REVIEW ON ALCOHOL DERIVATIVES AS ALTERNATIVE FUELS

ALTERNATIVE FUELS
MEE1012

BY-
V. SHREYAS KARTHIKEYA – 20BME0598
INDRA SENA REDDY C – 20BME0290
RISHABH KUMAR RAI– 20BKT0076
AREEB KANTH – 20BKT0045
J PREETHAN – 20BKT0008
JOHANN PINTO – 20BKT0009
NAMAN – 20BKT0046

Under the guidance of Prof. PRAKASH R

SMEC, VIT, VELLORE
Abstract
Energy reserves are the keen for the economic growth of the country. It is estimated that the
fossil fuels will be completely depleted in 50 years. In relation to the Paris agreement, it is
aimed to reduce the air pollution by the end of 2030. It is done through reducing oil usage and
shifting to the renewable energy resources. These include shifting to e-fuels which satisfy the
daily energy needs of the country [1]. So, the shift to alternative fuels is the key in deciding the
country’s economic growth in the future. The present article discusses about the use of alcohol
derivatives as the alternative fuels through their mixture with other fuels, along with the
challenges faced in its storage, production and technological changes that promote its use.
Keywords
Alcohol fuel, Alternative fuel, ethanol, methanol, butanol, energy, storage, production
Introduction
Increasing global warming throughout the world is promoting us for the shift to viable,
recyclable, and renewable sources of energy. There has been a huge Investment of money
through different countries towards the research on renewable alternative fuels. Recent
technological developments and the increase in population led to the increased use of
automotive fuels for machinery as well movement between different places. Alternative fuels
being widely available in large quantities and the ease of production, storage and usage is the
main issue. Internal combustion engines powered by traditional and alternative fuels are
ubiquitous throughout the world.

Fig: Diesel production, consumption, and import (2006-2016)

Source:( https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Diesel-production-consumption-and-import-
2006-2016_fig1_324588731)
Fig: existing and expected U.S renewable diesel production capacity 2010-2024
Source:( https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=48916)

Fig: annual U.S. ethanol production and consumption

Source: (https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=3070)
 Fig: Quantity VS Demand (for alternative fuels)

