The role of self-leadership in
becoming an ethical leader in the
South African work context
Ebben van Zyl
ABSTRACT
Unethical behaviour has reached unacceptable
levels in South Africa. Ethical leadership is
an important source of ethical influence, and
therefore provides an impetus for finding ways
of managing ethics in an organisational context.
Ethical leadership, however, is influenced
and affected by self-leadership. The objective
of this conceptual and theoretical research,
therefore, was to indicate how self-leadership
can contribute to leaders becoming ethical
leaders within the current South African work
context. The social learning theory can be
made applicable to self-leadership and ethical
leadership, and was used as the basis for
this study. It is indicated that self-leadership
strategies can have an effect on ethical behaviour
of leaders.
Key words: self-leadership, leadership, ethical
leadership
INTRODUCTION
Economies around the world have been
severely affected by the global crisis (Dorasamy,
2010). Despite wide-ranging policy responses,
Ebben van Zyl
Department of Industiral Psychology
University of the Free State
205 Nelson Mandela Drive
Bloemfontein
9300
South Africa
T: +27 51 401 3653
E: vanzyles@ufs.ac.za
African Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 8 No. 2, November 2014, 5‑14
intense financial strains and economic slack
have not totally disappeared (Dorasamy, 2010).
Governments are struggling with ways of
managing the emergent economic challenges,
while preparing their economies to thrive in
a future economic landscape characterised
by increasing uncertainty ((World Economic
Outlook, 2009:5). While the South African
government has responded with strategies to
address the effects of the crisis, it can be argued
that any response should be underpinned by
government’s commitment to maintaining
ethical leadership.
Within South African businesses, actions are
embarked upon with regard to focused and
structured attempts at managing ethics (Van
Vuuren & Eiselen, 2006). Within the South
African context, the recommendations of
the King I Report on Corporate Governance,
published in 1994, and, to an even greater
extent, the recommendations of the King II
report, published in 2002 (Van Vuuren & Eiselen,
2006), clearly stipulate the institutionalisation
and management of ethics as a primary focus
of good governance. The King paradigm of
corporate governance is built on the premise that
governance is not only an ethical imperative,
but also that ethics has to be governed, and
Ebben van Zyl is a professor in the Department of
Industrial Psychology at the University of the Free
State. He was employed at the University in 1994, and
chaired the Department of Industrial Psychology from
1 January 2004 to 1 January 2007.
He has published 41 scientific publications and
42 research projects, and presented 42 papers at
national and international conferences on topics related
to industrial psychology.
5
6 Ebben van Zyl
ethical performance reported on (Van Vuuren
& Eiselen, 2006). Despite the abovementioned
actions, unethical behaviour still remains a big
problem in the South African business world
(Van Zyl, 2012:50).
In the Human Development Report, 2007,
South Africa was ranked twenty-first out of
177 countries, and considered a middle-income
country (Swedish International Development
Cooperation Agency, 2008). In spite of this,
there are major differences in income between
the rich and the poor, and South Africa is one of
the countries in the world where wealth is most
unequally distributed (Swedish International
Development Cooperation Agency, 2008). About
15 million out of 47.7 million inhabitants are
considered very poor, and the unemployment
rate is about 30% (Swedish International
Development Cooperation Agency, 2008). High
unemployment figures can lead to unethical
behaviour and high crime levels (Van Zyl &
Lazenby, 2012). De Koker (2007) is of the opinion
that crime (including economic and white-
collar crime) has reached unacceptable levels
in South Africa. De Koker (2007) also indicated
that fraud and unethical behaviour are a reality
in South African public and private companies,
and that something should be done to improve
the situation.
One way to go about it is for organisations to
humanise the way they manage people. This
means that leadership has to be proficient, so
that subordinates can identify and go along
with it, and leaders should serve as role models
through their own ethical and moral actions
in the workplace (Van Zyl & Lazenby, 2012).
