GEN BIO 2 | 4TH QUARTER PERFECT VS.

IMPERFECT FLOWERS
LESSON 1: PLANT REPRODUCTION ➢ PERFECT
: have both pistil and stamen parts
➢ REPRODUCTION: biological process in
: monoecious (all sexes are there) flower
which new individual organisms are
produced, may it be sexual or asexual.
➢ IMPERFECT
: either only has pistil or stamen
➢ SEXUAL: union of gametes (egg cell and
: dioecious (sexes are separated per flower)
sperm cell) through fertilization
flower
➢ ASEXUAL: creation of cloned offspring from
➢ TWO TYPES OF IMPERFECT FLOWERS
parent organism
: PISTILATE – female flower, only has pistils
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS : STAMENATE – male flower, only has
stamen
➢ FOUR MAIN PARTS:
1. pistil/carpel and stamen = reproductive
2. petals and sepals = sterile
COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE FLOWERS
➢ COMPLETE
➢ STAMEN – male part of flower : has all four main parts: sepal, petal, pistil,
- ANTHER – production site of pollen and stamen
- FILAMENT – support anther
➢ INCOMPLETE
: lacks at least one of the four main parts
➢ PISTIL/CARPEL – female part of flower : automatically becomes imperfect
- STIGMA – receiving site of pollen
- STYLE – supports stigma ➢ POLLINATION
- OVARY – where fertilization takes place : process of transferring pollen from an
- OVULE – becomes the seed anther to a stigma

➢ POLLINATION THROUGH:
- BIOTIC MEANS = 80%
- Pollination by bees, moths, butterflies,
flies, bats, birds.

- ABIOTIC MEANS
- WIND = 98%
- WATER = 2%
- wind and water main agents
➢ HAPLOTINIC LIFE CYCLE - Zygote undergoes mitosis; occurs in
- Its dominant stage is a multicellular animals and higher plants
haploid (N) stage which produces (gymnosperms and angiosperms)
gametes that eventually fuse to form
unicellular zygotes.
- ZYGOTE -> MEIOSIS (to become - All the plants showing sexual
haploid) -> MITOSIS (to become reproduction alternate between two
multicellular organism) multicellular stages, the haploid
gametophyte and diploid sporophytes.
➢ EXAMPLE OF HAPLOTONIC LIFE CYCLE:
MOSS
- A moss has a multicellular haploid
(gametophyte) stage that produces
gametes.

- These gametes fuse to produce a zygote

that undergoes mitosis to produce a
multicellular sporophyte.

- Within a part of the sporophyte called

the capsule, cells undergo meiosis to
produce meiospores.

- These spores are eventually released

and germinate by dividing mitotically to
become a multicellular gametophyte

➢ Mitosis is the process of cell division

wherein the chromosomes replicate and get
equally distributed into two daughter cells.

➢ Meiosis is a type of cell division that

➢ DIPLOTONIC LIFE CYCLE
- the life cycle of organisms, which is
dominated by the diploid (2N) stage.
Plants and algae show alternation of
generation.
reduces the number of chromosomes in the
parent cell by half and produces four
gamete cells. This process is required to
produce egg and sperm cells for sexual
reproduction.
➢ DOUBLE FERTILIZATION ➢ SEED GERMINATION
- results from the discharge of two sperm
from the pollen tube into the embryo
sac
- One sperm fertilizes the egg, and the
other combines with the polar nuclei,
giving rise to the triploid food-storing
endosperm (3n)

➢ FRUITS
- Develops in ovary
- protects the enclosed seeds and aids in
seed dispersal by wind or animals
➢ SEEDS
- SEED COAT – encloses the embryo and
➢ DEVELOPMENT OF FRUITS
food supply
- SIMPLE – a single or several fused
- COTYLEDON – part of the embryo within carpels
the seed of a plant; embryonic leaf
- AGGREGATE – a single flower with
- HYPOCOTYL – embryonic axis below
multiple separate carpels
cotyledons - MULTIPLE – a group of flowers called an
- RADICLE – embryonic root inflorescence
- EPICOTYL – above the cotyledons; to
- ACCESSORY – contains other floral parts
extend the shoot above the soil
in addition to ovaries
- PLUMULE – comprises the epicotyl,
young leaves, and shoot apical meristem

➢ SEED AND FRUIT DISPERSAL
1. Like pollination in plants, different agents
aid seed and fruit dispersal.
a. ABIOTIC AGENTS = WIND, WATER
b. BIOTIC AGENTS = ANIMALS
2. In order to propagate, plants have
evolved in order to adapt to their
environments.
a. Flowers ensure the formation of the
embryo through different adaptations for
pollination and fertilization.
b. The developing embryo is helped by the
adaptation of the fruit and seeds, which
further protects and aids in its propagation.
➢ Impatiens capensis, also known as
jewelweed, have exploding seed pods
activated by pressure.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
➢ produces individuals that are genetically
identical to the parent plant.
➢ Since plants are modular organisms, we can
just take a plant part and grow it as another
one.
➢ FRAGMENTATION
- Can occur through growth from a stem,
leaf, root, and other plant organ which
gained the ability comparable to parent
plant
➢ APOMOXIS
- Occurs when diploid cells in the ovule
creates an embryo
- This can later result in the formation of a
seed
➢ VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
- Only one plant is involved, and the
offspring is the result of one parent.
- New plant is genetically identical to the
parent
• STEMS
- RUNNER = grows horizontally above
- NODES = allows asexual reproduction
through bud growth; example is grass
• ROOTS
- TUBERS = swollen roots allow asexual
reproduction
- Example is cassava
• LEAVES
- That are succulent, like the catacataca
leaf allows asexual reproduction
• BULBS
- Onions (each skin is a leaf) and garlic
(each piece is a modified stem and leaf)
is attached to an underground stem
- Each forms a new bulb underground
➢ ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION

• GRAFTING
- Act of placing a portion of one plant
(bud/scion) into or on a stem, root, or
branch of another (stock) in such a way
that union will be formed, and the
partners will continue to grow.

