main plant. These shoots grow their own roots and
later unroll as new plants grow which can be separated from the main plant. (examples: banana)
 LEAVES- some plants have leaves which young plants grow. The new plants grow along the edges of the
parent plant leaf. The veins of the leaf have to be cut then the leaf have to be cut then the leaf is left in the moist soil,
Tiny roots will appear from the leaf and tiny stems will appear from the edge. (example: katakataka, begonia)

MODE OF REPRODUCTION OF NON-FLOWERING PLANTS

Like ferns, mosses undergo Alternation of Generations. This means that they also go through sexual
and asexual reproduction.
 In the diagram, you will see that moss goes through a series of events in reproduction. It shows the
two generations. These are:
1. Gametophyte generation or sexual phase gives rise to moss plants producing male and female
gametes. It includes the following events:
a. Germination of spore. It germinates when it falls on damp and shaded soil.
b. Production of buds and grow into leafy plants. These leafy plants will give rise to male and
female organs.
c. Production of male and female gametes by leafy plants.
2. Sporophyte generation or asexual phase gives rise to a moss plant that produces spores
enclosed in a capsule. It includes the following events:
a. Fertilization of an egg by a sperm. In the presence of water such as rainwater or dew, the
sperm swims to reach the egg.
b. Development of the fertilized egg or zygote into a plant with slender stalk and at the tip of
which a spore producing capsule is formed.
c. Formation of spores inside the capsule and will be released when they mature.

FERN’S MODE OF REPRODUCTION

Ferns are seedless vascular plants that have true roots, stems, and leaves. Let us look at the parts and see
how it differs to other plants.

Because of the limited parts compared to a regular plant, ferns undergo alternation of generation in
its life cycle. Alternation of Generation refers to a cycle that alternates both sexual and asexual
reproduction of a fern. There are two generations in the cycle. They are:
1. Gametophyte generation or the sexual phase that involves the union of sex cells through
fertilization. The fertilized egg then will be developed into a young fern.
2.Sporophyte Generation or the asexual phase involves germination of spores which are released
from the spore case when matured. It germinates when it falls on the damp and shaded soil; hence,
another life cycle begins.
 The seeds for new life are found inside fruit. They contain everything necessary for the growth and
development of a new plant. The three primary parts of a seed are the embryo, endosperm, and seed coat.
The embryo is the young multicellular organism before it emerges from the seed. The endosperm is a source
of stored food, consisting primarily of starches. The seed coat consists of one or more protective layers that
encase the seed.
The mature embryo consists of an embryonic root known as the radicle, an embryonic shoot, and one
or two cotyledons. The embryonic shoot, known as the plumule, has two main parts, the epicotyl and the
hypocotyl. The epicotyl is the portion of the embryonic stem above the point at which the stem is attached
to the cotyledon(s). The hypocotyl is the portion below the point of attachment. The hypocotyl is connected
to the radicle. Mongo bean is an example of a dicot plant which has two cotyledons.