Ethical leadership is an important source of
ethical influence, and therefore provides an
impetus for finding ways of managing ethics
in organisational context (Van Zyl & Lazenby,
2012). Van Zyl (2001) stated that ethical
behaviour by leadership, in particular, can have
an important effect on the ethical behaviour of
employees. Stead, Worrel, and Stead (1994:110)
put it as follows: “The institutionalisation of
high ethical standards in corporations stems
from the character of persons who occupy the
relevant positions. Leaders cannot expect ethical
behaviour from employees if they do not behave
ethically themselves. Leaders are the most
significant role models in the organisational
setting; they therefore have a major socialising
influence on lower-level employees and ethical
behaviour in an organisational context.” (Worrel
& Stead, 1994).
Ethical leadership is influenced and affected by
self-leadership (Van Sandt & Neck, 2003). Van
Sandt and Neck (2003) are of the opinion that
self-leadership through self-influence processes
may have an effect on moral actions and ethical
leadership in organisations. Under conditions
of self-leadership, leaders play a greater role in
influencing higher-level management decision
making and strategic processes. In terms of a
cybernetic control process, leaders are more
involved in setting the ethical standard, as well
as acting to achieve and maintain the standard
once it is set (Van Sandt & Neck, 2003:376).
The aim of this conceptual and theoretical
research therefore, was to indicate how
self-leadership can contribute to leaders
becoming ethical leaders within the current
South African work context.
SELF-LEADERSHIP
Definitions
Dion (2012:6) and Neck and Houghton (2006)
defined self-leadership as both thoughts
(cognition) and actions (behaviour) that people
use to influence themselves. It implies that
individuals receive their motivation and control
from their inner self.
Manz and Neck (1999:589) conceptualised self-
leadership as a comprehensive self-influence
perspective that concerns leading oneself
towards performance of naturally motivating
tasks, as well as managing oneself to do work that
must be done, but is not naturally motivating.
According to Van Zyl (2012) and Hauschildt and
Konradt (2012), when thinking of self-leadership,
The role of self-leadership in becoming an ethical leader in the South African work context
the focus is on self-influencing processes rather
than hierarchical control processes. The focus is
also on self-observation, self-discovery, and self-
development strategies (Manz & Simms, 1991).
In the self-leadership approach, the modelling
of self-leadership behaviour is emphasised, to
enable subordinates to also learn the behaviour
(Manz & Neck, 1999).
Origins of self-leadership
According to Alves, Lovelace, Manz, Matsypura,
Toyasaki and Ke (2006), the concept of self-
leadership emerged out of the notion of self-
management, and relates to the process of
influencing oneself. Manz and Neck (1991)
provided a comprehensive historical overview
of the concept of self-leadership and how it is
different from related concepts, including self-
regulation and self-management. According to
Manz and Neck (1991), self-regulation theory
is a descriptive framework to explain how
people behave, whereas self-management is a
prescriptive framework to suggest how people
should behave. However, both these theories do
not indicate what types of behaviours should be
displayed and why, which is the concern of the
self-leadership theory (Ho & Nesbit, 2013).
Self-leadership is generally portrayed as a
broader concept of self-influence that subsumes
the behaviour-focused strategies of self-
regulation, self-control, and self-management,
and then specifies additional sets of cognitive-
orientated strategies derived from intrinsic
motivation theories (Segon, 2011), social cog­
nitive theories (Bandura, 1986), and positive
cognitive psychology (Seligman, 1991). Thus,
drawing from these well-established theoretical
foundations, self-leadership comprises specific
sets of behavioural and cognitive strategies to
shape individual outcomes.
Self-leadership strategies are often divided
into three basic categories: behaviour-focused
strategies, natural reward strategies, and
constructive thought patterns (Houghton,
Dawley & DiLiello, 2012; Manz & Neck, 1999;
Manz & Sims, 1991).
African Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 8 No. 2, November 2014, 5‑14
7
Behaviour-focused strategies involve the
self-regulation of behaviour through the use of
self-assessment, self-reward, and self-discipline
(Manz & Neck, 1999). These strategies are
designed to foster positive, desirable behaviours
while discouraging ineffective behaviours.
Behaviour-focused strategies are particularly
useful in managing behaviour related to the
accomplishment of necessary but unpleasant
tasks. These strategies include self-observation,
self-goal setting, self-reward, self-correcting
feedback and practice, management of cues,
and proactive networking and teamwork.
Natural reward strategies involve seeking out
working activities that are inherently enjoyable
(Manz & Simms, 1991). These strategies also
include the focusing of attention on the more
pleasant or gratifying aspects of a given job
or task, rather than on unpleasant or difficult
tasks. Naturally rewarding activities tend to
foster feelings of increased competence, self-
control, and purpose (Norris, 2008).
Constructive thought pattern strategies
involve the creation and maintenance of
functional patterns of habitual thinking (Manz
& Neck, 1999). Specific thought-orientated
strategies include the evaluation and challenging
of irrational beliefs and assumptions, mental
imagery of successful future performance, and
positive self-talk.
ETHICAL LEADERSHIP
Definition
Zuma (2000:6) defined ethical leadership as
leading in a manner that respects the rights and
dignity of others. As leaders are by nature in
a position of social power, ethical leadership
focuses on how leaders use their social power
in the decisions they make, the actions they
are engaged in, and the ways in which they
influence others (Zuma, 2000). Leaders who
are ethical demonstrate a level of integrity
that is important for stimulating a sense of
trustworthiness, which is important in order
for followers to accept the vision of the leader.
8 Ebben van Zyl
Dirks and Ferrin (2002:612) indicated that the
character and integrity of the leader provides
the basis for personal characteristics that direct
a leader’s ethical beliefs, values, behaviour, and
decisions. Individual values and beliefs impact
the ethical decisions and behaviour of leaders
(Papa, Daniels & Spiker, 2008).
Wolmarans (2014) provided a comprehensive
definition of ethical behaviour: “Ethical
leadership can be defined as the demonstration
of normative appropriate conduct through
personal actions and interpersonal relationships,
and encouraging such conduct through two-
way communication with followers. Ethical
leadership therefore is not about a process but
rather about a way of being and making the
right choices (and helping others to make the
right choices).”
Origin of ethical leadership
Attempts at defining ethical behaviour
and ethical leadership probably go back to
prehistory. Ethical behaviour and leadership are
the cornerstones of ancient Greek philosophy
and most major world religions (Dirks & Ferrin,
2002). The word ethics is derived from the
Greek word ethos or ethikos, which refers to
the character of man, as well as man’s ability to
distinguish right from wrong (Fox, 2010). Ethical
leadership has its origin in ethical behaviour or
ethics (Marx & Els, 2009). Ethical behaviour,
in the simplest terms, is knowing and doing
what is right. The difficulty lies in defining
‘right.’ Different individuals, different cultures,
and different religions define it in different
ways. The accepted treatment of women and
attitudes toward slavery in different cultures
and at different times in history provide prime
examples of how what is ‘right’ can vary
(Fox, 2010).
In older leadership literature, little mention is
made of the ethical dimension of leaders (Bass,
1990). However, Yukl (2002) devoted part of
a chapter to the topic, suggesting increasing
interest in the phenomenon. Previous
survey research suggested that traits such as
credibility, integrity, honesty, and fairness
are associated with perceptions of effective
leadership (Bass, 1990; Kouzes & Possner, 1993).
Yukl (2002) also linked ethical leadership with
exceptional leadership, such as Burns’s concept
of transformational leadership (1978).
Marx and Els (2009) and Fox (2010) did more
recent work on ethical leadership. According
to Marx and Els (2009), ethical leadership has
two elements. First, ethical leaders must act and
make decisions ethically, as must ethical people
in general. Secondly, ethical leaders must also
lead ethically – in the ways they treat people
in everyday interaction, in their attitudes, in
the ways they encourage, and in the directions
in which they steer their organisations or
institutions or initiatives (Marx & Els, 2009).