• LAYERING
- A shoot of a parent plant is bent and is
covered by soil, like what happens to a
runner.
- This stimulates root growth, after which,
the plants can be separated.

• CUTTING
- Is done to propagate a plant by cutting
the stem at an angle of a shoot with
attached leaves.
- Growth stimulator is given sometimes
LESSON 2: ANIMAL REPRODUCTION AND
DEVELOPMENT
➢ MODES OF REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
➢ ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- Creation of offspring without fusion of
egg and sperm
- One parent clones offspring
➢ ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
• BUDDING
- occurs when individuals arise
throughout the outgrowths from a
parent. This can create a colony of
individuals attached to a parent, such
as in corals.
• FISSION
- is the separation/division of an
organism to form individuals of
approximately same size.
- This is usually observed in animal-like
protists such as Amoeba
• FRAGMENTATION AND REGENERATION
- fragmentation is when an animal’s
body breaks into different parts, which
later regenerate to form several
individuals.
- Sponges, annelids, cnidarians, and
tunicates are examples of this mode of
reproduction
• PARTHOGENESIS
- is like apomixes in plants, where the
egg cell develops without fertilization.
This is exhibited by bees, wasps, lizards,
sharks
➢ SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- Creation of an offspring by fusion of
male (sperm) and female (egg) gamete
to form a zygote.
-
➢ ADVANTAGES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- Increase in variation of offspring
- Increase in the rate of adaptation
- Shuffling of genes and elimination of
harmful genes from a population
➢ FERTILIZATION
• EXTERNAL
- eggs shed by the female are fertilized
by sperm in the external environment.
• INTERNAL
- sperm are deposited in or near the
female reproductive tract, and
fertilization occurs within the tract
➢ UNION OF GAMETES
• ISOGAMY
- Fusion of similar gametes
• HETEROGAMY
- Fusion of dissimilar gametes
➢ FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE
• In females, the secretion of hormones and
the reproductive events they regulate are
cyclic.
• Prior to ovulation, the endometrium =
uterine lining, thickens with blood vessels
in preparation for embryo implantation.
• MENSTRUATION – shedding of
endometrium
• Hormones closely link the two cycles of
female reproduction:
• MENSTRUAL CYCLE (UTERINE CYCLE) –
changes in the uterus / uterine lining
• OVARIAN CYCLE – changes in the ovaries /
follicle / egg chamber
➢ HORMONES INVOLVED IN FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE
• LH (Luteinizing hormone)
- stimulates steroid release from the
ovaries, ovulation, and the release of
progesterone after ovulation by the
corpus luteum.
- Ovulation is made possible due to the
combined actions of the hypothalamus,
pituitary, and ovary.
• FSH (Follicle stimulating hormone)
- helps manage the menstrual cycle and
stimulates the ovaries to produce eggs.
- Used to help diagnose/evaluate
menopause, polycystic ovary
syndrome, ovarian cysts.
• Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
- a hormone produced by the placenta
during pregnancy.
- It helps thicken a person's uterine lining
to support a growing embryo and tells
the body to stop menstruation.
- HCG levels rise after conception and
continue to rise until about 10 weeks in
pregnancy
• CORPUS LUTEUM
- responsible for producing the hormone
progesterone, which stimulates the
uterus to thicken even more in
preparation for the implantation of a
fertilized egg.
- During pregnancy, progesterone plays
an important role in the development
of the fetus (it stimulates the growth of
maternal breast tissue; prevents
lactation; and strengthens the pelvic
wall muscles in preparation for labor).
- Estrogen also increases during this time
to prepare the uterus for implantation;
also responsible for developing female
sexual characteristics.
➢ GAMETOGENESIS IN HUMANS
• GAMETOGENESIS
- the production of gametes by meiosis.
This differs in females and males
• SPERMATOGENESIS
- production of mature sperm.
- Sperm are small and motile and are
produced throughout the life of a
sexually mature male.
• OOGENESIS
- development of mature oocytes (eggs)
and can take many years
- Eggs contain stored nutrients and are
much larger.
➢ SPERMATOGENESIS ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT

• FSH promotes the activity of Sertoli cells,

which nourish developing sperm and are
located within the seminiferous tubules.

• LH regulates Leydig cells, which secrete

testosterone and other androgen
hormones, which in turn promote
spermatogenesis.

• Testosterone regulates the production of

GnRH, FSH, and LH through negative
feedback mechanisms.

• Sertoli cells secrete the hormone inhibin,

which reduces FSH secretion from the
anterior pituitary.
➢ FERTILIZATION
- the formation of a diploid zygote from
a haploid egg and sperm
➢ CONTRACEPTIONS
- Molecules and events at the egg
- Birth control, also known as
surface play a crucial role in each step
contraception, anticonception, and
of fertilization
fertility control, is the use of methods
- Sperm penetrate the protective layer
or devices to prevent unintended
around the egg
pregnancy.
- Receptors on the egg surface bind to
molecules on the sperm surface
• METHODS:
- Changes at the egg surface prevent
- Ovulation-suppressing methods = Oral
polyspermy, the entry of multiple
contraceptives
sperm nuclei into the egg
- Barrier methods = Physical (Condom,
Diaphragm, Cervical cap)
➢ GASTRULATION
- rearranges the cells of a blastula into a
- Chemical = Spermicidal jelly and foam
three-layered embryo, called a gastrula
- Surgical methods = Vasectomy and
• The three layers produced by gastrulation
Tubal ligation
are called embryonic germ layers
- The ectoderm forms the outer layer
- Implantation-suppressing methods =
- The endoderm lines the digestive tract
IUD (intrauterine device) and Morning-
- The mesoderm partly fills the space
after pill
between the endoderm and ectoderm
- Others = Abstinence
• Each germ layer contributes to specific ➢ EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
structures in the adult animal