1. Seed
• The life of a mung bean begins with a seed.
• The inside is protected by hard coat over the seed's entire surface.
2. Germination
• Mung bean seeds usually take between two and five days to sprout.
• At this point, mung beans are often harvested for food as bean
sprouts.
3. Maturation • As it matures, the plant will put forth stems that will
grow either as indeterminate plants that grow as vines or terminate plants
that grow in bush form.
4. Reproduction
As the plant matures, small, pale yellow flowers will appear in clusters of 12 to 15 toward the top of
mung bean plant. The flowers are self-pollinating and do not require wind or insects. Pollen, the male portion
of the plant, forms as grains at the end of an organ called the anther. When pollen comes in contact with the
female portion of the plant, known as the stigma, sperm is released. The sperm travels down through the
stigma into the ovary, where fertilization occurs.
• As the plant matures, small, pale yellow flowers will appear in clusters of 12 to 15 toward the top of
mung bean plant.
• When pollen comes in contact with the female portion of the plant, known as the stigma, sperm is
released.
5. Fruiting
• Once fertilized, the flower will fall away and a bean pod will begin to form.
• The pod will eventually dry, at which point the seeds can be harvested.
 INTERACTIONS AMONG ORGANISMS
An individual living thing of any kind is called organism. The group of organisms that interact with
non-living things form an ecosystem. These organisms do not live by themselves. They live in ecological
community and are constantly interacting with other organisms. They can have many different types of
interactions which are needed to maintain balance in ecosystem.
• Commensalism- is an interaction in which only one organism benefits, while the other organism is
neither helped nor harmed.
• Mutualism- is a kind of relationship that benefits both organisms. To provide protection and have a
steady supply of food are the common reasons why two organisms shared such partnership.
• Parasitism- is an interaction in which one organism benefits and the other is harmed. The organism
that benefits is called parasite and lived in the organism that it harmed and called as host.
• Predation- is an interaction where one organism kills and eat another organism. The predator is the
organism that kills while prey is the one being eaten.
• Competition- is a type of relationship in which organisms struggle with one another and with their
environment to get the materials they need to live and survive. When there are limited
amount of food, water, shelter and light in environment, competition occurs.
 TWO COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem is a community of living organism interacting with one another and their physical
environment.
 Biotic Environment – consist of all living things that an organism interrelates with.  The biotic component
of an ecosystem has been classified into three groups:
1. Producers (green plants)
2. Macro consumers (usually animals)
3. Micro consumers or decomposers (organisms like bacteria and fungi).

 Abiotic Environment – refers to all non-living things that affect the quality of life or existence of an organism.
 Various important abiotic factors have been classified as follows:
1. Climatic factors: These include light, temperature, precipitation, atmospheric humidity and wind.
2. Topographic factors: These include altitude, surface slope and exposure, etc.
3. Edaphic factors: These include soil and substratum.
 ESTUARIES AND INTERTIDAL ZONES
An estuary is a body of water near the coast where fresh water and streams flows into the ocean and
mixes with salt water. In other words, these are areas near the sea where the river tributaries and the sea
meet. The water in this environment is brackish (a mixture of fresh water and salt water). This unique
environment has protected and evolved unique plant and animal species.
In estuaries, the water level and salinity rise and fall with tides. These also affect the rise and fall of
seasons. However, many estuaries are protected from the full force of ocean waves, winds, and storms by
such landforms as barrier islands or peninsulas. An estuary may be called a bay, a lagoon, or a harbor if
freshwater mixes with salt water.
In the Philippines, there are large estuaries that play an important role in fishery grounds for certain
fishes and crustaceans. On of the most popular estuaries in the Philippines is the Puerto Princesa
Underground River in Palawan.
Why Are Estuaries Important?
1. They serve as the habitat and breeding or spawning ground of many organisms such as birds, fish,
amphibians, insects, algae varieties, and crustaceans. Many organisms live, feed, nest, and reproduce in these
places.
2. Many people get their livelihood in areas near estuaries. Since there is an abundance of animals
and other organisms, estuaries provide an excellent area for breeding types of animals for livelihood, food
and recreation.
3. Estuaries also serve as wind, storm surge, and wave breakers. The surrounding wetlands absorb
much of the force that is carried by these naturally occurring weather phenomenon.

