Q Explain the process/mechanism of chip formation with explanatory diagrams.

Ans) A typical metal cutting process can be schematically represented as in Fig. 14.1.
A wedge shaped tool is made to move relative to the workpiece. As the tool makes
contact with the metal,

it exerts a pressure on it resulting in the compression of the metal near the tool tip.
This induces shear-type deformation within the metal and it starts moving upward
along the top face of the tool. As the tool advances, the material ahead of it is sheared
continuously along a plane called the Shear plane.
This shear plane is actually a narrow zone (of the order of about 0.025 mm) and
extends from the cutting edge of the tool to the surface of the workpiece. The cutting
edge of the tool is formed by two intersecting surfaces.
The surface along which the chip moves upwards is called “Rake surface” and the
other surface which is relieved to avoid rubbing with the machined surface, is called
“Flank”. The angle between the rake surface and the normal is known as “Rake angle”
(which may be positive or negative), and the angle between the flank and the
horizontal machined surface is known as the “relief or clearance angle”. Most cutting
processes have the same basic features as in Fig. 14.1, where a single point cutting
tool is used (a milling cutter, a drill, and a broach can be regarded as several single-
point tools joined together and are known as multi-point tools)

Q In an orthogonal cutting test on a MS hibe of size 150 mm diameter and 2.1

mm thickness conducted 90 mts. per minute and 0.21 mm per revolution feed.
The following data was recorded:
Cutting force = 1250 kgf
Feed force = 30 kgf
Chip thickness = 0.3 mm
Contact length =0.75 mm
Net Horse Power = 2 kW
Back rake = -10°
Compute shear, strain, strain energy per unit volume.
Analyse the different forces acting on the tool work-chip system in orthogonal
cutting with the use of Merchant force circle diagram.
OR
Discuss the various forces encountered in machining also explain. Merchant force
circle.
OR
Describe various forces encountered in machining. Explain the Merchant's circle.
OR
Explain cutting force analysis (Merchant's circle).

Ans)
FV – Force perpendicular to the primary
tool motion (thrust force)
Fs – Force along the shear plane
Ns – Force normal to the shear plane
F – Frictional force along the rake face
N – Normal force perpendicular to the
rake face

(b) Explain the terms any two of the following:

(i) Orthogonal cutting
 In orthogonal cutting, the cutting edge of the
tool is arranged perpendicular to the cutting
velocity vector, V,
In pure orthogonal cutting, i = 0°, Ce
= 0°, and λ = 90°. This is also known as
orthogonal system of second kind. When i =
0, and 0 < λ < 90°, it is called as orthogonal
system of first kind. A common example of
pure orthogonal cutting process is the turning
of a thin pipe with a straight edged tool set
normal to the longitudinal axes.
In almost all other machining operations, two
cutting edges take part in the cutting
operation, primary (principal) cutting edge
and the secondary cutting edge. The situation
where the primary cutting edge is
perpendicular to the cutting velocity vector is called” Restricted Orthogonal
Machining”. However, in practice, it is called as “Orthogonal machining”.

(ii) Undeformed chip thickness

Undeformed chip thickness is an important parameter in machining that refers to the
thickness of the chip that would be produced during machining if the tool were not
moving. It is a crucial factor in determining the machining performance of a process,
and is influenced by several factors, such as the cutting tool geometry, the cutting
conditions, and the material being machined.
Undeformed chip thickness plays a significant role in the generation of cutting forces
and temperature at the cutting interface. A smaller undeformed chip thickness results
in lower cutting forces and temperatures, which can help to reduce tool wear, improve
surface finish, and enhance the overall machining performance.
Undeformed chip thickness can be estimated using analytical models, such as the
Merchant's circle diagram, which considers the chip thickness, feed rate, and cutting
speed, or the Lee and Shaffer model, which accounts for the tool geometry and
material properties. Experimental methods can also be used to measure the
undeformed chip thickness, such as the use of specialized instruments like the
ultrasonic contact transducer.
The selection of the optimal undeformed chip thickness is dependent on the machining
application and the material being machined. For instance, in high-speed machining, a
smaller undeformed chip thickness is desirable to reduce the risk of thermal damage,
while in heavy-duty machining, a larger undeformed chip thickness may be preferable
to increase the material removal rate.
In conclusion, the understanding and control of the undeformed chip thickness is vital
for achieving the desired machining performance and improving the efficiency of the
machining process. By optimizing the undeformed chip thickness, manufacturers can
enhance their productivity, reduce manufacturing costs, and improve product quality.

(iii) Specific cutting pressure

Specific cutting pressure is a crucial parameter in machining that describes the
pressure exerted by the cutting tool on the workpiece material during the cutting
process. It is expressed in units of force per unit area (N/mm² or psi) and is influenced
by several factors, such as the cutting tool geometry, cutting speed, feed rate, and
workpiece material properties.
The specific cutting pressure is a key indicator of the cutting tool's efficiency and can
provide valuable information about the tool's wear and performance. It is also used to
estimate the machining parameters required to achieve a particular surface finish or
material removal rate.
The calculation of the specific cutting pressure involves the determination of the
cutting force and the contact area between the cutting tool and the workpiece. The
cutting force can be measured experimentally using force sensors, or it can be
estimated using analytical models based on the tool geometry and material properties.
The contact area can be calculated from the chip thickness, which is typically
estimated using the undeformed chip thickness.
The specific cutting pressure is influenced by the material properties of the workpiece,
such as its strength, ductility, and hardness. As the specific cutting pressure increases,
the risk of tool wear and damage also increases, which can adversely affect the
machining process and the quality of the finished product.
In practice, the specific cutting pressure is controlled by adjusting the cutting
parameters, such as the cutting speed and feed rate, and by selecting the appropriate
cutting tool geometry and material. The optimization of the specific cutting pressure
can lead to improved tool life, reduced machining time, and improved product quality.
In summary, specific cutting pressure is an essential parameter in machining that
describes the pressure exerted by the cutting tool on the workpiece material during the
cutting process. Its control is essential to optimize the machining performance,
improve the efficiency of the machining process, and enhance the quality of the
finished product

Q A mildsteel bar is turned a lathe having rotational speed of 200 rpm over its
120 mm length using 0.5 mm feed per revolution. If cutting force in 150 kg and
diameter of bar is 50 mm. Calculate
1)Power consumed in cutting
2)Time required for machining
3) Amount of heat generated during cutting.
c) Sketch a single point cutting tool and show on it the various tool elements and
tool angles.
OR
Draw diagrams showing geometry of a single point cutting tool. Describe the
effect of various tool angles on its performance.
OR
(a) Explain the following in short-
(i) Tool geometry
(ii) Single point cutting tool
(iii) Cutting tool angles
A single point cutting tool consists of a sharpened cutting part called its point and
theshank, Fig. 14.2. The point of the tool is bounded by the face (along which the
chips slide as they are cut by the tool), the side flank or major flank, the end flank, or
minor flank and the base.The side cutting edge, a-b, is formed by the intersection of
the face and side flank. The end cutting edge a-c is formed by the intersection of the
face and the end flank. The chips are cut from the work the piece by the side-cutting
edge. The point ‘a’ where the end and side-cutting edges meet is called the nose of the
tool. Fig. 14.2 is for a right hand tool

Shank. It is the main body of

the tool.
Flank. The surface or surfaces
below and adjacent to the
cutting edge is called flank of
the tool.
Face. The surface on which
the chip slides is called the
face of the tool.
Heel. It is the intersection of
the flank and the base of the
tool.
Nose. It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersect.
Cutting edge. It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material from
the workpiece. The total cutting edge consists of side cutting edge (major cutting
edge), end cutting edge (minor cutting edge and the nose).
The references from which the tool angles are specified are the ‘cutting plane’ and the
‘basic plane’ or the ‘principal plane’. The cutting plane is the plane tangent to the
cutting surface and passing through and containing the side cutting edge. The basic
plane is the plane parallel to the longitudinal and cross feeds, that is, this plane lies
along and normal to the longitudinal axis of the workpiece.

Q Differentiate between orthogonal and oblique cutting.

OR
Distinguish between orthogonal and oblique cutting

Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting

The cutting edge of the tool remains The cutting edge of the tool remains inclined
normal to the direction of tool feed or at an acute angle to the direction of tool feed
work feed. or work feed.
The cutting edge of the tool remains The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an
inclined at an acute angle to the angle with the normal to the cutting edge of
direction of tool feed or work feed. the tool. The angle is known as the chip flow
angle.
Here only two components of forces are Here three components of forces are acting:
acting: Cutting Force and Thrust Force. Cutting Force, Radial force, and Thrust Force
Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting
So the metal cutting may be considered or feed force. So the metal cutting may be
as a two-dimensional cutting considered as a three-dimensional cutting.
The cutting edge being non-oblique, the The cutting edge being oblique, the shear
shear force acts on a smaller area and force acts on a larger area and thus tool life is
thus tool life is decreased. increased
cutting edge is larger than cutting Cutting edge may or may not be larger than
width. cutting width.
The flow of the chip is perpendicular to The flow of chip is not perpendicular to
cutting edge. cutting edge
The tool has a lesser cutting life. The tool has a lesser cutting life.

Orthogonal
Oblique Cutting
Cutting

e) Show that when cutting metal orthogonally with a tool of zero rake angle the
rate of heat generation (P,) in the shear zone is given by
Ps = Fc Vc (1-μre)
for the above condition, calculate the mean shear zone temperature rise when the
metal has a specific cutting energy = 2.8 GN/m2 μ=1.0, re =0.2, 10 % of shear
zone heat conducted into workpiece = 7200 kg/m3 and C = 500 J/kg°K.

b) In an orthogonal cutting operation on a material with yield strength of 250

N/mm2 the following data is obtained:
Rake angle of the tool = 15°
Uncut chip thickness = 0.25mm
Width of chip = 2mm
Chip thickness ratio = 0.46
Friction angle = 40°
Determine the shear angle, cutting force component and resultant force on the
tool.