➢ ORGANOGENESIS
- various regions of the germ layers
develop into rudimentary organs
- Early in vertebrate organogenesis, the
notochord forms from mesoderm, and
the neural plate forms from ectoderm
- The neural plate soon curves inward,
forming the neural tube
- The neural tube will become the central
nervous system (brain and spinal cord)

➢ DETERMINATION AND DIFFERENTIATION

• DETERMINATION
- process by which a cell or group of cells
becomes committed to a particular fate

• DIFFERENTIATION
- refers to the resulting specialization in
structure and function
LESSON 3: ANIMAL NUTRITION AND DIGESTION ➢ MECHANISMS OF INGESTION
➢ ANIMAL NUTRITION
• FILTER FEEDING
- Food is taken in, taken apart, and taken
- Uses adaptation in feeding food
up in the process
particles from the environment, which
is usually aquatic
➢ In general, animals fall into 3 categories.
- Examples include clams, mussels,
- HERBIVORES eat mainly plants and
whales, etc.
algae
- CARNIVORES eat other animals
• SUBSTRATE FEEDING
- OMNIVORES regularly consume
- Animals live in or on their food source
animals as well as pants or algae
- Examples include leaf miner, maggots,
and other parasites
➢ Most animals are also opportunistic
feeders: type of foraging in which an
• FLUID FEEDING
animal feeds on a wide variety of prey and
- Animals suck nutrient-rich fluid from a
is able to adapt to whatever food becomes
host or source
available
- They have different adaptations in
order to get the food: proboscis of
mosquitoes, long tongue of nectar
➢ An animal’s diet provides:
feeding bats, and long beaks of
• CHEMICAL ENERGY
hummingbirds
- Converted into ATP to power cellular
processes
• BULK FEEDING
- Animals suchs as humans take in large
• ORGANIC BUILDING BLOCKS
particle sized food
- Such as organic carbon and nitrogen to
- Different animals have acquired
synthesize a variety of organic
different adaptations such as tentacles.
molecules
Claws, venomous fangs, large mandible
and teeth which aids in killing prey or
• ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS
tearing off pieces of meat or vegetation
- Required by cells and must be obtained
from dietary sources
➢ DIGESTION
- The process of breaking down food
down into molecules small enough for
➢ 4 FOOD PROCESSESSING STAGES
the body to absorb
1. INGESTION – acquisition of food
material
2. DIGESTION – breaking down of food
material into nutrients
3. ABSORPTION – acquisition and
circulation of nutrients in the body
4. ELIMINATION/EGESTION – removal
of waste/undigested material
➢ 2 KINDS OF DIGESTION
• MECHANICAL
- Includes chewing’ increases the surface
area of food
• CHEMICAL
- Splits food into small molecules that
can pass through membranes; used to
build larger molecules.
- ENZYMATIC HYDROLYSIS = splits the
bonds in molecules with the addition of
water
➢ MECHANISMS OF DIGESTION
• INTRACELLULAR DIGESTION
- Food particles are engulfed by
phagocytosis
- Food vacuoles, containing food, fuse
with lysosomes containing hydrolytic
enzymes
• EXTRACELLULAR DIGESTION
- Breakdown of food particles outside of
cells
- Occurs in compartments that are
continuous outside of the animal’s
body
• GASTROVASCULAR CAVITY
- Animals with simple body plans
- Functions in both digestion and
distribution of nutrients
➢ DIGESTIVE COMPARTMENTS
- Most complex animals have a digestive
tube with two openings, mouth and
anus; called a complete digestive tract
or alimentary canal
- Can have specialized regions that carry
out digestion and absorption in a
stepwise fashion
➢ HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• MOUTH
- First digestive organ that food enters
- Sight, smell, or taste of food stimulates
the release of digestive enzymes by
salivary glands inside the mouth
- Begins the process of mechanical
digestion
• AMYLASE
- Major salivary enzyme
- Begins the chemical digestion of
carbohydrates by breaking down starch
into sugar
• ESOPHAGUS
- Long, narrow tube that passes food
from the pharynx to the stomach by
PERISTALSIS
• STOMACH
- Sac-like organ in which food is further
digested mechanically and chemically
- Has very low pH due to hydrochloric
acid needed by enzymes to do their
function
• SMALL INTESTINE
- Narrow tube about 7 meters (23 feet)
long in adults.
- Site of most chemical digestion and
virtually all absorption
• Consists of 3 parts:
- DUODENUM – iron
- JEJUNUM – vitamin folic acid
- ILEUM – vitamin B12 and bile salts
➢ ABSORPTION IN THE SMALL INTESTINE ➢ DENTAL ADAPTATIONS
• VILLI • DENTITION
- Small fingerlike structures where - Animal’s assortment of teeth
absorption takes place - Structural variation reflecting diet

➢ LARGE INTESTINE • Success of mammals is due in part of their

- Any remaining food wastes from the
small intestine passes here.
- Relatively wide tube that connects the
small intestine with the anus
- Site for water reabsorption
dentition specialized for different diets
• Nonmammalian vertebrates have less
specialized teeth, though some exception
exist