Fox (2010) indicated that ethical leadership is
both visible and invisible. The visible part is the
way the leader works with and treats others,
his behaviour in public, and his statements
and actions. The invisible aspects of ethical
leadership lie in the leader’s character, in his
decision-making process, in his mind-set, in the
set of values and principles on which he draws,
and in his courage to make ethical decisions in
tough situations (Fox, 2010).
Some important components of ethical leader­
ship can include:
▪▪ The ability to put aside your ego and
personal interests for the sake of the cause
you support, the organisation you lead,
the needs of the people you serve, and
the greater good of the community or
the world.
▪▪ The willingness to encourage and take
seriously feedback, opinions different from
your own, and challenges to your ideas and
proposed actions.
▪▪ The encouragement of leadership in others.
▪▪ Making the consideration and discussion of
ethics and ethical questions and issues part
of the culture of the group, organisation, or
initiative.
The role of self-leadership in becoming an ethical leader in the South African work context
▪▪ Maintaining and expanding the
competence that you owe to those who
trust you to lead the organisation in the
right direction and by the best and most
effective methods.
▪▪ Accepting responsibility and being
accountable.
▪▪ Understanding the power of leadership
and using it well – sharing it as much as
possible, never abusing it, and exercising
it only when it will benefit the individuals
or the organisation you work with, the
community, or society (Fox, 2010).
Towards an integrated self-leadership
and ethical leadership theory, utilising
the social learning theory
Bandura (1986) proposed the social learning
theory (SLT), which includes three variables,
namely behaviour (actions), internal attributes
(cognitions and emotions), and environmental
factors (within and outside of the organisation).
Figure 1: Social learning theory (Van Sandt
& Neck, 2003:374).
These three variables interact reciprocally with
each other to explain individual behaviour.
The SLT was extended by Van Sandt and
Neck (2003) to ethical behaviour. According
to this theory, ethical human behaviour
(including leaders’ ethical behaviour) can
best be explained via a set of continuous,
reciprocal interactions among three primary
sets of variables: the person, the behaviour of
the person, and the environment (Van Sandt
& Neck, 2003:373). According to the SLT,
the person, the environment, and the focal
behaviour reciprocally interact to explain
individual action.
African Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 8 No. 2, November 2014, 5‑14
9
Figure 2: Social learning theory application
to leadership ethical behaviour
(Van Sandt & Neck, 2003:374).
Van Sandt and Neck (2003:374) suggested that
the ethical behaviour of a leader is influenced
by internal aspects (including cognitions and
emotions) and the ethical environment (inclu­
ding the existence of ethical codes of conduct
and an ethical climate) of the organisation.
Internal and external environmental factors
can also be reciprocally impacted by ethical
behaviour (Van Sandt & Neck, 2003:374) (see
Figure 2).
Van Sandt and Neck (2003) indicated that
the SLT of ethical behaviour includes all the
critical variables influencing ethical behaviour
(i.e. cognitive, emotional, environmental,
and behavioural determinants). The authors
therefore suggested that effective and ethical
leadership behaviour may be grounded in
the SLT.
Van Sandt and Neck (2003:375) and Lyons
(2001) also stated that other effective leadership
behaviours can also be grounded in the SLT.
According to them, one such leadership
perspective is self-leadership. Although self-
leadership behaviour will be affected mostly by
the internal attributes of leaders (cognition and
emotions), environmental factors (such as the
way the environmental climate is empowering
the leader to identify and implement self-
leadership strategies) will also have an effect on
self-leadership behaviour (see Figure 3, where
self-leadership and ethical leadership behaviour
are integrated in the SLT).
10
Figure 3: Social learning theory application
to ethical leadership/self-leadership
behaviour (Van Sandt & Neck,
2003:374).
The role self-leadership can play in creating
ethical leadership within the South African
work context, will now be discussed.
