CH-1.

THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN

EUROPE

I. IDEAS OF GIUSEPPE MAZZINI, CAVOUR

Mazzini organized a new political society called
young italy. it was a secret society forMed to proMote
italian unification: "one, free, independent, republican
nation." Mazzini believed that a popular uprising would
create a unified italy, and would touch off a european-
wide revolutionary MoveMent. the group's Motto was god
and the people, and its basic principle was the
unification of the several states and kingdoMs of the
peninsula into a single republic as the only true
foundation of italian liberty. the new nation had to be
"one, independent, free republic".

II. EVENTS IN POLAND, HUNGARY, ITALY, GERMANY

AND GREECE
socially and politically, a landed aristocracy
was the doMinant class in europe. the Majority of the
population though in all these countries was Made up of
the peasantry. in western and parts of central europe,
the growth of industrial production and trade led to
the growth of towns and the eMergence of coMMercial
classes whose existence was based on production for
the Market. in its wake, new social groups caMe into
being: a working-class population, and Middle classes
Made up of industrialists, businessMen, professionals.
during the years following 1815, the fear of repression
drove Many liberal-nationalists underground. secret
societies sprang up in Many european states to train
revolutionaries and spread their ideas. to be
revolutionary at this tiMe Meant a coMMitMent to
oppose Monarchical forMs that had been established
after the vienna congress. Most of these
revolutionaries also saw the creation of nation-states
as a necessary part of this struggle for freedoM. as
conservative regiMes tried to consolidate their power,
liberalisM and nationalisM caMe to be increasingly
associated with revolution in Many regions of europe
such as the italian and gerMan states, the provinces of
the ottoMan eMpire, ireland and poland. these
revolutions were led by the liberal-nationalists
belonging to the educated Middle-class elite, aMong
whoM were professors, schoolteachers, clerks and
MeMbers of the coMMercial Middle classes. individuals
such as italian revolutionary giuseppe Mazzini founded
societies with likeMinded individuals drawn froM poland,
france, italy and the gerMan states. they believed that
the states had to be forged into a single unified
republic within a wider alliance of nations paving way
for the unification of italy, gerMany, france,
switzerland and poland.
III. FRANKFURT PARLIAMENT

the frankfurt parliaMent was the first freely elected

parliaMent for all gerMan states, including the
gerMan-populated areas of austria-hungary, elected
on 1 May 1848 (see gerMan federal election, 1848).
the session was held froM 18 May 1848 to 31 May 1849, in
the paulskirche at frankfurt aM Main. its existence was
both part of and the result of the "March revolution"
within the states of the gerMan confederation.

after long and controversial debates, the asseMbly

produced the socalled frankfurt constitution
(paulskirchenverfassung or st. paul's church
constitution, officially the verfassung des deutschen
reiches) which proclaiMed a gerMan eMpire based on the
principles of parliaMentary deMocracy. this
constitution fulfilled the Main deMands of the liberal
and nationalist MoveMents of the vorMärz and provided
a foundation of basic rights, both of which stood in
opposition to Metternich's systeM of restoration. the
parliaMent also proposed a constitutional Monarchy
headed by a hereditary eMperor (kaiser).
 the prussian king frederick williaM iv refused to accept
the office of eMperor when it was offered to hiM on the
grounds that such a constitution and such an offer were
an abridgMent of the rights of the princes of the
individual gerMan states. in the 20th century, however,
Major eleMents of the frankfurt constitution becaMe
Models for the weiMar constitution of 1919 and the basic
law for the federal republic of gerMany of 1949.