• Consists of 3 parts ➢ ADAPTATIONS IN VERTEBRATES

- CECUM / CAECUM – absorbs water and • CARNIVORES
electrolytes - Have large, expandable stomachs
- COLON – absorbs remaining water and
nutrients; temporary storage and • HERBIVORES AND OMNIVORES
transport of waste - Generally have longer alimentary
- RECTUM – holds feces until it leaves the canals that carnivores; reflects the
body longer time needed to digest
vegetation
➢ ACCESSORY ORGANS - Many herbivores have fermentation
- Produces enzymes needed for digestion chambers where mutualistic
- Not a part of the gastrointestinal tract microorganisms digest cellulose
- The most elaborate adaptations for an
• SALIVARY GLANDS herbivorous diet have evolved in the
- Ptyalin and mucin animals called ruminants
• LIVER
- Bile in gallbladder
• PANCREAS
- Pancreatic juice
LESSON 4: PLANT TRANSPRIATION AND
NUTRITION

ADAPTATIONS OF VASCULAR PLANTS

➢ Natural selection favored taller plants with
flat appendages, multicellular branching
roots, and efficient transport
➢ Natural selection favored taller plants with
flat appendages, multicellular branching
roots, and efficient transport SHORT DISTANCE TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS
➢ Early nonvascular land plants lived in ACROSS PLASMA MEMBRANES
shallow water and had aerial shoots
➢ The evolution of xylem and phloem in land ➢ Plasma membrane permeability controls
plants made possible the long-distance short-distance movement of substances
transport of water, minerals, and products ➢ Both active and passive transport occurs in
of photosynthesis. plants
➢ Membrane potential is established through
PLANT TRANSPORT SYSTEMS pumping H+ by proton pumps in plants
➢ APOPLAST
- consists of everything external to the
plasma membrane
- includes cell walls, extracellular spaces,
and the interior of vessel elements and
tracheids

➢ SYMPLAST
- consists of the cytosol of the living cells
in a plant, as well as the
plasmodesmata

THREE TRANSPORT ROUTES FOR WATER AND

SOLUTES:
1. APOPLASTIC = call walls and extracellular spaces
2. SYMPLASTIC = cytosol
3. TRANSMEMBRANE = across cell walls
WATER POTENTIAL AND TUGOR PRESSURE OF
CELLS
➢ WATER POTENTIAL
- A measurement that combines the
effects of solute concentration and
pressure.
- Determines the direction of water
movement
➢ WATER POTENTIAL EQUATION
- Ψ = ΨS + ΨP
- SOLUTE POTENTIAL (ΨS) of a solution is
directly proportional to its molarity
- PRESSURE POTENTIAL (ΨP) is the
physical pressure on a solution
➢ TUGOR PRESSURE
- Pressure exerted by the plasma
membrane against the cell wall, and
cell wall against the protoplast
➢ PROTOPLAST
- Living part of the cell, includes the
plasma membrane
➢ Water move to an area of lowest water
potential; more negative, more water goes
in
➢ Water potential affects uptake and loss of
water by plant cells
➢ If a flaccid cell is placed in an environment
with a higher solute concentration, the cell
will lose water and undergo plasmolysis
➢ Plasmolysis
- occurs when the protoplast shrinks and
pulls away from the cell wall
LONG DISTANCE TRANSPORT: BULK FLOW
➢ BULK FLOW
- Movement of fluid driven by pressure
- For efficient long-distance transport of
fluid
- Plants can move a large volume of
water from their roots to shoots
➢ XYLEM SAP
- Water and dissolved minerals is
transported from roots to leaves by
bulk flow
- Transportation involves
TRANSPIRATION = evaporation of water
from a plant’s surface
➢ COHESTION-TENSION HYPOTHESIS
- transpiration and water cohesion pull
water from roots to shoots
➢ Water and solutes move together through
tracheids and vessel elements of xylem,
and sieve-tube elements of phloem

➢ Efficient movement is possible because

mature tracheids and vessel elements have
no cytoplasm, and sieve-tube elements
have few organelles in their cytoplasm

➢ Bulk flow is driven by evaporation and

does not require energy from the plant;
like photosynthesis it is solar powered

➢ The waxy Casparian strip of the

endodermal wall blocks apoplastic transfer
of minerals from the cortex to the vascular
cylinder

➢ Water and minerals in the apoplast must

cross the plasma membrane of an
endodermal cell to enter the vascular
cylinder ➢ XYLEM TRANSPORT

➢ TRANSPIRATION
- process in which water escapes the
leaves of the plant, lowering the water
potential of cells.
- This allows for more transport of water
upwards via bulk flow.
➢ CHANGES IN TUGOR PRESSURE open and
close the stomata
- When turgid, guard cells bow outward
and the pore between them opens
- When flaccid, guard cells become less
bowed and the pore closes
➢ About 95% of the water a plant loses
escapes through stomata
➢ Each stoma is flanked by a pair of guard
cells, which control the diameter of the
stoma by changing shape
➢ Stomatal density is under genetic and
environmental control
➢ ENDODERMIS
- Innermost layer of cells in the root
cortex
➢ CASPARIAN STRIP
- of the endodermal wall blocks
apoplastic transfer of minerals from the
cortex to the vascular cylinder
- It surrounds the vascular cylinder and is
the last checkpoint for selective
passage of minerals from the cortex
into the vascular tissue
- Water can cross the cortex via the
symplast or apoplast
- Water and minerals in the apoplast
must cross the plasma membrane of an
endodermal cell to enter the vascular
cylinder