Q In what conditions built-up - edge (BUE) formation takes place. Write the
effect of BUE on the surface finish obtained.

Continuous chips with built up edge (BUE). When machining ductile materials,
conditions of high local temperature and extreme pressure in the cutting zone and also
high friction in the tool-chip interface, may cause the work material to adhere or weld
to the cutting edge of the tool forming the built-up edge. Successive layers of work
material are then added to the built-up edge. When this edge becomes larger and
unstable, it breaks up and part of it iscarried up the face of the tool along with the chip
while the remaining is left over the surface being machined, which contributes to the
roughness of the surface. The built-up edge changes its size during the cutting
operation. It first increases, then decreases, then again increases etc. This cycle is a
source of vibration and poor surface finish. Although, the built-up edge protects the
cutting edge of the tool, it changes the geometry of the cutting tool. Low cutting speed
also contributes to the formation of the built-up edge. Increasing the cutting speed,
increasing the rake angle and using a cutting fluid contribute to the reduction or
elimination of the built-up edge.

(b) Determine percentage change in cutting speed required to give 50% reduction
in tool life (i.e. to reduce tool life to 1/5 of its previons value). Take n = 0.2.
(b) What are the consequences of tool wear? Explain in short.

During any machining process the tool is subjected to three distinct factors :
forces,temperature and sliding action due to relative motion between tool and the
workpiece. Due to these factors, the cutting tool will start giving unsatisfactory
performance after some time. The loss of dimensional accuracy, increased surface
roughness, and increased power requirements etc. The unsatisfactory performance
results from tool wear due to its continued use. When the tool wears out, it is either
replaced or reconditioned,usually by grinding. This will result in loss of production
due to machine down time, in addition to the cost of replacing or reconditioning the
tool.
Tool wear or tool failure may be classified as follows :
(a) Flank wear.
(b) Crater wear on tool face.
(c) Localized wear such as the rounding of the cutting edge, and
(d) Chipping off of the cutting edge.

Q Explain the various factors that effect tool life.

Enumerate the factor affecting tool life. Briefly explain.

The variables that affect tool life are:

(i) cutting conditions,
(ii) tool geometry,
(iii) tool material,
(iv) work material, and
(v) cutting fluid
The effect of cutting speed, feed and depth of cut is represented in the above tool life
equation. If any of them increases, the tool life decreases Increasing the rake angle
decreases the cutting forces and the heat produced at the tool tip, therefore increases
tool life. However, increasing the rake angle to a large value reduces the tool material
available at the tool tip for conducting heat generated, thus increasing the tool tip
temperature. This would decrease the tool life.
 Work material also plays a very great
influence on the tool life. It is not the
hardness alone, but the physical
microstructure and the constituent phases
that make a large difference in the actual
tool life values.

Explain with the help of sketches the

different system of specifying tool
geometry.
The American Standard Association (ASA)
designation of the tool nomenclature is
purely geometrical innature and is not
related to the mechanics of the process.
ASA system specifies the tool geometry
with two intersecting orthogonal planes; one parallel to and the other perpendicular to
the axis of the cutting tool. Both of these orthogonal planes are perpendicular to the
base of the tool

l. In the ORS system (also called as the old

ISO system) the actual cutting plane is utilized
and all the angles are therefore measured in the
planes corresponding to the cutting tools. A
base plane is defined as the plane where the
base of the cutting tool is present. The cutting
plane is defined as the plane normal to the base
plane and passing through the principal cutting
edge (side cutting edge angle Cs in ASA). A
third plane called the orthogonal plane is
perpendicular to these two planes
● Base plane - PB – perpendicular to the cutting velocity vector
● Cutting plane - PC – plane perpendicular to PB and taken along the principal cutting
edge
● Orthogonal plane - PO – plane perpendicular to both PB and PC and the axes
The drawback of this system is that it needs some calculations to obtain setting angles
on tool grinding fixture.

Q What is chip brakes? Describe its various forms?

What is chip breaker? Explain the Different types of chip breakers ?

Chip breakers are the notches or the groups in the face of a tool parallel to the cutting
edge, to break continuity of the chips long chips interfere with the cutting operation
and can damage the surface of the finished part.

Chip breaker:
a continuous type of chip is quite troublesome, they should be broken into
comparatively small pieces for the ease of handling and to prevent it from becoming a
work hazard.
chip breakers are used to reduce the swarf into small pieces as they are formed with
the help of obstructions attached to the face of the tool.
continuous machining like turning of the child material produces continuous chips
which leaves to their handling and disposal problem in that case use of chip breakers
become very important.

Chip breakers are basically of two types :

• In-built type
• Clamped or attachment type In-built breakers are in the form of step or groove at the
rake surface near the cutting edges of the tools.
Such chip breakers are provided either Δ after
their manufacture – in case of HSS tools like
drills, milling cutters, broaches etc and brazed
type carbide inserts Δ during their manufacture
by powder metallurgical process – e.g., throw
away type inserts of carbides, ceramics and
cermets. The basic principle of forced chip
breaking is schematically shown in Fig. 7.2 when
the strain hardened and brittle running chip
strikes the heel, the cantilever chip gets forcibly
bent and then breaks.

The unique characteristics of in-built chip breakers are :

• The outer end of the step or groove acts as the heel that forcibly bend and fracture
the running chip
• Simple in configuration, easy manufacture and inexpensive
• The geometry of the chip-breaking features are fixed once made (i.e., cannot be
controlled)
• Effective only for fixed range of speed and feed for any given tool-work
combination.

(c) clamped type chip-breaker Clamped type chip

breakers work basically in the principle of stepped type
chipbreaker but have the provision of varying the width
of the step and / or the angle of the heel. Fig. 7.5
schematically shows three such chip breakers of
common use : • With fixed distance and angle of the
additional strip – effective only for a limited domain of
parametric combination • With variable width (W) only –
little versatile • With variable width (W), height (H) and
angle (β) – quite versatile but less rugged and more
expensive.
(c) Discuss dynomometers for drilling operations.
(a) Explain power and energy relationship for metal cutting? Explain briefly.
(b) Determine the temperature rise of the shear plane in orthogonal cutting of a
steel alloy of yield strength in share of 300N/mm2 with a tool of 10° rake angle,
the friction angle ẞ=42° and α = 1.

Q Discuss the various methods of evaluating machinability.

The machineability may be evaluated as given below :

1. Long tool life at a given cutting speed.
2. Lower power consumption per unit volume of metal removed.
3. Maximum metal removal per tool resharpening.
4. High quality of surface finish.
5. Good and uniform dimensional accuracy of successive parts.
6. Easily disposable chips.
The machineability rating or index of different materials is taken relative to the index
which is standardised. The machineability index of free cutting steel is arbitrarily
fixed at 100 per cent.
For the other materials, the index is found as below :
Machineability index, % = (Cutting Speed of Material for 20 min tool life / Cutting
speed of free cutting steel for 20 min tool life)x 100
Higher the tool life, the better is the machineability of a work material

Q A carbide cutting tool lasted for 2 hours while machining mild steel work
material at 45 m/min. Compute the tool life if a similar tool is used for machining
mild steel at 20% higher speed. Also, what will be the value of cutting speed if the
tool is required to machine for 3 hours without failing. Assume that n = 0.27.

Discuss the classification of cutting fluids. How does cutting fluid improve
the tool life?
What is the function of cutting fluid? Discuss its various types and its
properties.
Describe essential properties and functions of a cutting fluid.

The functions of cutting fluids, which often are erroneously called coolants are:
(i) to cool the tool and work piece
(ii) to reduce the friction
(iii) to protect the work against rusting
(iv) to improve the surface finish
(v) to prevent the formation of built up edge
(vi) to wash away the chips from the cutting zone
There are three basic types of cutting fluids used in metal cutting. They are:
Water based emulsions: Pure water is by far the best cutting fluid available because of
its highest heat carrying (high specific heat) capacity. Besides this it is cheap and
easily available. Its low viscosity makes it flow at high rates through the cutting fluid
system and also penetrates the cutting zone. However, water corrodes the work
material very quickly, particularly at high temperatures prevalent in the cutting zone as
well as the machine tool parts on which it is likely to spill. Hence other materials
would be added to water to improve its wetting characteristics, rust inhibitors and any
other additives to improve lubrication characteristics. These are also called as water
soluble oils.
Straight Mineral oils: These are the pure mineral oils without any additives. Their
main function is lubrication and rust prevention. These are chemically stable and
lower in cost. However, their effectiveness as cutting fluids is limited and therefore
would be used for light duty application only.
Mineral oils with additives (Neat oils): This is by far the largest variety of cutting
fluids available commercially. A number of additives have been developed which
when added to the mineral oils would produce the desirable characteristics for the
different machining situations. Many difficult to machine situations would be helped
by the use of these cutting fluids. These are generally termed as neat oils. The
additives generally improve the load carrying capacity as well as chemical activity.
Fatty oils are generally used for adding the load carrying properties. Other class of
additives termed as EP (Extreme Pressure) additives are used for more difficult to
machine situations. These EP agents come into effect whenever minute high-spots on
the mating surfaces break through the oil film and rub together to setup localised high
temperature spots. This high temperature causes the EP additives to react with the
adjacent metals and create an anti-welding layer of solid lubricant precisely where it is
required. The layer is continuously broken by the severe rubbing action between the
chip and the tool.
EP additives are basically chlorine, sulphur or a combination of both of them. As a
result, the anti-welding compounds formed in the cutting zone are iron chloride and
iron sulphide, both of which have very low shear strengths

(b) Write short notes on any two of the following:

(i) Friction in metal cutting
(ii) Thermal aspect of metal machining
(iii) Theories of mechanics of metal cutting

Q) What is tool wear? Explain the mechanisms of wear.

