POWER SYSTEMS

PART 5.2

ANJU P A

Power System Subject Expert

 Important terms and factors

● Connected load:

o It is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipment connected to

supply system
Eg: consumer connected four 50W bulbs and one 100W fan,
then connected of consumer = 50*4+100 = 300W
o Sum of connected loads of all consumers = connected load of power

station
● Maximum demand:

o Largest demand of load on the power system during a given period

o Generally, maximum demand < connected load (because, all consumers

may not switch to their connected load at same time)

● Demand factor:

o Ratio of maximum demand on power station to its connected load

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
o Demand factor =
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
● Average load/ Average demand:

o Average of loads occurring on a power station in a given period

(day/month/year)
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑦(𝑘𝑊ℎ)
o Daily average load =
24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ(𝑘𝑊ℎ)

o Monthly average load =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟(𝑘𝑊ℎ)

o Yearly average load =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
● Load factor:

o Ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐴𝐿)

o Load factor = (<1 always, because AL<MD)
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑀𝐷)

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 ∗𝑇 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

=
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∗𝑇 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑇 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

=
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∗𝑇 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

o Load factor cost per unit generated

● Diversity factor:

o Ratio of sum of individual maximum demand of consumers to the

maximum demand on power station

𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠

o Diversity factor = (>1 always)
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

o Diversity factor cost per unit generated

● Plant capacity factor:

o Ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that could

have been produced during a given period

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
o Plant capacity factor =
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑

à𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑∗𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
=
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦∗𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

à𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
=
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

● Reserve capacity:

o Capacity of plant to meet some increased load demand in future

o Reserve capacity = plant capacity – maximum demand

● Plant use factor:

o Ratio of number of units generated to the product of plant capacity and

number of hours for which the plant was in operation.
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑊ℎ
o Plant use factor =
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

● Units generated per annum:

= average load(kW) * hours in a year

= maximum demand(kW) * load factor * 365 * 24
 Connected load means:

A load drawn by consumer B installed electrical load in

at any instant the premises of a consumer

C maximum load consumer

D none of the above
draws
The load factor plays a key role in
determining which among the following?

B. Overall cost per unit

A. Plant capacity.
generated.

C. Overall demand. D. Both (a) and (c).

A large diversity factor of the load in a
power system

A. Does not affect the B Reduces the

installation cost. installation cost.

C Increase the
D None of above.
installation cost.
 Interconnected grid system

● Connection of several generating stations in parallel

Advantages
• Best method to meet load demands • Ensures economic operation
– peak load can be shared.

• Best use of older plants or less • Increases diversity factor –

efficient plants for meeting peak
loads for short duration.
• Reduces plant reserve capacity –
otherwise every plant needs
standby unit for emergency –
improves efficiency of the system.
because maximum demand on the
integrated system will less than the
individual maximum demand on
different plants – improves effective
capacity of the system
• Improves reliability of supply –
continuity of supply can be
maintained even if breakdown in
one station
 Reserve capacity of power stations

● Generating capacity available to the system within short interval of time to

meet emergency demands – generally equals to rated capacity of largest

generator plus a fraction of peak load.

● There are different types of reserves:

o Spinning reserve
o Non spinning reserve

o Hot reserve

o Cold reserve
 Types of reserves

Spinning reserve Non spinning reserve

The extra generating capacity The extra generating capacity

that is available by increasing the that is not currently connected to
power output of generators that the system, but can be brought
are already connected to the online after short delay – offline
system – online reserve reserve
 Types of reserves

Hot reserve: Cold reserve:

Reserve capacity which can Reserve which is available for

be made available quickly service but normally not
ready for immediate loading -
ensured by special reserve
units with small start up and
spin up time
The power which must be available even
under emergency conditions is known as

A. Hot reserve. B. Cold reserve.

C. Firm reserve. D. Spinning reserve.

THANK YOU