➢ PHLOEM TRANSPORT
- Products of photosynthesis are
transported through phloem by the
process of translocation
- In angiosperms, sieve-tube elements
are the conduits for translocation
➢ PHLOEM SAP – aqueous solution high in
sucrose; travels from a sugar source to a
sugar sink
➢ SUGAR SOURCE – organ that is a net
producer of sugar, such as mature leaves
➢ SUGAR SINK – organ that is a net consumer
or storer of sugar, such as tuber or bulb
➢ PLANT NUTRITION
- Plants gather their nutrients from the
soil.
- Nine of the essential elements are
called macronutrients because
- plants require them in relatively large
amounts
- The macronutrients are carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur,
potassium, calcium, and magnesium
- The remaining eight are called
micronutrients because plants need
them in very small amounts
- The micronutrients are chlorine, iron,
manganese, boron, zinc, copper, nickel,
and molybdenum
➢ Micronutrients function as cofactors,
nonprotein helpers in enzymatic reactions
➢ MINERAL DEFICIENCY

- Symptoms of mineral deficiency

depend on the nutrient’s function and
mobility within the plant
- Deficiency of a mobile nutrient usually
affects older organs more than young
ones
- Deficiency of a less mobile nutrient
usually affects younger organs more
than older ones
- The most common deficiencies are
those of nitrogen, potassium, and
phosphorus

➢ EFFECT OF FUNGI AND BACTERIA IN PLANT

NUTRITION
- Mycorrhizae are mutualistic
associations of fungi and roots
- The fungus benefits from a steady
supply of sugar from the host plant
- The host plant benefits because the
fungus increases the surface area for
water uptake and mineral absorption
- Free-living rhizobacteria thrive in the
rhizosphere, and some can enter roots
- The rhizosphere has high microbial
activity because of sugars, amino acids,
and organic acids secreted by roots
LESSON 5: OSMOREGULATION AND EXCRETION
➢ OSMOREGULATION IN MARINE VS.
➢ OSMOREGULATION FRESHWATER FISHES
- Regulates solute concentrations and
balances the gain and loss of water

➢ Physiological systems of animals operate in

a fluid environment

➢ Relative concentrations of water and

solutes must be maintained within fairly
narrow limits ➢ LAND ANIMALS
- Adaptations to reduce water loss are
key to survival on land

- Body coverings of most terrestrial

animals help prevent dehydration

- Desert animals get major water savings

from simple anatomical features and
behaviors such as a nocturnal lifestyle

- Land animals maintain water balance

by eating moist food and producing
water metabolically through cellular
➢ CONFORMERS
respiration
- Animals which copy the environmental
factors
- OSMOCONFORMERS – concentration
conformers
- THERMOCONFORMERS – temperature
conformers

➢ REGULATORS
- Animals that maintain their body’s
internal factors
- OSMOREGULATORS – concentration
regulators
- THERMOREGULATORS – temperature
regulators
➢ TRANSPORT EPITHELIA
- are epithelial cells that are specialized
for moving solutes in specific directions
- Animals regulate the solute content of
body fluid that bathes their cells
- They are typically arranged in complex
tubular networks
- An example is in nasal glands of marine
birds, which remove excess sodium
chloride from the blood
➢ EXCRETORY SYSTEM
- In order to remove wastes, animals
have the excretory system, which
enables it to remove excess salt or
water in the body.
- If there is excess water, waste material
is diluted but if there is low water,
waste might be concentrated or none
at all.

- Organisms have different wastes in the

➢ NITROGENOUS WASTES OF ANIMALS form of nitrogenous wastes which they
- The type and quantity of an animal’s need to excrete.
waste products may greatly affect its
water balance

- Among the most significant wastes are

nitrogenous breakdown products of
proteins and nucleic acids

- Some animals convert toxic ammonia

(NH3) to less toxic compounds prior to
excretion

➢ THE KIDNEY AND MAMMALIAN

EXCERTORY SYSTEM
➢ THE NEPHRON
- Basic structural unit of kidney

➢ STEPS OF FILTRATION OF BLOOD

1. Blood enters the kidney through the
renal artery, which branches into
capillaries. When blood passes through
capillaries of the glomerulus of a nephron,
blood pressure forces some
of the water and dissolved substances in
the blood to cross the capillary walls into
Bowman’s capsule.

2. The filtered substances pass to the renal

tubule of the nephron. In the renal tubule,
some of the filtered substances are
reabsorbed and returned to the
bloodstream. Other substances
are secreted into the fluid.

3. The fluid passes to a collecting duct,

which reabsorbs some of the water and
returns it to the bloodstream. The fluid
that remains in the collecting duct is urine.
LESSON 6: IMMUNE RESPONSES
➢ DIESASES
- a disorder of structure or function in a
human, animal, or plant, especially one
that produces specific signs or
symptoms or that affects a specific
location and is not simply a direct
result of physical injury.

➢ COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
- Contagious diseases ➢ IMMUNE SYSTEM
- an infectious disease transmissible (as - Protects the body from worms, germs,
from person to person) by direct and other agents of harm
contact with an affected individual or
the individual's discharges or by
indirect means
- Examples: AIDS, tuberculosis, measles,
Hepatitis

➢ NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
- a disease that is not transmissible
directly from one person to another.
- Examples: cancers, Parkinson’s disease,
Alzheimer’s disease, diabetes

➢ PATHOGENS
- Disease causing agents
➢ ANIMAL IMMUNITY
➢ BARRIERS – FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE
- The body’s first line of defense consists
of different types of barriers that keep
most pathogens out of the body.
Regardless of the type of pathogen,
however, the first line of defense is
always the same.
➢ MECHANICAL BARRIERS
- they physically block pathogens from
entering the body.
- Examples: skin, mucous membranes
➢ CHEMICAL BARRIERS
- destroy pathogens on the outer body
surface, at body openings, and on inner
body linings using the enzymes that
they contain.
- Examples: sweat, mucus, tears, saliva,
urine, and semen.
➢ BIOLOGICAL BARRIERS
- living organisms that help protect the
body.
- Examples: bacteria in the skin and GIT
➢ SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE
- If you have a cut on your hand, the
break in the skin provides a way for
pathogens to enter your body. Assume
bacteria enter through the cut and
infect the wound. These bacteria would
then encounter the body’s second line
of defense.
➢ INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
- The cut on your hand may become red,
warm, and swollen. These are signs of
an inflammatory response. This is the
first reaction of the body to tissue
damage or infection.
- The response is triggered by chemicals
called cytokines and histamines, which
are released when tissue is injured or
infected
➢ LEUKOCYTES
- Leukocytes are white blood cells. Their
role is to fight infections and get rid of
debris.
- Leukocytes may respond with either a
nonspecific or a specific defense
 ➢ PHAGOCYTOSIS BY MACROPAGES ➢ PRIMARY VS. SECONDARY LYMPHATIC
ORGANS