Define tool wear. Explain various types of tool wear.
Explain types of tool wear with their causes and remedies.

Cutting tools are subjected to extremely severe cutting conditions such as the
following:
● metal to metal contact with work and chip
● very high stress
● very high temperature
● virgin metal
● very high temperature gradients
● very high stress gradients
Because of all the above mentioned factors, the tool-chip and tool-work interfaces
exhibit the type of wears found. As tool wear progresses, cutting forces and vibrations
increase. Tool tip softens, flows plastically, and gets a blunt edge, which results in
further progression of plastic deformation from tool tip to the interior. After that the
tip of the tool almost gets separated.
There are two major types of wear found in tools. They are:
Crater wear: The crater is on the rake face and is more or less circular. The crater does
not always extend to the tool tip, but may end at a distance from the tool tip. It
increases the cutting forces, modifies the tool geometry, and softens the tool tip
Flank wear: Flank wear or wear land is on the clearance surface of the tool. The wear
land can be characterised by the length of wear land, w. It modifies the tool geometry
and changes the cutting parameters (depth of cut).
A number of wear mechanisms as follows have been proposed to explain the observed
tool wear phenomenon.
● Adhesion
● Abrasion
● Diffusion
● Fatigue
b) In arsessing the machenability in
different workpiece mattered the data
obtaining during matching is

Estimate the relative machinability

consider A as the standard material and
tool life as cutting speed of 50 mt / mim
criterion
c) Discuss Taylor's relationship for cutting
speed tool life?
1) What are the function of cutting fluid?.
e) For a metal machining the following information is available
Tool Change Time = 8 min
Tool regrind time = 5 min
machine running cost = 5 per hors
Tool depreciation per regrining = 30 paise, n = 0.25, C = 150
Calculate the optimum cutting speed

b) Mild steel bars of 50 mm diameter are to be turned over a length of 160 mm

with a depth of cut of 1.5 mm, feed of 0.2mm/rev at 230 rpm by HSS tools. If the

tool life equation is given by . Determine how many

components may be turned before regrinding the tool.
d) Describe composition, properties and applications of HSS and cemented
carbides.

Define machinability. What is mechinability index?

Machinability is the characteristic of the work material expressing its ease of

machining. However convenient it looks, it is a characteristic which is difficult to
quantify. Unfortunately like other characteristics of the material it is not a simple
property. For example, hard work materials are difficult to machine. However,
hardness alone would not be able to specify the machinability, since it also depends on
the other characteristics such as tool materials used, process parameters, etc.
Machinability index is used to compare the machinability of different materials in the
various cutting process. It is an attempt to quantify the relative machinability of
different material. The rated machinability may vary for different cutting operation
such as turning, milling, forming etc. In order to find the machinability index, factors
like tool material, tool geometry, tool life and other cutting conditions are fixed except
the speed. Then find the speed at which tool cut the material for a pre-determined tool
life. Then it is compared with a standard material. Here machinability of standard steel
is arbitrarily fixed as 100%. The slower speed indicates, low metal removal rate and
hence poor machinability.

Vi = Cutting speed of metal investigated for 20 minute tool life

Vs = Cutting speed of standard steel for 20 minute tool life

(b) For machining medium carbon steel, the conditions are Cost of operating
machine C1 = Rs. 0.3 per min Tool cost of tool change C2= Rs. 8
Cutting speed = V = 40 m/min
Tool life = T 50 min
Exponent index = n = 0.2
To find (a) Optimum tool life (TOPT)
(b) Optimum cutting speed (VOPT)
(b) Explain commonly used cutting tool materials.

The important characteristics expected of a cutting tool material:

(i) Higher hardness than that of the work piece material being machined, so that it can
penetrate the work material.
(ii) Hot hardness, which is the ability of the material to retain its hardness at elevated
temperatures, in view of the high temperatures existing in the cutting zone. This
requirement becomes more and more stringent with the increasing emphasis on higher
cutting speeds to bolster productivity.
(iii) Wear resistance – The chip-tool and chip-work interfaces are exposed to such
severe conditions that adhesive and abrasion wear is very common. The cutting tool
material should therefore have high abrasion resistance to improve the effective life of
the tool.
(iv) Toughness – Even though the tool is hard, it should have enough toughness to
withstand the impact loads at the beginning of the cut or to force fluctuations due to
imperfections in the work material. This requirement is more useful for interrupted
cutting, e.g. milling.
(v) Low friction – The coefficient of friction between chip and tool should be low
which would allow for lower wear rates and better chip flow.
(vi) Better thermal characteristics – Since a lot of heat is generated at the cutting zone,
it is necessary that the tool material should have higher thermal conductivity to
dissipate this heat in the shortest time, otherwise the tool temperature will become too
high thus reducing its life.

(a) Derive an equation to represent economic relationship of cutting during

machining.
(a) Explain the mica types of tool failure criteria.
(b) What are the different tool used for testing the effectiveness of a cutting
fluid ?Describe the health hazards due to cutting fluids.

Q Explain the advantages and limitations of cold, warm and hot working of
metals.

Metal deformation process which is carried out above recrystallisation temperature is

known as hot working process.
Advantages of hot working process
 It reduces strain hardening
 Its components have better toughness
 Its components have better ductility
 Its components have better resistance to shocks and vibrations
 Its components have better strength particularly the forged parts
 It reduces residual stress in the component
Disadvantages of hot working process
 Rapid oxidation of surface due to high temperature
 Its components have poor surface finish compared with cold rolled parts
  It requires expensive tools
Metal deformation process which is carried out below recrystallisation temperature is
known as cold working process.
Advantages of cold working
 Its components have high hardness
 Its components have high strength
 Its components have better surface finish compared with the components made
by hot working process
 Its components have high dimensional accuracy
 Tooling required is comparatively inexpensive
Disadvantages of cold working process
 It reduces toughness of components
 It reduces ductility of components
 Its components have poor resistance to shocks and vibrations
 It induces residual stress in the parts and proper heat treatment is required to
relieve this stress
WARM FORMING
Deformation produced at temperatures intermediate to hot and cold forming is known
as warm forming.
Compared to cold forming, warm forming offers several advantages such as
 Lesser loads on tooling and equipment
 Greater metal ductility
 Lesser work hardening
Compared to hot forming, warm forming offers several advantages such as:
 Lesser amount of heat energy requirement
 Better precision of components
 Lesser scaling on parts
 Lesser decarburization of parts
 Better dimensional control
 Better surface finish

Q Discuss wire drawing and the various defects that arise during the process.

A wire by definition, is circular with small diameters so that it is flexible. The process
of wire drawing is to obtain wires from rods of bigger diameter through a die. Wire
drawing is always a coldworking. A circular cross section billet is reduced in diameter
and increased in length by pulling through a conical die of semiangle α.The wire is
given a twist before allowing it to enter the die. This helps in removing the oxide layer
over it. The wire is then dipped into a lubricant. As lubricant hits the die, it looses all
its momentum which converts into pressure enabling the lubricant to enter into the
deformation zone .By increasing the semi die angle, the contact length between the
material and die decreases. This decreases the friction and hence drawing forces
decreases. When the semi die angle increases beyond a certain limit, the dead metal
zone start forming within the metal flow region. Hence, an optimum die angle should
be used.
Defects in Wire Drawing
1. If the oxide layers formed over wire surface are not removed properly, then these
impurities may be drawn to the centre causing centreline cracks.
2. Another type of defect is called seams, which are longitudinal scratches or folds in
the material. Seams may open up during the operation and they can cause serious
quality control problems in production.
3. In cold drawn products there will be residual stresses. These residual stresses can be
significant in causing stress corrosion cracking of the part over a period of time.

Q Discuss the application of forming limit diagrams.

Explain forming limit diagrams and their applications?

A forming limit diagram, also known as a forming limit curve, is used in sheet
metal forming for predicting forming behavior of sheet metal. The diagram attempts
to provide a graphical description of material failure tests, such as a punched dome
test.
In order to determine whether a given region has failed, a mechanical test is
performed. The mechanical test is performed by placing a circular mark on the work
piece prior to deformation, and then measuring the post-deformation ellipse that is
generated from the action on this circle. By repeating the mechanical test to generate a
range of stress states, the formability limit diagram can be generated as a line at which
failure is onse
For many years forming limit curves have been used in order to assess the sheet
material formability. They have been applied in the design stage of tools using
the finite element method as a simulation tool which is widely used in a production
environment.

Q Differentiate between any two of the following:

(ii) Direct and Indirect extrusion.