IV. MARIANNE AND GERMANIA

Marianne and gerMania were respective feMale
allegories for the french and the gerMan nation. they
stood as personifications of ideals like 'liberty' and 'the
republic'. statues of Marianne were erected in public
squares to reMind the public of the national syMbol of
unity to persuade theM to identify with it. Marianne
iMages were Marked on coins and staMps. the iMportance
of the way in which they were portrayed lay in the fact
that the public could identify with their syMbolic
Meaning, and this would instils a sense of national unity
in theM. gerMania wears a crown of oak leaves as the
gerMan oak stands for heroisM. Marianne and gerMania
were the feMale allegories of france and gerMany.
they stood as personifications of the 'republic' and
'liberty'. they were portrayed that they gave the
abstract idea of a nation in a concrete forM. they would
establish a sense of nationality in the citizens of these
countries.
V. THE ROLE OF LIBERLAS

in general, liberalisM in europe is a political

MoveMent that supports a broad tradition of individual
liberties and constitutionally-liMited and
deMocratically accountable governMent. these
european derivatives of classical liberalisM are found
in centrist MoveMents and parties as well as soMe
parties on the center-left and the centre-right.
liberalisM in europe is broadly divided into two groups,
"social" and "conservative". this differs froM the
aMerican Method of dividing liberalisM into "Modern"
(siMply liberal) and "classical" (or libertarian),
although the two groups are very siMilar to their
european counterparts. Most liberalisM in europe is
conservative or classical, whilst european social
liberalisM and progressivisM is rooted in radicalisM, a
left-wing classical liberal idea.

VI. CAUSES LEADING TO THE RISE OF NATIONALISM

IN EUROPE
the rise of nationalisM in europe resulted froM
cultural, ethnic, as well as political policies that led
to the forMation of nation-states and new national
identities in place of the forMer Multi-ethnic eMpires. it
began in the Mid-18th century with the age of the
enlightenMent. it gained MoMentuM early in the 19th
century as a product of the industrial revolution and
the consequent rise of the Middle class. as a result of
these developMents, the nation-state replaced europe’s
Multinational dynastic eMpires. let’s go through the
 effects of nationalisM in europe, the factors that led
to the Making of nationalisM in europe, the intertwining
of nationalisM and iMperialisM, and introduction to
nationalisM by ernst renon and frédéric sorrieu.

VII. NAPOLEONIC CIVIL CODE OF 1804

the civil code of 1804 is usually known as the

napoleonic code. napoleon started introducing Many
reforMs as he kept acquiring Many territories in
europe. these reforMs were already introduced in
france by napoleon. although napoleon had destroyed
deMocracy in france, revolutionary principles were
introduced by napoleon to Make the systeM More
efficient and rational. the napoleonic codes.

• secured the right to property,

• established equality before the law, and
• reMoved all the privileges based on birth.
napoleon freed the peasants froM Manorial dues
and serfdoM.
adMinistrative divisions were siMplified in
gerMany, italy, switzerland, and the dutch
republic. exchange of goods and MoveMent of
capital froM one region to another were
facilitated due to the coMMon national currency,
and the introduction of standardized weights
and Measures. the benefits of these were reaped
by sMall-scale producers and businessMen.
VIII. CONCEPT OF NATIONAL STATES
a nation state is a type of state that joins the political
entity of a state to the cultural entity of a
nation, froM which it aiMs to derive its political
legitiMacy to rule and potentially its status as
a sovereign state. nation states eMerged after
overthrowing Monarchy and dynasty rule in
europe. in a nation state, citizens caMe to
develop a coMMon identity based on shared
language, traditions and custoMs .

gave theM the power to arrest any person without

any trial. to abolish this act, gandhi and the other
leaders called for a hartal (suspension of work) to
show indians’ objection to this rule, called the
rowlatt satyagraha. about jallianwala bagh
Massacre – the jallianwala
bagh Massacre or the aMritsar Massacre took place
when Many villagers
 gathered in the park for the celebration of baisakhi.
the gatherers wanted to also peacefully protest the
arrest and deportation of two national leaders,
satya pal and sharfuddin kitchlew.

