Source: Nunavik Tourism Association

Sustainable buildings for climate resilience in

Northern communities
Lecture 5: Thermal comfort and Indoor Air Quality
Dr. Miroslava Kavgic mkavgic@uottawa.ca
Source: Nunavik Tourism Association
 Indoor Environmental Quality

Source: Paraskevi Vivian Dorizas, M. D. Groote, Jonathan Volt, 2018

Environmental Science
THERMAL COMFORT

What is thermal
comfort?
 Thermal Comfort
• Measure of how comfortable the indoor environment is perceived to be by its
occupants.
“Thermal comfort is the condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with
the thermal environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation”
(ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55)
 How do we meet thermal
comfort?

• Need to create highly predictable

and controlled environment.
• ASHRAE standard 55 was developed
to predict comfort.
‒ Deals exclusively with indoor
environment.
‒ Focuses on person’s heat
exchange with the environment.
 Standard approaches
Two approaches:

• Analytical: People are put in a temperature-controlled environment and their

responses are monitored. This method favors highly controlled environments and the
results are used to develop a model that can be used to predict optimum comfort.

• Behavioral: People are monitored in their normal environments and their responses
are related to the conditions they experience. The results are analyzed statistically to
develop an understanding of the interaction between people and buildings.
 Thermal comfort models
• Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) model stands among the most recognized thermal
comfort models.
• Uses principles of heat balance and experimental data collected in a controlled
climate chamber.

• Standard thermal comfort surveys

ask subjects about their thermal
sensation.

• Fanger’s equations are used to

calculate the PMV.
 Fanger’s Thermal Comfort Model

For an interior space the

recommended acceptable
PPD range for thermal
comfort from ASHRAE 55 is
less than 10% persons
dissatisfied for an interior
space

Predicted Percentage
Dissatisfied
(PPD: 1 to 100%)
For an interior space the recommended acceptable PMV range
for thermal comfort from ASHRAE 55 is between -0.5 and +0.5
-0.5 0.5
Predicted Mean Vote (PMV: -3 to +3)
• One of the main goals in designing a building and its HVAC system(s)
is to provide a comfortable indoor environment for the occupants.

9
 Thermal comfort parameters

Two human factors:

• Metabolic rate (met)
• Clothing Insulation (clo)

Four environmental parameters:

Source: https://www.hse.gov.uk/temperature/thermal/factors.htm

• Air temperature (°C) (°F)

• Relative humidity (%)
• Air movement (m/s) (feet/minute)
• Mean radiant temperature (MRT) (°C) (°F)
 Biological Machine
The human being is a biological machine that burns food as a fuel
and generates heat as a by-product.
All warm-blooded animals, and humans in particular, require a very
constant temperature.
Some heat is lost by exhaling warm, moist air from the lungs, but most of the
body’s heat flow is through the skin.

The skin temperature will be much lower in winter than in summer.

The skin regulates heat flow partly by controlling the amount of blood flowing through it.
o In summer the skin is flushed with blood to increase the heat loss.
o In winter little blood is allowed to circulate near the surface and the skin becomes
an insulator.
Heat Balance Equation
S = M ± Rd ± Cv ± Cd− Ev
S is the change in stored heat
M is the metabolic heat production
Rd is the net radiation exchange
Cv is the convection (including respiration)
Cd is the conduction
Ev is the evaporation (including respiration)

Ideally M ± Rd ± Cv ± Cd− Ev = 0
means that the thermal comfort/ thermal
equilibrium is achieved. Metabolic heat balance equation
Proposed by Gagge (1936)
 Metabolic Rate
To maintain vital thermal equilibrium, our bodies must lose heat at the same
rate at which the metabolic rate produces it.
This heat production is partly a function of outside temperature but mostly a
function of activity.
A very active person generates heat at a rate more than eight times that of a
reclining person.
1 met ⁓ 58.2 W/m²
Average body surface area 1.8 m²
The total heat from a relaxed
seated person with mean surface
area:
58.2 W/m² x 1.8 m² ≈ 100 W (± 20 W)
 Clothing insulation
Insulation values of different kind of clothing (1 clo = 0.155 m²K/W)
Four Environmental parameters
 Air Temperature
The air temperature will determine the rate at which heat is lost to the
air, mostly by convection.

Above 37°C, the heat flow reverses and the body will gain heat from the
air.

The comfort range for most people (80 percent) extends from 20°C in
winter to 25°C in summer. The range is this large mostly because warmer
clothing is worn in the winter.
 Relative Humidity (RH)
Evaporation of skin moisture is largely a function of air humidity.

Dry air can readily absorb the moisture from the skin, and the
resulting rapid evaporation will effectively cool the body.

When the RH reaches 100%, the air is holding all the water vapor it
can and cooling by evaporation stops.