They are almost unanimously used in motor vehicles of all types, power generation, and other
applications. Internal combustion engines have traditionally used liquid fuels. These fuels are
made by distilling petroleum. Although liquid fossil fuels are convenient and inexpensive, they
are not the only fuels that engines can burn. Alternative fuels have been around for as long as
internal combustion engines have existed. In the recent years, electricity is being used in
various machineries because of its easy production through solar, wind, hydro and other forms
of energy. Chemical engineering and other advances have also enabled the production of
methane, hydrogen, diesel, and other fuels from non-fossil feedstock such as carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water using renewable electricity. These synthetic fuels are also referred to as e-
fuels. Using an alternative fuel can help reduce carbon emissions. The combustion of fossil
fuels releases previously stored carbon into the atmosphere. Biofuels, on the other hand, emit
carbon that was removed from the atmosphere by the crops used to make them. Biofuels are
made from recycled organic/ inorganic forms so as which there is a reduction in environmental
pollution from its production. Biodiesel is a renewable fuel that can be manufactured from
vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled cooking grease for diesel vehicles. Therefore, biofuels
are considered net-CO2-free fuels. Similarly, renewable natural gas fuel derived from landfill
or sewer gas can be considered a low-carbon fuel and have a significant cost advantage
compared to gasoline and diesel fuels. Propane is used in various vehicles around the world.
Ethanol is a widely used renewable fuel made from the plant materials and blended with the
gasoline in different ratios. It enables proper combustion, reducing the carbon emissions to the
atmosphere.
Although there are many alternatives for the fuels, alcoholic fuels are being used throughout
the world for more than a few decades. Alcohol fuels are biologically synthesised rather than
being derived from the petroleum sources. But ethanol produced from the petroleum resources
should not be consumed because they can cause blindness and lead to death. The ones mainly
produced are, methanol, ethanol, propanol, and butanol due to their desirable properties for the
usage in the engines. General chemical formula for the alcohol fuel is CnH2n+1OH. For example,
biobutanol has over 25% more octane rating than the gasoline and about the same energy
density but the difficulties arise in their production. Their production from the organic crops
improves feasibility in usage.
Literature Review
Alcohol Fuels are sustainable, economic, green, and viable for its use as an automotive fuel.
The current references state the need for alternative fuels, various available alternative fuels,
recent developments, types of alcohol fuels, its storage, production and utilisation.
(Papers Organised as: Need for alternative fuels (1-5), alcohol fuels intro (6-10), usage in
engines (11-20), in SI engines:(21-27), in CI engines (28-31), production (32-44), challenges
for usage (45-47), Current case studies (remaining))
SL. Title of the Paper Authors Summary and Major Findings
No
1 Preparing for the post- Stephen The paper discusses the need for preparation
petroleum Era: McCrea for the post-petroleum era by examining
What Electric vehicle alternative fuel vehicles. The author
advocates and Others highlights the importance of infrastructure
Need to Know to support the deployment of millions of
About Alternative Fuel electric vehicles (EVs) in the coming years
Vehicles and how this can aid in the readiness for the
introduction of fuel-cell vehicles. The paper
also emphasizes the need for the electronics
industry to be involved in the development
of components for EVs and fuel-cell EVs.
2 The Future of Fossil and Battal Dogan, The depletion of oil reserves and
Alternative Fuels used in Dervis Erol environmental pollution are driving the
the automotive industry search for alternative fuels such as LPG,
CNG, methanol, ethanol, and biodiesel as
replacements for petroleum in internal
combustion engines. However, these
alternatives have their own limitations, and
it is important to continue research and
development on alternative energy sources
and consider resource diversity.
Environmental concerns and the need to
decrease harmful emissions are also driving
the search for alternative energy sources. To
address these issues, it is important to
prioritize research and development into
alternative energy solutions and consider
resource diversity in the future.
3 A review on alternative H. Stancin, H. The paper explores the potential of various
fuels in future energy Mikulcic, X. alternative fuels for use in the future energy
system Wang,N.Duic system. The authors review the properties
and characteristics of different types of
alternative fuels such as biofuels, hydrogen,
and synthetic fuels, and evaluate their
 potential as replacements for fossil fuels.
The paper concludes that while each type of
alternative fuel has its own advantages and
disadvantages, a combination of these fuels
may be the most effective solution for a
sustainable future energy system.
4 Progress and perspectives Liangcheng The article discusses the various methods of
in converting biogas to Yang , converting biogas into transportation fuels,
transportation fuels Xumeng Ge , including Bio-CNG, LBG, hydrogen,
Caixia Wan , syngas, methanol, ethanol, and higher
Fei Yu , Yebo alcohols. While Bio-CNG and LBG have
Li been commercialized, the production of
other fuels such as methanol, ethanol, and
higher alcohols is largely in the research
phase. Challenges such as CH4 activation
barriers and poor end product selectivity
need to be addressed. In the near future,
Bio-CNG and LBG are expected to increase
in market share, while the production of
other fuels will likely continue to be a focus