Forward or Direct Extrusion

The raw material in the form of a billet is heated to its forging temperature and fed
into the machine chamber.
In forward extrusion, ram and outgoing material move in the same direction.
Pressure is applied to the billet, forcing the material through the die.
Since billet moves relative to the chamber walls so there will be friction between the
walls and the billet.
Backward Extrusion or Indirect Extrusion
In backward extrusion die forms a part of the piston, so outgoing material will come
out in the opposite direction to that of the ram movement.
In this process, there is no relative motion between the billet and chamber walls. So
there is no friction between the billet and chamber walls. So less force is required in
this method in comparison to the direct extrusion.
A more complicated type of equipment is required because the plunger becomes weak
due to the reduction in its effective area of cross section.
(iii) Shape rolling and ring rolling
In the ring rolling process, a thick ring is expanded into a large diameter ring with a
reduced cross-section. The ring is placed between rolls and its thickness is reduced by
bringing the rolls closer together as they rotate. Since the volume of the ring remains
constant during deformation, the reduction in thickness is compensated by an increase
in the ring's diameter.
The ring shaped blank may be produced by such means as by cutting from a plate, by
piercing or by cutting a thick walled pipe. Various shapes can be ring rolled by the use
of shaped rolls. Typical applications of ring rolling are large rings for rockets and
turbines, gearwheels rims, ball bearing races, flanges and reinforcing ring for pipes.
The ring-rolling process can be carried out at room or at elevated temperature
depending on the size strength and ductility of the workpiece material. Compared to
other manufacturing process capable of making the similar parts, the advantages of
this process are short production times, material saving, close dimensional tolerance
and favorable grain flow in the product.
7. Shape-Rolling Operations
In addition to flat rolling, various shapes can be produced by shape rolling straight and
long structural shapes, such as solid bars channels, I-beams and rail road. Rails are
rolled by passing the stock through a set of specially designed rolls. Because the
materials' cross-section to be reduced non uniformly, the design of a series of rolls
requires considerable experience in order to avoid external and internal defects, to
hold dimensional tolerance and to reduce roll wear.

a) Explain the following terms:

i) Offset yield strength
ii) Striking friction
iii) Flow curve
iv) Strain hardening coefficient
1) Briefly explain the principle of rolling with a neat sketch. Also define the
backward slip, forward slip and draft.
3)Explain the upper and lower bound holographs in sheet metal working.

a) Explain the principle of rolling with a neat sketch. Why smaller diameter rolls
are preferred for larger reduction.

b) Explain upper and lower bound holographs in sheet metal working.

c) Explain backward extension with a sketch. What are the advantages of
backward extension over forward extension?
d) Explain deformation behaviour of metals in rolling. Define the following terms
i) Angle of bite
ii) Neutral plane
iii) Roll passes

(a) Explain the mechanism of sheet metal cutting with a neat sketch.

The metal is brought to the plastic stage by pressing the sheet between two shearing
blades so that fracture is initiated at the cutting points. The fractures on either side of
the sheet further progressing downwards with the movement of the upper shear finally
result in the separation of the slug from the parent strip. The metal under the upper
shear is subjected to both compressive and tensile stresses as shown in Fig. 8.2. In an
ideal shearing operation, the upper shear pushes the metal to a depth equal to about
one third of its thickness. Because of pushing of the material into the lower shear, the
area of cross section of the metal between the cutting edge of the shears decreases and
causes the initiation of the fracture. This portion of the metal which is forced into the
lower shear is highly burnished and would appear as a bright band around the blank
lower portion. The fractures which are initiated at both the cutting points would
progress further with the movement of the upper shear and if the clearance is
sufficient, would meet, thus completing the shearing action

(b) Explain the effect of punch-die clearance in press-working operation, with

suitable sketches.
(a) What is deep drawing operation? Explain its mechanism.

DEEP DRAWING
In deep drawing, which is also called cup drawing or radial drawing, flat thin sheets
(blanks) are formed into cup shaped components by pressing the central portion of the
sheet into die opening using a punch to draw the metal into the desired shape.
The blank may be circular or rectangular, or of a more complex
outline.
Blank holder is loaded by a blank holder force, which is
necessary to prevent wrinkling and to control the material flow
into the die cavity.
The punch is pushed into the die cavity, simultaneously
transferring the specific shape of the punch and the die to the
blank.

Q Explain the commonly found defects in deep drawn parts,

using suitable sketches.

Defects in Deep Drawing

Wrinkle : An insufficient blank holder causes wrinkles developed on the flange, which
may also extend to the surface of the cup.
Fracture: Too much of a blank holding pressure and friction may cause a thinning of
the walls and a fracture at the flange, bottom and the corners.
Earing: While drawing rolled stocks, flange ears or lobes tend to occur because of the
anisotropy induced by the rolling operation.
Miss Strike: Due to the misplacement of the stock in die unsymmetrical flanges may
result. This defect is known as miss strike.
Orange Peel: It is a surface roughening defect encountered in forming products from
metal stock that has a coarse grain size.It is due to uneven flow or the appearance of
the large grains usually as the result of annealing at too high a temperature.

(a) Explain the following in short-

(i) Stress and strain analysis of metal

(a) State the main principles of Jigs and Fixtures design.

OR
Explain the design procedure of JIGS & Fixture.

2The design of jig and fixture should allow easy and quick loading and unloading of
the workpiece. This will also help in reducing the idle time to minimise.
3. The jig and fixture should be as open as possible to minimize chip or burr
accumulation and to enable the operator to remove the chips easily with a brush or an
air jet
4 Fool proofing. It can be defined as the incorporation of design features in the jig or
fixture, that will make it impossible to load the work into the jig or fixture in an
improper position
5 Clearance. Clearance is provided in the jig or fixture body for two main reasons :
(i) to allow for any variation in component sizes, especially castings and forgings.
(ii) to allow for hand movements so that the workpiece can easily be placed in the jig
or fixture and removed after machining.
6. Rigidity. Jigs and fixtures should be sufficiently stiff to secure the preset accuracy
of machining.
7. Trunnions. To simplify the handling of heavy jigs or fixtures, the following means
can be adopted :
(i) Eye-bolts, rings or lifting lugs can be provided for the lifting of the jig or fixture.
(ii) If the workpiece is also heavy, then the jig design should allow for side loading
and unloading by sliding the workpiece on the machine table Ejectors. The use of
ejection devices to force the workpiece out from the jig or fixture
10. Inserts. To avoid any damage to fragile and soft workpieces and also to the
finished surfaces of a workpiece while clamping, inserts of some soft material such as
copper, lead, fibre, leather, hard rubber, plastic or felt should be fitted to the faces of
the clamps.
11. Design for safety. Jigs/fixtures must be safe and convenient in use. Following are
some of the factors for the safety of the worker working with a jig/fixture :
(i) Sharp corners on the body of the jig/fixture should be avoided.
(ii) Sighting surfaces should be clear.
(iii) Bolts and nuts should be inside the body of the jig/fixture and not protrude on the
surface.
12. Sighting Surfaces. Machining on a workpiece must be clearly visible to the
worker. He should not be required to bend his neck for seeing the work surface.
13. Simplicity in Design. Design of the jig/fixtures should be a simple one. A
complicated design requires a large maintenance. They should be cheap in
manufacture and should lend themselves readily to maintenance and replacement of
worn-out parts.
14. Economical. Jig/fixture should be simple in construction, give high accuracy, be
sufficiently rigid and light in weight.
15. They should be easy to set in the machine tool, which is so important in quatity
production where jigs/fixtures are replaced at intervals.
Q Classify various single point cutting tools. What is the procedure adopted for
design of tool tips?
(a) Write short notes on any two of the following:
Grinding fixtures
The procedure used to design surface grinding fixtures is similar to that of milling.
However since grinding is used as a finishing operation, the accuracies required in
manufacturing the grinding fixtures is higher compared to that of milling. The locating
methods to be used must be precise and clamping pressure should not affect the work
piece in any manner. Also because of the large amount of heat generated during the
grinding operation, a large amount of cutting fluid is used. So the grinding fixture
should make the necessary provision for draining swarf and the cutting fluid.
Whenever possible using magnetic chucks to hold the ferrous work pieces greatly
simplifies the grinding operation. Provide coolant containment devices or splash
guards to keep the fixture from spilling coolant on the floor around the machine. Also
include provisions for rapid wheel dressing and truing in the design of the fixture, if
not built into the machine
Elements of a milling fixture
Milling fixtures are the most common type of fixtures that are in general use today.
The reason for this is the geometric complexity of the work pieces that are milled.
However, as the work piece size, shape, or complexity becomes more sophisticated, so
too must the fixture. Similar to a jig, the fixture consists of five main parts, the base,
locators, clamps, supports, and a setting Block
Base
It consists of a base plate which has a flat and accurate bottom surface and provides a
base for all other components of the fixture to be mounted. The base is provided with
slots for the purpose of clamping the fixture to the milling machine table. The bottom
surface of the base mates with the milling machine table and thus forms the reference
plane for all other components of the fixture. The materials used in its construction
are either mild steel or cast iron, depending upon the size and complexity of the part.
The major consideration in its choice is the cost and the ability to maintain
dimensional accuracy. The type of construction used in the base could be either
welding followed by stress relieving to make sure that the base is stress free and
consequently distortion free, or sand casting.
Locators :These are similar in principle and
design to jigs, which has been covered
earlier.
Clamps: The types of clamps used are
similar in principle to that used in jigs.
However the cutting forces are high in
milling, and also because of the nature of
interrupted cutting in milling there is the
possibility of vibrations. So the clamping
design has to take this into consideration.
Supports: These are also similar in principle
to jigs, covered earlier.
Setting Block :It is necessary to have a proper location on the fixture for setting the
correct location of the milling cutter. It is called setting block or setting gage and is
permanently attached to the fixture body away from the work piece . The reference
surfaces of the setting block are located at a predetermined distance (usually 3 mm)
below the proper cutter setting, The operator uses a feeler gage to determine when the
cutter is in the correct position. This helps to keep these surfaces accurate for the life
of the fixture, since the milling cutter will not be directly contacting these surfaces

Q Discuss the elements of a jig with suitable diagrams.

i. Jig body
ii. Jig feet
iii. Jig bushing
iv. Jig plate or bush plate
v. Locators
vi. Clamps
vii. Fool proof element

i. Jig body
The jig body supports the work
piece and has locating and
clamping elements in it. It is
provided with four jig feets and
rests on the machine table.
ii. Jig feet
a jig feet which is not bolted to
machine table is provided with
four jig feet, instead of the entire
bottom surface lying flat on the
machine table. Jig feet are either
cast with the jig body or
detachable or welded to the
base. They are usually hardened and ground to have flat bottom.
iii. Jig bushing
For guiding drills, reamers and boring bars, hardened steel jig bushes are employed
which are fixed in the jig plates. The bushes can be replaced when wornout with less
cost than replacing the entire jig plate.
iv. Jig plate or bush plate
Usually the jig plate carries the jig bush for guiding the tools. The jig plate may be
rigidly constructed as a single unit of jig or it may be of leaf or latch type. In this type,
the jig plate must be clamped with the jig frame.
v. Locators
Locators help a work piece to ret in proper position in a jig. Depending on the type of
work piece, various types of locators are used for the locating the components, in the
jig with reference to the tools, the locators are usually detachable type, fixed to the jig
frame. So whenever wear occurs, the locators can be easily replaced with new ones.
vi. Clamps
Clamps are used for holding the work piece rigidly against all disturbing forces. They
also keep the work piece firmly in contact with locating pins of surfaces. Sufficient
thickness of section should be provided to withstand clamping forces.
vii. Fool proof element
This element prevents the work from being loaded wrongly into the jig. The elements
may be simple fouling pegs, cross pieces or pins.