For comfort, the RH should be above 20% all year, below 60% in the
summer, and below 80% in the winter.
 Relative Humidity (RH)

At very low humidity levels there will be complaints of dry noses,

mouths, eyes, and skin and increases in respiratory illnesses.

Static electricity and shrinkage of wood are also problems caused

by low humidity.

High humidity not only reduces the evaporative cooling rate but also
encourages sweating which the body senses as uncomfortable.

Furthermore, mold growth is frequently a serious problem when the

humidity is high.
 Air movement
Air movement affects the heat-loss rate by both convection and
evaporation and therefore has a very pronounced effect on heat loss.

In the summer, it is a great asset and in the winter a liability

The comfortable range is from around 0.1 to 0.3 m/s. From 0.3 to 1m/s
air motion is noticeable but acceptable depending on the activity being
performed. Above 1m/s the air motion can be slightly unpleasant and
disruptive.

A draft is an undesirable local cooling of the human body by air

movement, and it is a serious thermal comfort problem.
 Mean Radiant Temperature (MRT)
When you sit in front of a uninsulated solid wall in the winter, you might actually
feel cold, even though the air temperature is a comfortable 20°C.

In general, the goal is to maintain the MRT close to the ambient air temperature.

In a well-insulated and shaded building, the MRT is usually close to that of the
indoor air temperature.

Operative temperature (OT) is combination of the air temperature and the MRT.
Bioclimatic chart: indicates the zone where comfort is felt in moderate climate zones,
wearing indoor clothing and doing light work. It also assumes that not only the air
temperature, but also the temperature of surrounding surfaces lie within this range

COMFORT ZONE
ASHRAE COMFORT ZONES
 Thermal comfort calculations
Thermal comfort calculations according to ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55[1] can be freely
performed with the CBE Thermal Comfort Tool for ASHRAE 55
http://comfort.cbe.berkeley.edu/
 ASHRAE COMFORT ZONES

Comfort range:
Temp – 20 ⁰C to 25⁰C
RH – 20 % to 70%, around 50% is ideal
 Questions so far?

Knossos, palais. Greece

 INDOOR AIR QUALITY
• 500 BC, Greek philosophers were concerned with the air quality in mines.

• Pliny the Elder who was a Roman philosopher (AD 23–79) advised masks for
stonecutters and asbestos miners.
Where is higher air pollution,
• The first recommendations
indoor or outdoor?
for ventilation standards to control odor is
developed in early 1800s.

• In 1858 Florence Nightingale recommended air exchange rate of 0.01

m³/s/person to avoid re-infection in hospitals.
 Contaminant Sources
• Indoor Sources
• Outdoor Sources
 Outdoor Sources
Typical outdoor air pollutants are:

 Particulate matter
• Particulate matter less than 10 micrometers (PM10)
• Particulate matter less than 2.5 micrometers (PM2.5)
• Particulate matter less than 0.1 μm (ultrafine particles)

 Gases
• Ozone (O3)
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
• Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
• Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Lead (Pb)
• Mercury (Hg)
 Health and outdoor air pollution
Documented health effects of air pollution on the human’s health include:
• Stroke
• Heart disease
• Lung cancer
• Chronic and acute respiratory diseases (e.g. asthma)
• Mortality

In 2005 in US, an estimated 130,000

deaths in related to outdoor PM2.5.

Fann et al., 2012 Risk Analysis

 Indoor Air Quality in Canada

• Canada is third in the world for best air quality according to the World
Health Organization (WHO) list.

• Nevertheless, many Canadian cities are still listed at risk for health-
related issues from poor air quality.

• The Canadian Medical Association estimates that poor air quality was
responsible for 21,000 deaths in 2008.

Air quality map ://aqicn.org/map/canada/

 Where do people spend the most of their time?
• The most of our time we spend indoors.
 Almost 90% of the time, on average in the urban areas.
 Around 18 hours indoors for every 1 hour outdoors.
• Indoor air is a dominant environmental exposure as most of the body’s
intake of air happens inside buildings.
 Around 80-90% inhaled in buildings.
• In buildings we are surrounded by materials, furnishings, appliances,
many of which emit or release a variety of substances.
 Some emissions are harmful and some are not.
• Buildings also exchange air without the outdoor environment
o Outdoor air pollution can dilute or become indoor air pollution.
 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
IAQ refers to the air quality within buildings and structures
and influences the health and comfort of building
occupants.
The Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) define IAQ as “The temperature,
humidity, ventilation and chemical
and/or biological contaminants of the
air inside a building.”
The growing spread of chemical
pollutants in consumer and commercial
products, the tendency toward tighter
building envelopes and reduced
ventilation to save energy, and pressures
to postpone maintenance and other
building services to reduce costs may
cause indoor air quality problems.
 Classes of indoor pollutants
• Inorganic gases:
 Combustion products: carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen
oxides (NOx)
 Ammonia (NH3), ozone (O3), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), radon,
metals
• Organic gases:
 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
 Aldehydes (e.g., formaldehyde)
 Semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) (e.g. Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), pesticides, brominated flame retardants)