Estuaries are usually divided into three tidal zones: supratidal, intertidal, and subtidal zones. They
are subject to changing water levels, temperature, oxygen content, and levels of light. There are different
organisms that live in different zones depending on what conditions they are adapted to.
1. Supratidal zone.
Supratidal zone is seldom covered with water. This zone is the area above the high tide water
line that extends upland. Only a part of this zone can receive moisture from wave splashes. Some
examples of organisms in the zone include various trees, and shrubs, mammals, such as deer and
fox, birds, reptiles, and more.
2. Intertidal zone.
The intertidal zone is the area that is exposed to the air at low tide and submerged at high
tide. In this zone, organisms adapt to extremely harsh conditions. The water can be very salty at
one time and very fresh at another. When tides are low for extended periods of time, these areas
can also become very dry. Temperatures can also range from very hot from the sun’s heat to
freezing in colder climates. Some organisms that can live in this zone are shore birds, marsh
grasses, shrimp and fish (when water is present), snails, mussels and oysters, burrowing worms
and more.
3. Subtidal zone.
This zone is the area that is always covered with water since this is the area below the low tide
water line. The organisms here cannot tolerate very long exposure to the air or sun. Some
organisms that live in this zone includes: eel grass, algae, fish, starfish, shrimp, crabs, dolphins,
and more.
The intertidal zone is that area between tidemarks. This place is also known as littoral zone.
It is a stretch of shoreline that is exposed when the tide is low, and submerged when the tide is
high. Many organisms may be found in the ecosystem. The rocky beaches have been observed to
be highly populated and have highly diverse communities of marine life. Organisms that live in
 this zone are small and have uncomplicated structure suited for harsh environment conditions
like extreme changes in moisture, wave action, temperature, and salinity.
Moisture. Marine animals obviously need water to survive. Since the intertidal zone is not
always submerged in water, there will be instance when the animals are exposed to dryness.
These must be adapted to wet and dry conditions.
Wave actions. The strength of the waves can easily dislodge and carry them away. Thus, to
survive, the organisms of the area are find ways to avoid being carried off.
Temperature. The organism as are subjected to constantly changing temperatures. From the
moderate temperature of the water when submerged, to the air temperature when exposed at
low tides. Salinity.
Salinity refers to the salt content. In the intertidal zone, salinity may be very high, from the
evaporation of sea water trapped in rocks leaving behind salt deposits or low, as the salt content
may be washed away by rain water.

Divisions in the Intertidal Zones

The intertidal zone is divided into subzones based on the movement of the tides. These are the high
tide, middle tide, and low tides.
1. High tide zone. This zone is covered during spring high tides only and has a high salinity because of
greater exposure to the sun. The zone is shared by land and marine organisms alike. There is little vegetation
in this area. Organisms adapt to high temperatures, salinity, dryness, and wave action.
2. The middle tide zone. The middle tide zone is just below the high tide zone. It is exposed and
submerged at nearly equal periods of time for each rise and fall of the tide. The temperature is not as high
as that of the higher zone because of the constant movement of waves; thus, there is also lesser salinity
but more wave action. Seaweeds and other marine vegetation are much more abundant in the middle tide
zone and the organisms are larger than the ones in the high tide zone.
3. Low tide zone. The low tide zone is under water most of the time. It only gets exposed during spring
tides when the low tides are a little lower than usual. Because of this, the organism inhabiting this are not
suited for dryness and extreme temperatures. The degree of salinity is the same as that of the sea water.
There is much more marine vegetation in the low tide zone, thus, there are more organisms here than in
the higher zones. Most of the marine creatures may also be seen in this zone.
THREAT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES TO ESTUARIES
THREAT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES TO INTERTIDAL ZONES
 Estuaries and Intertidal zones plays a vital role in the lives of mankind who lives near it. However, due to
natural phenomenon, which are unavoidable, that happens greatly affects the two. Here are some of the
examples.

• Climate Change- causes rise in global temperature, moreover, in the water temperature. When the
temperature rise, there will be great effect to the living things in the estuaries and inter tidal zones.

• Decrease in Fish and Wildlife populations- due to scarcity of the food the animals and plants may die
or migrate to another place.

• Habitat Loss and Degradation- these habitats became vulnerable to storms and sea level rise due to
effect of storms or weather disturbance.

• Nutrient loads- nitrogen is needed in the ecosystem, however, too much of it causes algal bloom or
too many algae which in turn harms the other animals and plants in the habitat. This is commonly known as
red tide.

• Stormwater- the rise of water due to strong winds can cause severe harm to the estuaries and intertidal
zones, its biotic and abiotic components.

• Erosion-when water from highlands carry too much soil due to strong current of water.