Q Differentiate between Jigs & fixtures.

Jigs
A jig controls and guides the machining
tool
Jig ensures accuracy, repeatability, and
interchangeability
Jigs are usually on the lighter side
Jigs can be put in place and held by hand
pressure
Some of the standard jig functions are
drilling, reaming, tapping, and boring
Jigs cost more
Jigs require intricate design operations
Fixtures
A fixture holds and supports the component
precisely for machining operations
The fixture provides a reduction in error by
holding a component firmly on a table
The fixture is bulky, rigid, and heavy
Fixtures are always placed firmly on a machine
table
Fixtures are used explicitly in milling machines,
slotting machines, and shapers
Fixtures are not that costly compared to Jigs
Fixture design operations are relatively less
complicated

Q Explain the layout of gearbox.

LAYOUT OF GEARBOXES
Concept
A gearbox consists of an outer housing which accommodates a driver shaft, a driven
shaft and a number of intermediate shafts having gears mounted on them. Some gears
are fixed over the shafts and others can slide to mesh with those fixed on the shafts in
order to provide different spindle speeds. Fig. 2.16 shows a gearbox.

Gearbox design considerations

(1) In order to reduce the size of the gearbox, have as high speed as possible on the
intermediate shaft.
(i) Only one set of gears should be in mesh at one time. In other words, one set of
gears must be completely disengaged before
the other set begins to come into mesh.
(ii) The transformation ratio (TR) (between a
pair of gears) in a gearbox should be ≤ 2:1 and
2 1:4
(iv) The speed range ratio (maximum spindle
speed divided by minimum spindle speed)
should not be more than 8.
(v) For sliding the gears, the centre distance between the two shafts must remain
constant. In other words, the sum of number of teeth of mating gears must be constant.
(vi) The same module (m) of the gear set must be used.
(vii) The minimum difference between the numbers of teeth of adjacent gears must be
4.
(viii) The minimum numbers of teeth (in a set of gears for spindle drives) should be
greater than 17 to avoid interference of tooth.

Q Explain 3 - 2 - 1 principle.

(i) There are 12 degree of a work piece i.e. movement about negative and positive axis
and clockwise and anticlockwise rotation about the three axis.
(ii) By providing three pins on the base five degree of freedom will be arrested i.e.
movement about negative Z-axis and the clockwise and anticlockwise rotation about
X and Y axis.
(iii) These three pins also ensure that machining always takes place on single plane
perpendicular to the base, along the length direction.
(iv) This arrest movement of the work piece along negative y direction in clockwise
and anticlockwise rotation about Z-axis.
(v) Sixth pin is provided on a plane perpendicular to the previous two planes, which
also arrested movement about negative X-axis.
(vi) By providing six pin nine degree of freedom is arrested. Two more degree of
freedom will be arrested by providing clamping element and from 12th direction, tool
comes for machining.
(vii) A smaller size of pin is called bottom and are used in walls.

Q Discuss the methods of protection of guideways.

Explain the main requirements of a machine tool guideways.

Guideways (slideways) are linear bearings for translatory movement between two
members of a machine tool, such as carriage and bed in a lathe. They should provide
● alignment and fit
● ample load carrying capacity
● absence of stick-slip jerk
● adjustment for wear and lubrication
The requirements of the guideways are:
● High accuracy
● High surface finish
● Low value of frictional force
● Low wear rate
The types of guideways may be classified as
● Guideways with sliding friction also termed as slide ways.
● Guideways with rolling friction also termed as anti-friction ways. In this there are
two varieties with balls or rollers as anti-friction elements.
There are a number of types of slideways conventionally used in machine tools. They
are
V-slideways
Vee ways are more difficult to manufacture than flat ways. But its advantages are : it
provides automatic adjustment for wear in the vertical plane, since gravity acts as a
closing force to keep the mating surfaces in contact. So, it is self-compensating for
wear in the horizontal plane also. These slides are used for very accurate movement of
parts. The upward Vee (external or encompassed) does not allow dirt or swarf to
accumulate. Upward Vee is
invariably used on lathe beds except in very large
machines. This design retains lubricant poorly. The
downward Vee (internal or encompassing) found in
many large griding and planning machines retains the
lubricant, but the danger of a large accumulation of
swarf can be overcome
only by providing the ways with shields or other
protecting devices.

Drawbacks of Vee guide are : lack of bearing surface,

and further the inverted Vees (upward vees) weaken the
saddle which has a long unsupported span across the
bed.

Flat slideways
Flat slideways are easier to manufacture and are able to provide a large amount of
bearing area. However, the locational accuracy and other advantages provided by the
V-slideways are missing. Hence the flat slideways cannot be used on their own, but in
conjunction with the V-slideways. The most common arrangement found in lathes
Similar arrangement is also used in planers and horizontal boring machines

Round slideways : Round slideways are kinematically sound since they constrain all
possible motions except the direction required, but are only used in vertical type of
machines such as drilling (radial and pillar). Mainreasons for their non-acceptance are:
● low rigidity
● difficulties in manufacture to the given accuracy
● difficulties in assembling and the resultant accuracy in motion
Dovetail slideways: These occupy small space and have comparatively simple
clearance adjustment by means of a simple taper or flat gib. These are widely used for
the guidance of parts producing feed movements such as lathe cross-slides, milling
machine tables, saddles and knees and so on. These ways are not suited in cases where
the forces try to pull out the guides

Q Explain diamond pin locator.

Diamond pins are precision locating pins that have a chamfered tip for easy part
loading, and a shoulder to resist downward forces. These locating pins have important
advantages over standard dowel pins. One Round Pin and one Diamond Pin are often
used together to locate from two mounting holes in a workpiece, or to align two pieces
of a fixture, without binding.

Q What are various elements of a machine tool? Explain each in brief.

The various components that are present in all the machine tools may be identified as
follows:
Work holding device : To hold the work piece in the correct orientation to achieve the
required accuracy in manufacturing, e.g. chuck
Tool holding device: To hold the cutting tool in the correct position with respect to the
work piece and provide enough holding force to counteract the cutting forces acting
on the tool, e.g. tool post
Work motion mechanism: To provide the necessary speeds to the work piece for
generating the requisite surface, e.g. head stock
Tool motion mechanism : To provide the various motions needed for the tool in
conjunction with workpiece motion in order to generate the different surface profiles
as desired, e.g. carriage
Support structure: To support all the mechanisms as shown above and maintain their
relative position with respect to each other and also allow for relative movement
between the various parts to obtain the requisite part profile and accuracy, e.g. bed
The type of device or mechanism used varies, depending upon the type of machine
tool and the function it is expected to serve. In this chapter some of the more common
elements would be discussed. However, further details may be found in the chapters
where the actual machine tools are discussed.
The two motions that need to be provided in the machine tool are cutting speed and
feed. The range of speed and feed rates to be provided depends upon the capability of
the machine tool and the range of work materials that are expected to be processed.
Basically the actual speed and feed chosen depends upon the
● work material
● production rate desired
● surface finish required
● accuracy expected
The drive units in a machine tool are expected to provide the required speed and
convert the rotational speed into linear motion as required. Details of these may be
found in books dealing with machine tool design.

Q Write short note on economics of jigs and fixtures.

A systematic estimation of the tool cost is important as that will indicate the utility of
the design for the given purpose. Usually the price is determined on the basis of
experience. Ideally the tool designer should have sufficient knowledge of the in-house
and external costs that are involved in the tool making. Broadly the tool cost can be
estimated by breaking down the components of the total cost as:
● Cost of material
● Cost of manufacturing
● Cost of standard parts
● Cost of assembling and try-out

Cost of Material : Material cost estimation is the easiest. Once the designer has the
designs of all the components completed in CAD, the system will be able to provide
the volume and weight of the part. By knowing the prevailing cost of the raw
material, it should be possible to calculate this component.

Cost of Manufacturing: This is one of the most difficult components as it depends

upon the cost of machining as well as any other finishing operations that are to be
done, such as heat treatment. Since most of the time the tool engineer will be making
single pieces, the online estimation calculators will not be of much use. The ability of
estimation comes from experience. Often the experience with the making of similar
parts comes very handy. Some of the parameters that should be considered in
estimating the manufacturing costs are:

● What type of machine is used to manufacture the component?

■ Lathe, horizontal mill, vertical mill, and so on.
■ Cost of machine tool, and tools used
● What are the major dimensions of the component?
■ Size of the machine required
■ The machine overhead cost
● How many machined surfaces are there, and how much material is to be removed?
■ Gives a good estimate of time required for machining
● What tolerance and surface finishes are required?
● What is the labor rate for machinists?

Cost of Standard Parts: This is relatively easy to estimate based on the standard parts
and their availability.
Cost of Assembling and Try-Out: The final cost to be considered is that of the
assembly of the fixture and its ability to make parts with tolerances. The assembly cost
depends upon the number of parts, their complexity, precision, skill and judgement of
the operator. Many a times thumb rules are used to assess this component based on the
experience of the tool designer.