THE ROLE SELF-LEADERSHIP
CAN PLAY IN CREATING ETHICAL
LEADERSHIP WITHIN THE SOUTH
AFRICAN WORK CONTEXT
Self-observation (observing one’s own actions
and thoughts, or getting someone else to do
that) and self-assessment (performing a more
formal assessment of behaviours and thoughts),
according to Van Sandt and Neck (2003:377),
involve systematic data gathering about one’s
own behaviour and cognition. Self-observation
and self-assessment are the important first
step in the self-leadership process because, it
is argued, people cannot influence their own
actions if they are inattentive to relevant aspects
of their behaviour (Bandura, 1986). According to
Rest (1994), moral character in the form of ego
strength, perseverance, strength of conviction,
and courage are necessary to carry out moral
behaviour to its end result. The practices of
self-observation and self-assessment can help
establish insights regarding the causes of one’s
behaviour that relate to ethical practices, and
provides the basis for change (for instance,
if leaders observed unethical thoughts and
actions when faced with clients who are willing
to pay extra money for preferential treatment,
these thoughts and actions, together with the
causes for these thoughts and actions, should be
identified and rectified).
Ebben van Zyl
Another effective behaviour-focused self-
leadership strategy involves setting goals for
oneself (Alves, Lovelace, Manz, Matsypura,
Toyasaki & Ke, 2006). Research indicates that
specific and challenging goals result in improved
performance (Van Sandt & Neck, 2003). Also,
the effectiveness of goals can be improved if
they are publicly stated, focus on behaviour
change, and are short-range instead of distant
(Dion, 2012). Self-goal setting with regard to
ethical behaviour amongst leaders in the South
African work context should therefore be very
specific and short-range (for instance: “I am
going to think and act according to my own
ethical convictions, regardless of difficult ethical
circumstances or the lack of specific ethical
organisational policies”). Leaders in the South
African work context can also inform colleagues
of their ethical intentions and ethical actions in
difficult situations, which can help to create a
climate of ethical thoughts and behaviour in
the work place. Regular meetings amongst
leaders, where self-goals with regard to ethical
behaviour are discussed and encouraged, can
help leaders to attain goals.
Self-reward (self-administering positive conse­
quences to increased desired behaviour) and
self-correcting feedback and practice (the self-
administration of negative consequences to
reduce undesired behaviour) are both forms
of consequent modification (Van Sandt &
Neck, 2003; Becker, 2010). Research supports
the proposition that self-reinforcement can
be effective in self-leadership. Van Sandt and
Neck (2003) concluded that self-reinforcement
has consistently produced positive outcomes.
On the other hand, research evidence has not
supported the efficacy of self-punishment as
a self-leadership tool (May, Hodges, Chan &
Avolio, 2003). Thus, research suggests that an
employee who is working towards an ethics-
related goal should reward himself/herself
(for instance, with a dinner celebration) when
improvement is made, but should not dwell on
self-criticism if an ethical goal is not achieved
in a timely manner (May, Hodges, Chan &
The role of self-leadership in becoming an ethical leader in the South African work context 11

Avolio, 2003). Within the South African work Effective leaders can physically and mentally
situation, leaders should not only create positive redesign their tasks to make them more
consequences for themselves when desired naturally rewarding (Palomino & Martinez,
behaviours are attained, but also create positive 2011). This is accomplished by choosing to
consequences for colleagues when incidents of complete tasks in ways that enable the work to
desired behaviour are reported (for instance, be naturally rewarding. Value is obtained from
when a leader has identified and reported doing the job itself (pride in workmanship).
unethical conduct in the work situation). For example, emphasising ethics and honesty
in a leader’s job should contribute to a sense
The management of antecedents to behaviour
of meaning and purpose that extends beyond
(i.e. cues) encompasses the gradual limiting of
earning a salary (Van Sandt & Neck, 2003).