➢ THIRD LINE OF DEFENSE (SPECIFIC)

➢ NATURAL KILLER CELLS - IMMUNE RESPONSE – protects the
body from pathogens

➢ TYPES OF IMMUNE RESPONSE

- HUMORAL – mainly B cells
- CELL MEDIATES – mainly T cells

➢ LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
- Major part of the immune system

➢ LYMPHOCYTES
- Key cells involved in the immune
response

PARTS OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

➢ ANTIBODIES VS. ANTIGEN
➢ LYMPHATIC VESSELS - body-wide - ANTIGEN - toxin or other foreign
circulatory system. substance which induces an immune
➢ LYMPH – a fluid that leaks out of capillaries response in the body, especially the
into spaces between cells. production of antibodies
➢ LYMPHOCYTES – makes up 25% of all - ANTIBODIES – proteins produced and
leukocytes secreted by B cells; attacks antigens
➢ LYMPH NODES – parking lot of the
lymphocytes
 ➢ IMMUNOLOGICAL MEMORY
- responsible for long-term protections
➢ HOW ANTIBODIES FIGHT PATHOGENS
against diseases, due to either prior
infection of vaccination

➢ PRIMARY IMMUNE RESPONSE – first

exposure to a specific antigen
➢ SECONDARY IMMUNE RESPONSE - memory
cells facilitate a faster, more efficient
response

➢ TYPES OF ANTIBODIES

➢ HUMORAL RESPONSE: B-CELLS

- Attacks pathogens outside cells
- Antibody-mediated immunity against
pathogens
- Produced and mature in bone marrow
- Directly recognizes antigen and
➢ ACTIVE VS. PASSIVE IMMUNITY
undergoes clonal selection = produces
antibody-secreting plasma B-cells and
- ACTIVE IMMUNITY – resistance to
memory B-cells
disease due to the immune system’s
response to a microorganism or a
vaccine
➢ CELL-MEDIATED RESPONSE: T-CELLS
- Attacks virus-infected cells and cancer
- PASSIVE IMMUNITY – protection
cells
against infection acquired by transfer of
- Produced in bone marrow and mature
antibodies to a susceptible individual
sin the thymus
- Antigen must be presented in groove of
an HLA (MHC) molecule

- CYTOTOXIC T-CELLS – destroys non-self-

antigen-bearing cells; releases
chemicals that causes target cell to die
- HELPER T-CELLS – secrete cytokines that
control the immune response

➢ APOPTOSIS – programmed cell death

LESSON 7: PLANT RESPONSES TO INTERNAL AND ➢ CYTOKININS
EXTERNAL SIGNALS - Stimulates cell division
- Promotes growth of lateral buds
➢ Some factors that plants sense and
- Delays leaf senescence
respond to:
- LIGHT
- INTERNAL CHEMICAL SIGNALS
➢ GIBBERELLIN
- TOUCH
- Releases seeds and buds from
- WATER (DROUGHT/FLOODING)
dormancy
- TIME
- Affects fruit setting and growth
- GRAVITY
- WOUNDING
- INFECTIONS
➢ ABSCISIC ACID
- Maintains dormancy
- Causes stomatal closure
➢ SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAYS
- ‘Stress hormone’
- Involve the binding of extracellular
signaling molecules and ligands to
receptors located on the cell surface of
➢ ETHYLENE
inside the cell that trigger events inside
- Stimulates fruit ripening
the cell to invoke a response

➢ STEPS: RECEPTION > TRANSDUCTION >

➢ EXTERNAL STIMULI
RESPONSE
- The plant responds to many types of
external stimuli such as light, gravity,
➢ ETIOLATION – morphological adaptations
weather, and touch.
for growing in darkness
- The response of a plant is either
➢ DE-ETIOLATION – after exposure to light,
positive (grow towards the stimulus) or
shoots and roots grow normally
negative (grow away from the
stimulus).
➢ PLANT HORMONES
➢ PHOTOTROPISM – response to light
➢ THIGMOTROPISM – response to touch
- Chemical signals that modify or control
➢ GEOTROPISM – response to gravity
one or more specific physiological
➢ HYDROTROPISM – response to water
processes within a plant.
- Produced in low concentrations

➢ AUXIN
- Stimulates cell elongation
- Inhibits growth of lateral buds (apical
dominance)
LESSON 8: NEVOUS SYSTEM ➢ GLIAL CELLS
- Provide support to neurons
➢ Complex network of nervous tissue that
- Provides nutrients and other materials
carries electrical messages throughout the
(90%)
body

NEURONS
NERVOUS ORGANIZATION OF ANIMALS
➢ Hydras
- Nerve net composed of neurons in
contact with one another; also in
contact with contractile
epitheliomuscular cells

➢ Planarians
- Ladder-like nervous system
- CEPHALIZATION – concentration of
ganglia and sensory receptors in the
head
➢ CELL BODY / SOMA
➢ Annelids, Arthropods, Mollusks - Contains nucleus and other cell
- Complex animals organelles
- True nervous systems