Q Write short note on the following:

Chip breakers.
Explain the usefulness, principle and design of chip breakers.
Design of chip breakers
Chip Breakers. During machining ductile
materials, continuous type of chips are
produced which are difficult to handle and a
sharp, hot chip in motion is a hazard. To
handle and dispose off the chips conveniently,
the continuous chips are broken up into short
segments. This is achieved with the help of
chip breakages which give an extra bending to the highly work hardened chip to break
it into small pieces. The various types of chip breakers are :
1. A groove may be ground into the top face of the tool after leaving a small land from
the tip, Fig. 15.3 (a
2. A step may be ground into the tool, Fig. 15.3 (b).
3. By providing a secondary rake angle and chip breaker projection, Fig. 15.3 (c).
4. In the case of carbide tipped tools, a chip breaker groove is made all around the
boundary or a separate plate or step may be clamped on top of the tool, Fig. 15.3 (d).

iii) Design of fixture.

2. The design of jig and fixture should allow easy and quick loading and unloading of
the workpiece. This will also help in reducing the idle time to minimise.
3. The jig and fixture should be as open as possible to minimize chip or burr
accumulation and to enable the operator to remove the chips easily with a brush or an
air jet.
4. Fool proofing. It can be defined as the incorporation of design features in the jig or
fixture, that will make it impossible to load the work into the jig or fixture in an
improper position but will not interfere with proper loading and locating the
workpiece. There are many fool proofing devices such as fouling pegs, blocks or pins
which clear correctly positioned parts but prevent incorrectly loaded parts from
entering the jig or fixture body.
2. The design of jig and fixture should allow easy and quick loading and unloading of
the workpiece. This will also help in reducing the idle time to minimise.
3. The jig and fixture should be as open as possible to minimize chip or burr
accumulation and to enable the operator to remove the chips easily with a brush or an
air jet.
4. Fool proofing. It can be defined as the incorporation of design features in the jig or
fixture, that will make it impossible to load the work into the jig or fixture in an
improper position but will not interfere with proper loading and locating the
workpiece. There are many Fool proofing devices such as fouling pegs, blocks or pins
which clear correctly positioned parts but prevent incorrectly loaded parts from
entering the jig or fixture body.
8. Burr grooves. A burr raised on the work at the start of a cut is termed a ‘minor burr’
and that at the end of a cut a ‘major burr’. Jigs should be designed so that the removal
of the workpiece is not obstructed by these burrs. For this, suitable clearance grooves
or slots should be provided
9. Ejectors. The use of ejection devices to force the workpiece out from the jig or
fixture is important in two situations :
(i) the workpiece is heavy.
(ii) machining pressure forces the workpiece to the sides or base of the jig or fixture
and the pressure and oil or coolant film will cause the work to stick and be difficult to
remove
10. Inserts. To avoid any damage to fragile and soft workpieces and also to the
finished surfaces of a workpiece while clamping, inserts of some soft material such as
copper, lead, fibre,leather, hard rubber, plastic or felt should be fitted to the faces of
the clamps.
11. Design for safety. Jigs/fixtures must be safe and convenient in use. Following are
some of the factors for the safety of the worker working with a jig/fixture :
(i) Sharp corners on the body of the jig/fixture should be avoided.
(ii) Sighting surfaces should be clear.
(iii) Bolts and nuts should be inside the body of the jig/fixture and not protrude on the
surface.
12. Sighting Surfaces. Machining on a workpiece must be clearly visible to the
worker. He should not be required to bend his neck for seeing the work surface.
13. Simplicity in Design. Design of the jig/fixtures should be a simple one. A
complicated design requires a large maintenance. They should be cheap in
manufacture and should lend themselves readily to maintenance and replacement of
worn-out parts.
14. Economical. Jig/fixture should be simple in construction, give high accuracy, be
sufficiently rigid and light in weight. To satisfy all these conditions, an economical
balance has to be made.
15. They should be easy to set in the machine tool, which is so important in quatity
production where jigs/fixtures are replaced at intervals

Q What are the advantages of using Jigs and Fixture.

1. To reduce the cost of production, as their use eliminates the laying out of work and
setting up of tools.
2. To increase the production.
3. To assure high accuracy of the parts.
4. To provide for interchangeability.
5. To enable heavy and complex-shaped parts to be machined by being held rigidly to
a machine.
6. Reduced quality control expenses.
7. Increased versatility of machine tool.
8. Less skilled labour.
9. Saving labour.
10. Their use partially automates the machine tool.
11. Their use improves the safety at work, thereby lowering the rate of accidents

Q Explain difference between ray diagrams and speed diagram of gearbox.

RAY DIAGRAM
If the value of N (spindle speed in RPM) is constant, the relation-
ship between the cutting velocity (V) and the workpiece diameter
(D) is a straight line.Graphically this relation between V, D and N is
represented by a Ray Diagram as shown

SPEED DIAGRAM
A speed diagram represents speeds at intermediate shafts and the output shaft of a gear
box. In speed diagram, the shafts are shown by vertical
equidistant and parallel lines. The speeds are plotted
vertical on a logarithmic scale with log as a unit,
( being the constant ratio or common ratio).
Transmission engaged at definite speeds of the driving
and driven shafts are shown on the diagram by rays
connecting the points on the shaft lines representing
these speeds.
-A speed diagram may be
(a) A unilateral speed diagram in which the speed
changes in one direction only
(b) A bilateral speed diagram in which the speed
change takes place in both directions

Q Discuss the characteristics of boring and broaching fixtures?

Broaching fixtures are required to perform one or more of the following functions:
1. Hold the job rigidly.
2. Locate the job in correct position relative to the tool of the machine table.
3. Guide the broaching tool in relation to the job.
4. Move the job into and out of the cutting position.
5. Index the job between the cuts

Q Explain design of machine tool drives?

The machine tool drive is an aggregate of mechanisms that transmits motion from an
external source to the operative elements of the machine tool.
The external source of energy is generally a three-phase ac motor which has a rotary
motion at its output shaft. The rotary motion of the output shaft of the motor is
transmitted to the operative element to provide an appropriate working or auxiliary
motion. When the required motion is rotary, the transmission takes place through
mechanisms that transfer rotary motion from one shaft to another. However, if a
translatory motion is required, the transmission invariably includes a mechanism for
transforming rotary motion into translatory.
It is a general requirement for machine tool drives that they should have provision for
regulating the speed of travel of the operative elements. The regulation may be
available in discrete steps or it may be stepless, i.e., continuous. The former are known
as stepped drives and the latter stepless.
Transmission of motion from the external source to the operative element can take
place through mechanical elements, such as gears, chains, belts, etc., or by means of
hydraulic and electrical circuits. The drives are correspondingly known as mechanical,
hydraulic and electrical. Mechanical drives may be of stepped or stepless type, but
hydraulic and electrical drives are invariably stepless in nature.
It may be thus seen that a machine tool drive consists basically of
1. an electric motor, and
2. a transmission arrangement.

(a) Write a short notes on the following-

(ii) Welding fixture

special-purpose assembly fixtures includes work holders designed specifically for

quick and accurate fixturing of mating parts and components of a product
assembly. The assembly fixtures of this type free the operator from the need to check
and align the relative position of the mating parts because accurate positioning is
achieved automatically by bringing these parts into positive contact with the fixture
supporting and guiding elements. Such fixtures are frequently used in welding,
brazing and soldering, riverting glueing, expanding, fitting parts with interference
into threaded and other assembly joints.
These fixtures assure a considerable rise in productivity and are indispensable in
automatic assembly. The special-purpose assembly fixture consists
of a body (base member) on which mounted are the locating elements and clamping
devices. The fixture need only be of light construction with adequate rigidity to ensure
relative positional relationships of the various components. They may be built up from
light castings, steel sections orcompletely from steel.
Some simple types of welding fixtures are shown in Fig. 1.72. The parts to be welded
are placed in the fixture in their correct relationship and
the whole arrangement tightened. The parts are then welded whilst in place.
The locating and clamping principles to welding fixtures. However, a few design
principles applicable only to welding fixtures are given below :
1. Due to intense heat produced during welding process,
expansion will take place. Due to this, the welded assembly
may get locked in the fixture, making its removal very
difficult. To avoid this, the locators should be designed
accordingly.
2. Clamping pressure should be light and clamps should be
arranged in such a way that the workpiece does not get
distorted.
3. Clamps should be kept clear of welding zone or be
shielded.
4. Location and clamping should not make the welding
zone inaccessible.
5. The welding fixture should be rigid and stable.

Q indexing devices.

Indexing devices. Many indexing jigs and fixtures employ a simple indexing plate for
their operation .Suppose six holes are to be drilled in a flange. The flange can be
mounted on an index plate which has six equispaced slots. The workpiece is revolved
under the drill and each hole is drilled in turn.For this an index plunger is used which
fits by turn into each slot in the index plate. To index the workpiece, the plunger is
pulled out of the slot. The index plate and thereby the workpiece is rotated until the
next slot comes in line with the index plunger into which it gets pushed due to spring
action. Some other indexing devices involving rotation of the workpiece are shown in
Fig. 1.78. In Fig. 1.78 (a), a spring loaded steel ball is employed. For indexing, the
rotating member is revolved by hand. Due to the turning effect, the ball is pushed out
of the groove in the rotating member, which becomes free to revolve. It is rotated until
the next groove in the rotating member is encountered by the ball into which it gets
pushed due to spring action. This device is not very accurate. In Fig. 1.78 (b), a steel
peg is used which is retained in the fixed member by means of a key and keyway. For
indexing, the peg is pulled out clear of the bush in the rotating member. The rotating
member is then revolved until the next bush is encountered by the peg, into which it
passes. The same principle is employed in the device shown in Fig. 1.78 (c). Here the
peg is spring loaded. The arrangement using a sliding member is shown in Fig. 1.79.
The sliding member is provided with slot at suitable spacings and the fixed member
carries a spring loaded lever, which fits the slots. For indexing, it is lifted off a slot and
the sliding member is moved until the next slot comes under the lever.