• Particulate matter (PM):

 Solid and liquid aerosols (e.g., chemicals, metals)
 Fibers (e.g., asbestos)
 Biological particles [e.g. Viruses, bacteria, fungi, allergens (pollen,
dander)]
 Major types of indoor emission sources

• Building materials (VOC/SVOC) • Coatings (VOC/SVOC)

o Wood and composite wood  Paints
o Gypsum wallboard  Stains
o Concrete  Varnishes
o Carpet • Outdoor-to-indoor transport (all)
o Vinyl flooring

• Furnishings (VOC/SVOC)
 Bedding
 Tables
 Couches/chairs
 Drapes
 Major types of indoor emission sources
• Consumer products (VOC/SVOC) • Volatilization from water (VOC)
o Cleaners • Soil vapor intrusion (VOC/radon)
o Fragrances • People, pets, insects (biological)
o Personal care products
• Combustion (VOC/PM/SVOC/other)
 Cigarettes, cigars, pipes
 Gas stoves
 Space heaters
 Candles
 Incense
• Electronics (PM/VOC/SVOC/other)
 Laser printers
 Computers
 Photocopiers
 Health effects
• Acute - Those that occur immediately (i.e. within 24 hours) after exposure.
For example, chemicals released from building materials may cause headaches, while mold spores
may result in itchy eyes and runny noses. Typically, these effects are not long lasting and
disappear shortly after exposure ends.

• Chronic - Those that are long lasting resulting from long term or frequently repeated
exposures.
o Long term exposures to even low concentrations of some dangerous chemicals may induce
chronic effects. Cancer is the most commonly associated long term health consequence of
exposure to indoor air contaminants.

• Discomfort – Unpleasant conditions that may cause discomfort among occupants,

without serious health implication involved.
However, absenteeism, work performance and employee morale can be seriously affected when
building managers fail to address employees’ complaints.
 Health and Exposure to Indoor Pollutants

VOCs

Connection between gas cooking and respiratory

diseases in children
Mella et al. 1977 British Medical Journal
Respiratory Symptoms in Children and Indoor Exposure
to Nitrogen Dioxide and Gas Stoves
Garrett et al. 1998 Am J Respir Crit Care Med
Health and Exposure to Indoor Pollutants
 What affects air exchange rates?
Two main categories of outdoor air exchange rates:

• Ventilation
 introduction of outdoor air into a building that can be:
o Mechanical (forced) ventilation: The intentional flow of air into and
out of a building using fans, intake and exhaust vents.
o Natural ventilation: The movement of air through opened windows,
doors, grilles, and other envelope penetrations, caused by natural or
artificially induced pressure differences.

 Infiltration
o Unintentional flow (air leakage) of outdoor air into a building through
cracks, leaks, and other imperfections in the envelope
• Mechanical ventilation is pretty straightforward.
o For instance, fans move air through known openings, whereas flow rates
are typically known or at least measurable.

• Natural ventilation is conceptually straightforward but physically complex.

o Although openings are known, highly varying wind speeds and directions
introduce complexities.

• Infiltration is very complex.

o Due to the typically unknown openings and multiple driving forces.

• We need to know airflows through each of the above to assess IAQ and
energy impacts of ventilation and infiltration.
 Good indoor air quality

“Four principles for achieving good indoor air quality”

• Minimize indoor emissions

• Keep buildings dry

• Ventilate well

• Protect against outdoor pollution

Nazaroff 2013 Indoor Air

 Importance of ventilation
Indoor-generated pollutants are diluted using outdoor air ventilation.
 Ventilation and CO2

• CO2 is often used to assess IAQ as CO2 concentrations will be elevated in

poorly ventilated spaces.

• The average CO2 production rate per person at an activity level of 1.0-1.2
met is often assumed to be ~0.003 L/s

• Recent studies suggests that CO2 might be a pollutant on its own that can
also affect cognitive functions.
“Scientists report a surprising link between indoor carbon dioxide levels and
cognitive function”

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2015/10/27/why-your-office-air-could-be-crimping-your-productivity/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.8ad17ecf8d6b
ASHRAE Standard 62.1: Commercial buildings
ASHRAE Standard 62.1: Commercial buildings
ASHRAE Standard 62.2: Residential ventilation
ASHRAE Standard 62.2: Residential ventilation
Why Indoor Air Quality is Important? Link ://youtu.be/ygHU0mQGuJU
Thank you for your
attention.
Questions?