➢ DENDRITES
MAJOR DIVISION OF THE HUMAN NERVOUS - Extend from the cell body and receive
SYSTEM nerve impulses from other neurons

➢ CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

- Brain and spinal cord
➢ PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
- All nervous tissue that lies outside the
CNS
NERVOUS TISSUES
➢ Consists of 2 types: neurons and glial cells
➢ NEURONS
- Structural and functional units
- Transmit electrical signals = nerve
impulses (10%)
➢ AXON
- Long extension of the cell body that
transmits nerve impulses to other cells
GLIAL CELLS AND MYELIN SHEATH
IN CNS:
➢ OLIGODENDROCYTES – forms myelin
sheath around axons
➢ ASTROCYTES – provides nutrients and
structural support
➢ EPENDYMAL CELLS – produce cerebrospinal
fluid that cushions neurons
➢ MICROGLIA – scavenge pathogens and
dead cells
IN PNS
➢ SCHWANN CELLS – form the myelin sheath
➢ SATELLITE CELLS – provides nutrients and
structural support to neurons
DIRECTION OF MESSAGE TRAVEL
TYPES OF NEURONS
➢ SENSORY – carry nerve impulses from
tissues and organs to spinal cord and brain
➢ MOTOR – carry nerve impulses from the
brain and spinal cord to muscles and
glands
➢ INTERNEURONS – carry nerve impulses
back and forth between sensory and motor
neurons
NERVE IMPULSES
➢ RESTING POTENTIAL
- The membrane part of inside the axon
is negative while the outside is positive
- More Na+ outside than there is K+
inside the axon
➢ ACTION POTENTIAL
- A reversal of charges on the membrane
of the axon (depolarization)
- Due to the entry of Na+- inside the cell
via sodium channels; once complete
membrane voltage is back to resting
potential by allowing exit of K+- via
potassium channels
SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP
➢ Active transport mechanism
➢ High concentration of NA+ outside and
high concentration of K+
➢ 3 Na+ ions out, 2 K+ ions in
SYNAPSE
➢ Depolarization causes voltage-gated Ca2+
channels to open
➢ Calcium ions initiate a signaling cascade
that causes synaptic vesicles, containing
neurotransmitter molecules, to fuse with
the presynaptic membrane
➢ Fusion of a vesicle with the presynaptic
membrane causes neurotransmitter to be
released into the synaptic cleft
➢ Once neurotransmission has occurred, the
neurotransmitter must be removed from
the synaptic cleft so the postsynaptic
membrane can reset and be ready to
receive another signal
THE BRAIN
➢ Most complex organ of the human body
➢ The control center of the nervous system
PARTS OF THE BRAIN
➢ CEREBRUM
- Largest part; controls conscious
functions like reasoning, language,
sight, touch, and hearing; and divided
into 2 hemispheres
➢ CEREBELLUM LESSON 9: LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT
- Below the cerebrum; coordinates body
➢ LOCOMOTION
movements (cereballance)
- the process of moving from one place
➢ BRAIN STEM
to another
- Controls the unconscious functions
- facilitated by synergistic functions of
such as breathing and heart rate
the skeletal and muscular systems

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
➢ MUSCLES
- basic unit of the muscular system
- Contracts or relaxes based on the
movement

TYPES OF MUSCLES
1. SKELETAL MUSCLES
- Voluntary movement

2. SMOOTH MUSCLES
- Involuntary movement , constitute the
movement of organs (e.g. Peristalsis)

3. CARDIAC MUSCLES
- Involuntary movement, muscle of the
heart

SKELETAL MUSCLE
➢ Organized from its largest structure (the
muscle tissue itself) to its functional unit
(the sarcomere) as a repeating longitudinal
structure that is bound together

THE SARCOMERE
➢ Basic structural unit of the muscle
➢ Consists of the cytoskeletal element ACTIN
(thin filaments) and the motor protein
MYOSIN (thick filaments)
SLIDING-FILAMENT MODEL OF MUSCLE - insects and other arthropods have a
CONTRACTION jointed exoskeleton called a cuticle, a
nonliving coat secreted by the
epidermis; 30-50% of the arthropod
cuticle consists of chitin

➢ ENDOSKELETON
- Animals ranging from sponges to
mammals have a hardened internal
skeleton, or endoskeleton, buried
within their soft tissues

SKELETAL SYSTEM
➢ SKELETON – the hard structure that
protects the internal organs of a living
thing

TYPES OF SKELETON
➢ HYDROSTATIC
- consists of fluid held under pressure in
a close body compartment; main type
of skeleton in most cnidarians,
flatworms, nematodes, and annelids