2. NATIONALISM IN INDIA

I. NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT
the non-cooperation MoveMent was launched on 5th
septeMber 1920 by the indian national congress (inc)
under the leadership of MahatMa gandhi. in septeMber
1920, in congress session in calcutta, the party
introduced the non-cooperation prograMMe. the period
of the noncooperation MoveMent is taken as septeMber
1920 to february 1922. it signified a new chapter in the
history of the indian freedoM struggle. the non-
cooperation MoveMent was launched in the wake of a
series of events including the jallianwala bagh
Massacre and was called off because of chauri chaura
incident of 1922.
II. CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT
civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal
of a citizen to obey certain laws, deMands, orders or
coMMands of a governMent. in india, civil disobedience
MoveMent was a landMark event in the indian
nationalist MoveMent. in Many ways, the civil
disobedience MoveMent is credited for paving the way
for freedoM in india. the lahore congress (1929) left the
choice of the precise Methods of non-violent struggle
for purna swaraj to gandhi. it was resolved that a
Manifesto or pledge of independence would be taken all
over india by as Many people as possible on 26 january
1930. on this day civil disobedience was supposed to
coMMence and it was declared independence day.

III. QIUT INDIA

the quit india MoveMent, also known as the bharat
chhodo andolan, was a MoveMent launched at the
boMbay session of the all india congress coMMittee by
MahatMa gandhi on 8th august 1942, during world war ii,
deManding an end to british rule in india. after the
british failed to secure indian support for the british
war effort with cripps Mission, gandhi Made a call to do
or die in his quit india MoveMent delivered in boMbay on 8
august 1942 at the gowalia tank Maidan. viceroy
linlithgow reMarked the MoveMent to be "by far the
Most serious rebellion since 1857". the all india
congress coMMittee launched a Mass protest deManding
what gandhi called "an orderly british withdrawal"
froM india. even though it was at war, the british were
prepared to act. alMost the entire leadership of the
 indian national congress was iMprisoned without trial
within hours of gandhi's speech. Most spent the rest of
the war in prison and out of contact with the Masses. the
british had the support of the viceroy's council, of the
all india MusliM league, the hindu Mahasabha, the
princely states, the indian iMperial police, the british
indian arMy, and the indian civil service. Many indian
businessMen profiting froM heavy wartiMe spending did
not support the
quit india MoveMent. the Major outside support caMe
froM the aMericans, as president franklin d. roosevelt
pressured priMe Minister winston churchill to give in to
soMe of the indian deMands.

IV. ROLE OF MAHATMA GANDHI

india’s struggle for independence was actively shaped,
influenced and nurtured by Mohandas karaMchand
gandhi. reverentially worshipped as MahatMa and
respectfully adored as ‘father of the nation’ froM 1920
to 1947 for a period of nearly three decades. during this
MoMentous period of our history, gandhi was
undoubtedly the undisputed leader of Millions of
freedoM loving indians. he strode like an unrivalled
colossus transforMing the freedoM MoveMent to a
broad-based Mass MoveMent by his policy of non-
violence-based non-cooperation and civil disobedience
MoveMent, and finally, his slogan ‘do or die’ inspired the
quit india MoveMent. a critical exaMination of the
strategy adopted by hiM reveals that it was ‘struggle-
truce-struggle’ as coined by bipin chandra. in between
the phases of struggle-truce-struggle, gandhi invented
 the constructive activity prograMMe of eradication of
untouchability, hinduMusliM unity, proMotion of khadi
and village reconstruction to channelize the energies
of the Multitude of indians by carrying on peaceful and
continuous agitation of all-round Mobilization of
superstition ridden, illiterate, and ignorant Masses
about the need of self-help and self-reliance by
precept and practice. gandhi had justifiably becoMe an
icon of the 20th century to Many indians and non-indian
protagonists and tiMe is not far off, when he is going to
be another avatar of god.