(b) What do you mean by locating and clamping devices? Explain briefly.
Locating refers to the establishment of a proper relationship between the workpiece
and the jig or fixture. The function of clamping is to exert a force to press the
workpiece against the locating surfaces and hold it there against the action of cutting
forces

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Q Explain any two of the following:
FMS (Flexible Manufacturing System)

FMS can be defined as a manufacturing system which consists of a group of NC

machines connected together by an automated material handling system and operating
under computer control. Each FMS will be different in design as per the production
requirements of the user. FMS is the most automated form of manufacturing system
for the manufacture of discreet products.
Basic components of FMS. The basic components of a FMS are given below :
1. Machine tools and the related equipment. It is clear from the definition of FMS, that
the machines must be automated and reprogrammable to accommodate a large variety
of products. For this reason, the majority of equipment consists of standard CNC
machines (CNC turning centres and CNC machining centres), special purpose
machine tools, tooling for these machines, inspection stations or special inspection
probes used with these machine tools. These machines are capable of accommodating
a variety of tooling via an automatic tool changer and tool storage system.
2. Material handling equipment. The material handling equipment used in a FMS
serves two functions : to move parts between machines and to orient and locate these
parts for processing at the machines, automatically. The workpieces mounted on
pallets or fixtures move through the system by means of powerful handling systems
such as towlines combined with shuttle system, roller conveyors, drag chains or
automatically guided vehicles, AGVS. Combined with shuttle system, industrial
robots, located suitably with respect to a group of machine tools, transfer workpieces
from one machine to the next. A robot is normally only capable of addressing one or
two machines and a load-and-unload station. Thus, a FMS may consist of a number of
robotic workstations.
3. Computer control system. An FMS is a complex network of equipment and process
that must be controlled via a computer and network of computers. It consists of
control of machines, control of material handling system, to monitor the performance
of the system and to schedule production.
4. Human labour. Even though FMS is a highly automated manufacturing system,
involvement of human labour is needed to run the system. The various human labour
may include : system manager, tool setter, load/unload man, fixture set up and lead
man, electrical technician, mechanical/hydraulic technician and robot operator

(ii) CIM (COMPUTER-INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING)

Define CIM and enumerate the functions performed under CIM
Explain CIM? How CIM can act as enabling technology for concurrent
engineering?
Explain the various advantages of (CIM) computer integrated manufacturing
and its approachs.

“The integration of computer based monitoring and control of all aspects of the
manufacturing process, drawing on a common data base and communicating via some
form of computer network.”
CIM includes not only manufacturing functions (CAM), but also engineering
functions (CAD) and business functions. The activities under CIM include :
1. CAD
2. CAM
3. Market research, market forecast, product concept and sales (order processing).
4. Customer service.
5. Shipping (inventory, invoicing and accounting etc.
Today we are beginnings to see the complete integration of CAD, CAM and FMS.
These systems are called computer-integrated manufacturing systems or CIMS.
CIMS represents the union of hardware, software, database management, and
communications to plan and control production activities from planning and design to
manufacturing and distribution.
CIMS are being used for high volume, highly standardized production where mass-
production technology has traditionally been employed.
However, CIMS allow for much smaller and economically viable batch production
capabilities. A firm can then match its production efforts to a much wider range of
demand and create a competitive advantage through rapid response to market changes
and new products.
It can be said that CIMS are designed to fill the gap between high-production transfer
lines and low production NC machines.
Advantages
1. Shorter design cycles.
2. Better quality.
3. Reduced waste.
4. Better management control.
5. High equipment utilization.
6. Reduced direct and indirect labor cost per unit of production, due to higher
utilization and greater productivity of CIMS.
7. Reduced manufacturing lead time because in CIMS, the non-operation time is
drastically reduced between successive workstations on the line; also set-up time is
minimized.
8. Lower in-process inventory. Because the parts spend a relatively short time in the
system, the number of parts being processed is low.
9. Scheduling flexibility. CIMS give the system considerable flexibility to deal with
changes in the production schedule.

Group Technology

Group technology is the realization that many problems are similar, and that by
grouping similar problems, a single solution can be found to a set of problems thus
saving time and effort Group technology is also known as “part-family manufacture”
In manufacturing, group technology is a means of achieving variety reduction,
allowing manufacture on “part families”. By classifying components in accordance
with their shapes or their technological features, and not according to their functions,
it is possible to arrange them in groups which can be machined in “families”. For this,
groups of machines are formed to manufacture these families of components on a
flow-line principle. The “families of components” consist of various components each
of which is required only in small number but which can be grouped together to form
economical batches

Explain dimensional tolerance and its importance.

Tolerance. It is the difference between the upper limit and lower limit of a dimension.
In other words, it is the maximum permissible variation in a dimension. The tolerance
may be unilateral or bilateral. When all the tolerance is allowed on one side of the
nominal size, e.g. 20+0.000– 0.004 , then it is said to be unilateral system of tolerance. The
unilateral system is mostly used in industries as it permits changing the tolerance
value while still retaining the same allowance or type of fit When the tolerance is
allowed on both sides of the nominal size, e.g. 20+0.002 -0.002 , then it is said to be
bilateral system of tolerance. In this case + 0.002 is the upper limit and – 0.002 is the
lower limit.
It is important to specify dimensional tolerances in production drawings because no
part can be made perfectly

What are the various approaches to CAPP system and its advantages?

computer-aided process planning (CAPP), The logic, judgement and experience

required for process planning are incorporated into computer programmes. Based on
the characteristics of a given product or component. The programme automatically
generates the manufacturing operation sequence which is obtained in the form of
computer listing.
The main advantages of CAPP are : it reduces lot of routine paper work of
manufacturing engineers and it helps in getting a rational, consistent and even optimal
manufacturing sequences.
CAPP is also known as CAM-I automated process planning system. CAM-I stands for
Computer-Aided Manufacturing-International, a non-profit industrial research
organization.
Advantages of CAPP has the following advantages :
1. It can reduce the skill required of a process planner.
2. It can reduce the process planning time.
3. It can reduce both process-planning and manufacturing costs.
4. It can increase productivity

Discuss the advantages of Group Technology.

 The following are the advantages of introducing GT in manufacturing.

 Short throughput times because machines are closed together.
 Better quality because groups complete parts and the machines are closed
together under one foreman.
 Lower material handling costs because machines are closed together under one
foreman.
 Better accountability because of machines complete parts. The foreman can be
made responsible for costs, quality, and completion by the due date.
 Training for promotion since GT provides a line of succession because a group
is a mini-department.
 Automation GT is the first evolutionary step in automation.
 Reduced set up time since similar parts brought together on the same.
 Morale and job satisfaction since most workers prefer to work in groups.
 The output is improved due to improved resource utilisation.
 Work in progress and finished stock levels are reduced.
  Simplified estimating, accounting and work management.
 Improved plant replacement decisions, and.
 Improved job satisfaction, morale, and communication.

What is a gauge ? How the plain gauges are classified?

Gauges are inspection tools of rigid design, without a scale, which serve to check the
dimensions of manufactured parts. Gauges do not indicate the actual value of the
inspected dimensions of the component. They are only used for determining whether
the inspected part has been made within the specified limits
Gauges differ from measuring instruments in the following respects :
(i) no adjustment is necessary in their use.
(ii) they usually are not general-purpose instruments but are specially made for some
particular part, which is to be produced in sufficiently large quantities.
Gauging is used in preference to measuring when quantities are sufficiently high,
because it is faster and easier with resulting lower cost
Plain gauges are used in checking plain, that is, unthreaded holes and shafts.

Classification of Plain Gauges. Plain gauges are classified in the following ways.
1. According to type.
2. According to purpose.
3. According to form of tested surface, and
4. According to design.
1. According to type. (a) Standard Gauges (b) Limit Gauges.
2. According to Purpose. the gauges may be classified as : (a)Workshop gauge or
Working gauge (b) Inspection gauge (c) Purchase inspection gauge, and (d) Reference
or Master gauge
3. According to the form of tested surface,the gauges are of two types : Gauges for
checking the holes and gauges for checking the shafts. Gauges for checking the holes
are called “Plug Gauges” and those for checking the shafts are called “Snap or Gap
gauges and Ring gauges”..
4. According to Design. the gauges may be classified as :
(i) (a) Single limit (b) Double limit
(ii) (a) Single ended (b) Double ended
(iii) (a) Fixed (b) Adjustable
(iv) (a) Integral end (b) Renewable end
(v) (a) Solid end (b) Hollow end

b) Find the values of allowances, hole tolerance and shaft tolerance for the
following dimensions of metal parts according to the basic hole system.
Hole: 37.50 mm
37.52 mm
shaft: 37.47 mm
37.45 mm
d) Explain the types and benefits of FMS.
Types of Flexible Manufacturing System.
(i) Flexible Manufacturing Unit (FMU). An FMU consists of a single, multifunction
CNC machine tool and is the most simple flexible manufacturing system that can be
constructed. It consists of a processing machine (CNC machine tool), a load/unload
area and a material handler (a robot). The parts that move down a conveyor are loaded
into the machine by a robot. After that, the robot is retracted and the processing
begins. After the machining has been completed, the robot takes the part off the
machine and moves it to the output bin.
(ii) Flexible Manufacturing Cell (FMC). This flexible system consists of two or more
CNC machine tools alongwith one or more robot work stations, but not under DNC-
linked control.
(iii) Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS). This system consists of a number of CNC
machine tools under supervisory computer control via some form of DNC linkage.
(iv) Flexible Manufacturing Transfer Line (FML or FTL). It consists of a
multimachine layout including several CNC machine tools and other specialist pieces
of equipment all under supervisory computer control. This system is an alternative to a
dedicated transfer line and is used for high volume production.
FMS results in the following benefits : Increased machine utilization,
reduced direct and indirect labour, reduced manufacturing lead time,
lower in process inventory and scheduling flexibility. Also, quality improves because
human error is eliminated.