➢ EXOSKELETON
- hard encasement deposited on an
animal’s surface
- the shells of clams and other mollusks
are made of calcium carbonate
secreted by the mantle
TYPES OF JOINTS (PICTURE)
➢ BALL-AND-SICKET
- Enables the arms and legs to rotate and
move in several planes
➢ HINGE
- Restricts movement to a single plane
➢ PIVOT
- Enable rotating the forearm at the
elbow and turning the head from side
to side
CRANIAL SUTURES
LESSON 10: HORMONES AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
➢ HORMONES
- Body’s chemical messengers
- Travel in your bloodstream to tissues or
organs
- Works slowly over time and affect
many different processes
SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAY BY HORMONES
RECEPTION > SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION > RESPONSE
➢ Components:
- Signaling molecules (ligands) like
hormones
- Receptors that accepts the signaling
molecules
- Response molecules
WATER-SOLUBLE VS. LIPID-SOLUBLE HORMONES
➢ WATER-SOLUBLE
- Receptors are in plasma membrane
- Can do cytoplasmic response or gene
regulation then response
 ➢ LIPID-SOLUBLE
- Hormones can freely enter the cell
membrane
- Can only do gene regulation
HORMONES VS. NEUROTRANSMITTERS
PITUITARY GLAND
HORMONE MECHANISM: INSULIN
➢ INSULIN lowers concentration of glucose in
the blood by allowing them to be
transported to cells
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
➢ System of glands that release chemical
messenger molecules into the blood
stream
➢ HORMONES: messenger molecules
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
➢ Organs/cells that secrete hormones
ENDOCRINE GLANDS IN THE BRAIN
➢ HYPOTHALAMUS
- Releasing and inhibiting hormone:
regulates the anterior pituitary gland
- ANTIDIURETIC (ADH): water
reabsorption by kidneys
- OXYTOCIN: stimulates uterine
contraction and milk letdown
➢ POSTERIOR PITUITARY
- Releases ADH and oxytocin produced
by the hypothalamus
➢ ANTERIOR PITUITARY
- THYROID STIMULATING (TSH):
Stimulates thyroid
- ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC (ACTH):
Stimulates adrenal cortex
- GONADOTROPIC (FSH, LH): egg and
sperm production; sex hormone
production
- PROLACTIN (PL): Milk production
- GROWTH (GH): bone growth, protein
synthesis, and cell division
➢ PINEAL GLAND
- MELATONIN: regulates body clock and
circadian rhythm; also helps in
regulating sleep cycle
ENDOCRINE GLANDS IN THE NECK ➢ ADRENAL MEDULLA
- EPINEPHRINE AND NOREPINEPHINE:
➢ PARATHYROID
active in emergency situations; raises
- PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH): raises
blood glucose level
blood calcium level

GONADAL ENDOCRINE GLANDS

➢ THYROID
GONADS:
- THYROXINE (T4) AND
TRIIODOTHYRONINE (T3): Increases ➢ TESTES
metabolic rate; regulates growth and - ANDROGENS (TESTOSTERONE): male
development sex characteristics
- CALCITONIN: Lowers blood calcium
level ➢ OVARIES
- ESTROGENS (PROGESTERONE): female
sex characteristics
ENDOCRINE GLAND IN THE CHEST
➢ THYMUS
- THYMOSINS: Production and
maturation of T lymphocytes (T cells)

ENDOCRINE GLAND IN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

➢ PANCREAS
- INSULIN: lowers blood glucose level;
formation of glycogen

- GLUCAGON: increases blood glucose

level; breakdown of glycogen

ENDOCRINE GLAND ON TOP OF THE KIDNEY

ADRENAL GLAND
➢ ADRENAL CORTEX
- GLUCOCORTICOIDS (CORTISOL): raises
blood sugar level; stimulates
breakdown of protein

- MINERALOCORTICOIDS
(ALDOSTERONE): reabsorption of
sodium and excretion of potassium

- SEX HORMONES: reproductive organs

and bring about sex characteristics
LESSON 11: SENSORY SYSTEMS 2. TRANSDUCTION
- the conversion of stimulus energy into
➢ STEPS THAT LINK SNESORY STIMULI TO
a change in the membrane potential of
ANIMAL ACTIVITY
a sensory receptor called receptor
- MECHANORECEPTORS
potential
- CHEMORECEPTORS
- ELECTROMAGNETIC RECEPTORS
- Receptor potentials are graded
- THERMORECEPTORS
potentials, their magnitude varies with
- PAIN RECEPTORS
the strength of the stimulus

3. TRANSMISSION

4. INTEGRATION

SENSORY TRANSMISSION
➢ All stimuli represent forms of energy
➢ Sensation involves converting energy into a
change in the membrane potential of
sensory receptors
➢ When a stimuli’s input to the nervous
system is processed a motor response may
be generated; may involve a simple reflex
or more elaborate processing

SENSORY PATHWAYS
➢ FOUR BASIC FUNCTIONS:

1. SENSORY RECEPTION: detection of stimuli

by sensory receptors; interact directly with
stimuli, both inside and outside the body
TYPES OF SENSORY RECEPTORS
➢ MECHANORECEPTORS
- Sense physical deformation caused by
stimuli such as pressure, stretch,
motion, and sound
- The knee-jerk response is triggered by
the vertebrate stretch receptor that
CHEMORECEPTORS
detects muscle movement
- The mammalian sense of touch relies
on mechanoreceptors that are
dendrites of sensory neurons
PAIN RECEPTORS (NOCICEPTORS)
➢ A class of naked dendrites in the epidermis
➢ They respond to excess heat, pressure, or
chemicals released from damages or
inflamed tissues
➢ Transmit information about the total solute
concentration of a solution
➢ Specific chemoreceptors respond to
individual kinds of molecules
➢ When a stimulus molecules binds to a
chemoreceptor, the chemoreceptor
becomes more or less permeable to ions
➢ The antennae of male silkworm moth have
very sensitive specific chemoreceptors

THE OLFACTORY SYSTEM

THE TOUNGUE

➢ RODS AND CONES: photoreceptors in the

retina

➢ RODS – responds in low light and can

detect only shades of gray

➢ CONES – respond in intense light and are

responsible for color vision

TRANSDUCTION OF LIGHT

ELECTROMAGNETIC RECEPTORS AND

THERMORECEPTORS
➢ ELECTROMAGNETIC RECEPTORS: detect
electromagnetic energy such as light,
electricity, and magnetism
- some snakes have very sensitive
infrared receptors that detect body
heat of prey against a colder
background
- many animals apparently migrate using
the Earth’s magnetic field to orient
themselves

THE EYE ➢ THERMORECEPTORS: respond to heat or

cold, help regulate body temperature by
signaling both surface and body core
temperature

- Mammals have a number of kinds of

thermoreceptors, each specific for a
particular temperature range