V. POLICIES OF SATYAGRAHA, SWARAJ, NON-VIOLENCE

the concept of satyagraha was first devised by
MahatMa gandhi not in india, but while living aMong
indian inhabitants in south africa in 1907, when he
organized an opposition to the asiatic registration law,
also called the black act. it took seven years of
protest and the black act was finally repealed in june
1914. gandhiji proved that perseverance, working with
a coMMunity and Most iMportantly a nonviolent
MoveMent can achieve the desired goal.

for gandhiji, satyagraha was not just a Means of non-

violent struggle but it becaMe the philosophy of his
life. by giving the concept of satyagraha, gandhiji
showed Mankind to win over greed and fear by love. in
this principle of non-violence, MahatMa gandhi
introduced the technique of resistance to evil and
 untruth. his satyagraha was inspired by boundless love
and coMpassion. it is opposed to sin, not sinner, the evil,
not evildoer.

Many countries have witnessed popular MoveMents for

freedoM, equality and peace, which drew inspiration
froM the life and Methods of MahatMa gandhi.

VI. CONGRESS SESSION OF 1929

in 1929 the congress session was held at lahore in
1929. this session was very significant because in this
lahore session the proMinent party indian national
congress, took the resolution of poorna swaraj or
coMplete independence. in this, the indian tricolor flag
was hoisted by pandit jawahar lal nehru on the bank of
the ravi river.

highlights of this session:

the congress convention began in lahore in deceMber

1929 and pandit nehru was the president of the
convention. he Mentioned in this session that “there’s
only one goal ahead of us, which is full freedoM.”
the declaration of purna swaraj was propagated at
the inc on 19th deceMber 1929. in this session, MeMbers
agreed that the congress and indian nationalists
should fight for purna swaraj, or that they should rule
itself entirely independently.
the congress approved a Motion for coMplete
independence and also the president of congress hoisted
the flag of coMplete freedoM on the bank of the ravi on
 the Midnight of 31 deceMber 1929, in front of huge
crowds. this was the day when for the first tiMe the
nationalists unfurled the tricolor
congress hence decided to observe 26th january 1930 as
the total independence or purna swaraj day.

VII. SWADESHI AND BOYCOTT MOVEMENT

the forMal proclaMation of the swadeshi MoveMent

was Made on august 7, 1905 with the passing of the
‘boycott’ resolution in a Meeting at the calcutta town
hall which brought about the unification of the
hitherto dispersed leadership. on the day the partition
was put into effect i.e. october 16, 1905, a hartal was
called in calcutta and a day of Mourning was declared.
people fasted and no fire was lit in the cooking hearth.
people paraded the streets singing banda MataraM. the
people of bengal tied rakhis on each other’s wrist as a
syMbol of solidarity. this peculiar forM of Mass protest
of ‘swadeshi and boycott’ attained popularity aMong
the new MeMbers of the congress, who were More
iMpatient than the Moderates to see a positive response
to their efforts.

VIII. MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS

indian council act of 1909 is also known as Morley-
Minto reforM. it was instituted to placate the
Moderates (congress) and introduce separate
electorates on the basis of religion. therefore, lord
Minto caMe to be known as the father of coMMunal
electorate in india. the MorleyMinto reforMs becaMe
law in 1909 as the indian councils act. the iMportance of
 the councils, which were enlarged, was to ensure that
indian legislators were given a chance to express their
opinions. the british also accepted the right of MusliMs
to have a separate electorate. indian councils act of
1909 is called as Morley-Minto reforMs. this act further
extended deMocratic participation by increasing the
size of the legislative councils, both central and
provincial. Morley-Minto reforMs were naMed after the
naMes of the then secretary of state (lord Morley) and
the then viceroy (lord Minto)

IX. COMMUNALISM IN INDIA

coMMunalisM Means when people of one coMMunity or

religion go against the people of another coMMunity or
religion. they start feeling theMselves as superior
than others. social organisation on coMMunal basis
gives birth to hatred in society which ultiMately ends in
conflicts in society. it iMpedes socio-econoMic
developMent of society. environMent with distrust
results in peoples suspicious of each other's coMMunity
often causes riots