Define various types of fits.

Fits. The fit between two mating parts is the relationship existing between them with
respect to the amount of play or interference which is present when they are
assembled together.
According the fit may result either in movable joint or a permanent joint.
1. Clearance Fit. In clearance fit or running fit, the shaft is always smaller than hole. A
positive allowance exists between the largest possible shaft and the smallest possible
hole, i.e., when the shaft and hole are at their maximum metal conditions. The
tolerance zone of the hole is entirely above that of the shaft.
Minimum Clearance. It is the difference between the maximum size of shaft and
minimum size of hole.
Maximum Clearance. It is the difference between the minimum size of shaft and
maximum size of hole.
2. Interference, Press or Force Fit. In this type of fit, the shaft is always larger than the
hole. The tolerance zone of the shaft is entirely above that of the hole.
Minimum Interference. It is the difference between the maximum size of hole and the
minimum size of shaft prior to assembly.
Maximum Interference. It is the difference between the minimum size of hole and the
maximum size of shaft prior to assembly.
3. Transition or Sliding Fit. It occurs when the resulting fit due to the variations in size
of male and female components due to their tolerance, varies between clearance and
interferenceits. The tolerance zones of shaft and hole overlap.
b) Explain a mechanical type comparator. What are its advantages and
disadvantages?
What is comparator, classify the different types of comparators.

A comparator is an indirect type of instrument with the help of which an unknown

dimension of a work piece is compared with a working standard (usually slip gauges).
Depending on the method by which the difference in dimensions is magnified, the
comparators are classified as :
1. Mechanical
2. Electrical
3. Optical
4. Pneumatic
A mechanical comparator is a measuring instrument that is made up of mechanical
means like gears, levers, pinions & racks to get the magnification. These kinds of
means are mainly used for magnifying the means’ movement to enhance the precision
of the instrument.
Advantages of Mechanical Comparators
 Mechanical comparators are cheaper as compared to other amplifying devices.
 These comparators don’t require any external supply of electricity or air.
 These comparators have a linear scale, for easy understanding.
 Generally, they are robust, compact and easy to handle.
 They are suitable for ordinary workshop conditions and they are portable they
can be issued form a store.
Disadvantages of Mechanical Comparators
 The mechanical comparators have more moving parts, due to which the
friction, wear and tear are a high and low inaccuracy.
 Any negligence in moving parts reduces accuracy.
 The mechanism has more inertia, which causes the instrument to be sensitive to
vibrations.

Explain various types of comparators ?

Depending on the method by which the difference in dimensions is magnified, the

comparators are classified as :
1. Mechanical : A mechanical comparator is a measuring instrument that is made up of
mechanical means like gears, levers, pinions & racks to get the magnification. These
kinds of means are mainly used for magnifying the means’ movement to enhance the
precision of the instrument.
2. Electrical
These comparators depend on the Wheatstone bridge circuit for their operation. In d.c.
There is a change in the balance of electrical resistance in each arm of the circuit, the
bridge—displacement of an armature relative to the arm under the action of the
measuring rider.
Once the balance is deteriorated by the bridge, it is measured by a galvanometer. The
rider is read in units of linear movement. This circuit is powered by a battery.
To bridge For equilibrium, the ratio of resistors in the two arms must be equal.
 If alternating current is applied to the bridge, the inductance and capacitance
Weapons must also be accounted for along with resistance.
In actual measuring instruments, one induction head is made by a pair of coils in the
measuring head of the instrument.
The armature creates differences in this type Induction of a pair of coil forming AC of
one hand Bridge.
The arm holds Armature and Indic- Is dependent on tance in the Relative coil
displacement of armature For the coil. Other refinements are As an electrical device
AL method of zero adjustments and A. Switch to change the magnification.
The amount of imbalance due to measles movement- Ing rider is shown and shown on
a linear scale.

3. Optical
In mechanical, optical comparators, small displacements of the measuring plunger are
first amplified by a mechanical system consisting of perforated levers.
The amplified mechanical movement is further enhanced by a simple optical system
involving the projection of an image.
The general arrangement employed is such that the mechanical system causes an
aircraft reflector to tilt about an axis, and the image of an index is projected onto a
scale on an internal ground-glass screen.
Optical magnification provides a high level of measuring accuracy for lack of
movable members and better wear resistance properties.

Pneumatic
A comparator is a device used to measure the amplitude of a given component by
comparing it with the actual working standard.
Pneumatic means air is used for the magnification of measured measurements, as
compared to air and pneumatic.
Pneumatic comparators operate on the principle that if an air jet is in close proximity
with a surface, the flow of air from the jet is restricted, which changes the air pressure
in the jet-supplying system

Define the term 'Metrology' as applied to engineering. Explain its importance for
an engineers.

It is important to know that when a dimension is produced by a manufacturing

process, it is also important to know that the dimension can be measured accurately
enough, such that it can be ascertained that the dimension was actually achieved by
the process. The science of measurement is termed as metrology.
Metrology is relevant to part production in two primary ways. Before manufacturing
starts, metrological instruments are used to calibrate the machinery and tooling that
will be used during production, which helps to ensure accurate and precise parts. Parts
that have been optimized for manufacturability will also factor in specific tolerances,
so that the anticipated minor variations in exact component size will not affect their
final fit or function, which may help mitigate quality risks.
Metrology is also used post-production to verify that the parts meet design
specifications and customer expectations. If the measurements don’t match up, it
might be a sign that the manufacturing equipment needs to be adjusted or realigned.
As manufacturing technology has become more advanced, so too has the level of
quality demanded by product teams. Parts increasingly require levels of surface finish
detail, feature resolution, and other material properties that cannot be measured
manually. Quality assurance now relies on technology with the ability to make
measurements as accurate as a fraction of a degree or a millionth of an inch in
variance. For industries that depend on extreme precision — such as the automotive,
medical device, and aerospace sectors — measurements of this exactitude are vital for
producing superior parts.

Explain the term limit gauging why its is needed.

Gauging is defined as the acceptability of a given dimension, whether it lies in its

specified or allowable limits or not.
“Limit gauging is a method of checking dimensions in which a fixed gauge is applied
to the work in order to determine whether a given component lies within its limits.”
Gauges are inspection tools of rigid design, without a scale, which used to check the
dimensions of manufactured components.
Gauges do not indicate the actual value of the dimensions of the component. They are
only used to check whether the inspected part has been made within the specified
limits.
Thus, a limit gauge, unlike a conventional measuring tool, simply determines whether,
the part is inside or outside the tolerance zone. The gauge neither measures a value of
dimensions, nor shows the value of error evolved in the component. It simply checks
that part is correct or not.
Need of Limit Gauges:
There are two methods to ensure whether the components being produced on the shop
floor are as per the pre-decided specifications or not.
These are:
(i) Measurement by measuring instruments.
(ii) Limit Gauging by fixed design limit gauges.
Obviously, measurement is the best method, but is not practical to check every
dimension on each manufactured part. On the other hand, Limit gauging is faster,
easier, and does not required skill inspector.
Also, accuracy of component greatly reflects itself in the cost of the product. To
achieve a greater accuracy than necessary, it makes the project uneconomical. Thus, in
repetition work it is not possible to check dimensions with the precision instruments
like vernier, micrometer etc. This conventional measurement requires skilled or
semiskilled workers.
Hence, in mass production where inter changeability is to be maintained at relatively
low cost, the dimensional tolerance (high and low limits) are controlled by the limit
gauges.
Explain in brief how industrial robot work for automated, storage and retrieval
system.

Automated storage and retrieval systems (AS/RS) are computer- and robot-aided
systems that can retrieve items or store them in specific locations. The system is
usually comprised of predefined locations where machines can follow established
routes to get items.
As long as everything is stored in its proper location, these systems help to speed up
manufacturing and shipping tasks.
Typically, automated storage and retrieval systems are used when high volume loads
must be moved rapidly and accurately
Automated storage and retrieval systems offer a few advantages, including:
Reduced labor costs
Improved accuracy, efficiency and productivity
Reduced safety risks for employees (reducing the need to lift and move heavy or
bulky items)
AS/RS can work in environments that aren’t ideal for human workers, such as freezer
storage areas. They can function at heights that are difficult for human workers to
navigate, as well, allowing warehouse operators to maximize floor space by making
better use of vertical space.

Explain design for manufacturing and assembly.

Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA) is an engineering methodology that

focuses on reducing time-to-market and total production costs by prioritizing both the
ease of manufacture for the product’s parts and the simplified assembly of those parts
into the final product – all during the early design phases of the product lifecycle.
Before becoming the singular philosophy it's known as today, DFMA used to be
considered as two distinct methodologies: Design for Manufacturing (DFM) and
Design for Assembly (DFA). DFM is concerned with selecting cost-effective raw
materials and attempting to minimize the complexity of manufacturing operations
during the product design phase (which would be the least disruptive and expensive
time to address those issues) in order to reduce the overall manufacturing time and
costs for product components. Similarly, DFA is concerned with reducing the
product's assembly time, costs, and complexities by minimizing the number of
individual parts, assembly steps, and potential for variability in build-quality.

Key factors that are important to consider for DFM:

PLANNING - Consult with manufacturing experts on your design. Lowering
manufacturing costs is never easier than at the design stage.
MATERIALS- Use manufacturing-compliant materials if possible, which determines
manufacturing processes and means, materials management and quality control.
PROCESSES - Know the manufacture process to reduce costs. For example, 3D
printing may enable one monolithic part design instead of manufacturing multiple
components.
STANDARDS- Use standard parts or components. This will reduce the cost of new
designs, while improving inventory management and time-to-market.
DFMA is an engineering methodology that focuses on simplifying the design of a
product to improve ease of manufacture and efficiency of assembly.