discriminative stimuli that evoke undesirable
Van Sandt and Neck (2003) and Mishra and
behaviour (for instance, unethical behaviour),
Sharma (2010) are of the opinion that a sense
while increasing cues for more desirable
of meaning and purpose in the job may foster
behaviour (Van Sandt & Neck, 2003; Kemp,
feelings of increased competence, self-control,
2002). For the leader in the South African work
and purpose. Leaders in the South African work
context seeking to foster continuous personal
situation may choose to focus on pride in their
improvement with regard to ethical behaviour,
workmanship or the intrinsic value of their
placing a sign on his/her desk that reads: What is
work, which may contribute to the reduction of
the right thing to do? provides a visual stimulus
unethical behaviour.
that cues desired behaviour (e.g., considering
the most ethical action to take in difficult ethical Constructive thought pattern strategies like
situations). utilising rational beliefs, positive self-talk,
and mental imagery can contribute to ethical
The final behaviour-focused self-leadership
conduct amongst leaders in South Africa.
strategies are teamwork and proactive
According to Van Sandt and Neck (2003) and
networking. Van Sandt and Neck (2003) are of
Holftreter (2003), rational beliefs can help
the opinion that employees adept at facilitating
in situations where dysfunctional thinking
proactive teamwork – that is, acting in ways
is based on some common dysfunctional
that promote the benefit of others (and not
assumption. For example, consider a leader who
only focusing on acting in ways that benefit
is of the opinion that the company’s code of
themselves) – are the most ethical employees
conduct does not uphold his/her personal code.
in the workplace. Networking is significantly
He/she may conclude that there is no way he/
related to proactive teamwork, but implies
she can work for that company and still adhere
a broader stance (Van Sandt & Neck, 2003;
to his/her personal code of ethics. An example
Lange, 2001). Networking implies the employee
of a more rational belief is that, although the
viewing everyone in the organisation as a
company’s code of conduct seems to exhibit a
teammate and a potential source of help when
lower standard his/her own, that doesn’t mean
needed. In support of the abovementioned, the
that he/she must quit his/her job or act in less
Moral Approbation Model of Jones and Ryan (in
ethical ways. This employee should decide
Van Sandt & Neck, 2003), focuses on the fact
to follow his/her own ethical standards while
that people act in ways that tend to gain support
performing to the best of his/her abilities, and
and approval from their reference group. In the
this may convince management and colleagues
South African work situation, leaders should
that the organisation can be profitable while
focus more on working collectively in solving
exhibiting a higher level of ethical conduct.
unethical behaviour, and share concerns/
successes with regard to unethical conduct.

African Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 8 No. 2, November 2014, 5‑14

12
Self-talk can be defined as what we covertly tell
ourselves (Van Sandt & Neck, 2003). Through
repeated use, positive or constructive self-talk
can become internalised, so that the leader
learns to use it automatically and silently at a
mental level to constructively enhance his/her
own ethical behaviours.
Mental imagery of successful future perform­
ance refers to the process of imagining successful
performance of a task before it is actually com­
pleted (Van Sandt & Neck, 2003). By applying this
within the South African work situation, leaders
may focus on how ethics in conduct should
be adhered to at all times, which may reduce
unethical conduct amongst leaders.
FINAL COMMENTS
Much attention has been given to the need
for more ethical and moral behaviour within
South African public and private companies.
Despite this, unethical behaviour still remains
a big problem in the South African business
world. The managerial/leadership hierarchy is
an important source of ethical influence and,
therefore, if leaders can act in an ethical manner,
ethical conduct in South African companies
may improve. This means that leadership has to
be proficient, so that subordinates can identify
and go along with it, i.e. leaders should serve as
role models trough their own ethical and moral
actions in the workplace.
Ethical conduct amongst leaders in the South
African work context can be improved by
focusing on certain self-leadership strategies.
If South African leaders can be made aware of
the advantages of self-leadership and trained
in applying it in everyday work situations,
unethical conduct in the South African
organisational context may be reduced.
Ebben van Zyl
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