X. INDIA LITERATURE AND RISE OF NATIONALISM

nationalisM in indian literature initiated at the
tiMe of 1857 revolt although its root arose in 1835 when
kyla chunder dutt wrote “a journal of forty-eight
hours of the year1945” and shoshee chunder dutt wrote
“the republic of orissa: a page froM the annals of the
twentieth
 century”, both project into future, describing battles
of liberation against british, but end with dissiMilar
resolutions. kylas chundur dutt fixes on a year More
than a century later as the date of a crucial indian
confrontation with the british. by this tiMe in the future,
indians would have reached the liMits of their
tolerance. his piece begins thus:
“the people of india and particularly those of
Metropolis had been subject for the last fifty years to
every species of subaltern oppression. the dagger and
the bowl deals with Merciless hand, and neither age,
sex, nor condition could repress the rage of the british
barbarians. those events, together with the
recollection of the grievances suffered by their
ancestors, roused the dorMant spirit of the generally
considered tiMid indians”.

XI. TRIBAL MOVEMENTS IN INDIA

tribal MoveMents in india were known to be the Most
prevalent, violent, and terrifying in the 18th and 19th
centuries when it was governed by the british. in india,
there are two distinct types of tribal uprisings, i.e.,
those on the Mainland and those around the borders,
priMarily concentrated in the northeast. Many tribal
MoveMents in india rose in rebellion against the british
because of their cruel and destructive inroads into
their territory and way of life. the tribal people used
to live peacefully and in tune with nature in their
jungles for hundreds of years before the arrival of the
british forces.
XII. CAUSES OF INDIA PARTITION

1. activities of the MusliM league: in the forMation of

the MusliM league, the english govt played a
significant role. the britishers wanted to create
opinion differences aMong the people of india in order
to strengthen their own position.
- the Main objective of the MusliM league was to
spread coMMunalisM and the MusliM leaders had their
own axe to grind through the MediuM of this
organisation.
- in the beginning, the MusliM league failed to be an
influential organisation due to its narrow and
negative approach. MuhaMMad ali jinnah’s two-nation
theory was actually a slogan for the forMation of a
separate nation for the indian MusliMs.

2. coMMunal reaction: hindu coMMunalisM also caMe into

existence as a result of MusliM coMMunalisM. the
staunch hindus forMed several organisations like the
hindu Maha sabha.
the arya saMaj adopted the systeM of shuddic which
created doubt in the Minds of the MusliMs. hindu Maha
sabha not only blaMed the congress for being an anti-
hindu organisation but also raised a slogan for the
establishMent of this nation. as a result of the hindu
coMMunalisM, the MusliM coMMunalisM grew all the
More powerful and raised the slogan for the creation
of a separate nation.
 3. congress policy of strengthening india: according to
the congress, the only way to get rid of this probleM
was the partition of india and it accepted the partition
forMula laid in the 3rd june plan of lord Mountbatten.
XIII.ROWLATT ACT
The Rowlatt Act was passed by the British
government to increase their grip on power over the common folk.
This law was passed in March 1919 by the Imperial Legislative
Council which gave them the power to arrest any person without
any trial. To abolish this act, Gandhi and the other leaders
called for a hartal (suspension of work) to show indians’
objection to this rule, called the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

About Jallianwala Bagh massacre – The Jallianwala Bagh

massacre or the Amritsar Massacre took place when many
villagers gathered in the park for the celebration
of Baisakhi. The gatherers wanted to also peacefully
protest the arrest and deportation of two national
leaders, Satyapal and Saifuddin Kitchlew.

both the topics, ‘rowlatt act’ and ‘jallianwala bagh

Massacre’ are iMportant for IAS Exam from the perspective of
the Modern History syllabus.