of research.
5 Life cycle assessment of Tatiane This research paper provides an overview of
carbon capture and Tobias da life cycle assessment (LCA) methodologies
storage/utilization: From Cruz a, Jos´e for carbon capture and storage/utilization
current state to future A. Perrella (CCS/U) technologies. The paper discusses
research directions and Balestieri , the current state of CCS/U and highlights
opportunities Joao ˜ M. de the importance of LCA in assessing the
Toledo Silva , environmental impacts of these
Mateus R. N. technologies. The authors identify key
Vilanova , research gaps and opportunities for future
Otavio ´ J. work in LCA, including the need for
Oliveira c , standardized methodologies and improved
Ivonete Avila data availability. They also suggest that
future research should focus on the
development of low-carbon energy systems
and the integration of CCS/U into these
systems. Overall, the paper emphasizes the
need for a holistic approach to LCA, which
considers not only the environmental
impacts of CCS/U, but also the social and
economic impacts.
6 Alcohols as alternative Venkateswara This research paper provides an overview of
fuels: An overview Rao the use of alcohols as alternative fuels for
Surisettya, transportation. The paper discusses the
Ajay Kumar properties of various alcohols, including
Dalai , Janusz ethanol and methanol, and their potential as
Kozinski alternative fuels. The authors highlight the
advantages of alcohols, such as their
 renewability, low toxicity, and ability to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The paper
also discusses the challenges associated
with the use of alcohols, including their
lower energy density compared to gasoline
and the need for modifications to existing
engines and fuel infrastructure. Overall, the
paper suggests that alcohols have the
potential to play an important role in
reducing the environmental impacts of
transportation, but further research and
development are needed to address the
challenges associated with their use.
7 Extending the Supply of R. J. Pearson The paper explores the potential of alcohol
Alcohol Fuels for Energy and J. W. G. fuels, such as ethanol and methanol, as
Security and Carbon Turner,M. D. alternatives to petroleum-based fuels for
Reduction Eisaman and reducing carbon emissions and increasing
K. A. Littau energy security. The authors suggest that
diversifying feedstocks and encouraging
investment in research and infrastructure
can help extend the supply of alcohol fuels.
The paper highlights the need for supportive
policy frameworks to promote the use of
alcohol fuels in the transport sector.
8 Potential of acetone- Yuqiang Li A better substitute biofuel for internal
butanol-ethanol (ABE) as Wei Tanga combustion engines has been shown to be
a biofuel Yong Chen biobutanol. (ICEs)
Jiangwei Liu The study on ABE burning in ICEs is then
Chia-fon F. determined in light of the following factors:
Lee ABE component physicochemical
characteristics and experiments in ICEs, a
diesel replacement for compression ignition
engines, and a gasoline replacement for
spark ignition engines.
The development of ABE fermentation
techniques is firstly reviewed, and related
work in the areas of stains screen, substrates
selection and fermentation engineering
innovation to increase production efficiency
are introduced in detail.
9 Alcohol Combustion S. Mani This article provides a comprehensive
chemistry Sarathy , review of alcohol combustion chemistry,
Patrick highlighting the significant progress made
Oßwald , Nils in recent years due to advancements in
Hansen, experimental and theoretical techniques.
Katharina The understanding of alcohol combustion
Kohse- presented here demonstrates the suitability
Höinghaus of alcohols as alternative fuels for internal
combustion engines, and provides guidance
 for future research towards their clean and
efficient utilization.
10 Maximizing net fuel Lily Behnke, This research-paper shows that Fusel
economy improvement Eric Monroe, alcohols show promise as renewable biofuel
from fusel alcohol blends Bernard blendstocks, and their optimal compositions
in gasoline using Nguyen, for blending depend on the target blending
multivariate optimization Alexander volume. Blending fusel alcohols with base
Landera, fuel can significantly improve net fuel
Anthe economy improvement potential, especially
George, at high blending volumes, and can extend
Zhibin Yang, the range over all oxygenate blending
Joshua Heyne, regimes.
Ryan W.
Davis
11 High Temperature HCCI Brian Gainey In this study, a critical compression ratio
Critical Compression (cCR) for high temperature (HT)
Ratio of the C1-C4 Alexander homogeneous charge compression ignition
Alcohol Fuels Hoth and (HCCI) was defined as the compression
Muhammad ratio that produced HCCI combustion at an
Waqas equivalence ratio of 0.33 ( = 3), an intake
pressure of 1.0 bar (naturally aspirated), an
Benjamin intake temperature of 473 K (200°C), and an
Lawler engine speed of 600 rpm.
This work experimentally determined the
Christopher HT HCCI cCR of seven C1-C4 alcohols on
Kolodziej a CFR engine: methanol, ethanol, n-
propanol, isopropanol, n-butanol,
isobutanol, and secbutanol.
12 Alcohol based automotive I.M. Yusria, This study examines the performance and
fuels from first four R. Mamata, pollution of compression and spark ignition
alcohol family in G. Najafib, engines running on methanol, ethanol,
compression. A. Razmana, propanol, and butanol, which are members
Spark ignition engine: A Omar I. of the first aliphatic alcohol family.
review on engine Awada, To show its feasibility as an alternative fuel,
performance and exhaust W.H. Azmia, the literature pertinent to methanol, ethanol,
emissions. W.F.W. propanol, and butanol was examined and
Ishakc , outlined.
A.I.M. It was found out that Higher demand for
Shaifuld compression and spark ignition engine in
transportation area leads to the increase in
GHG emission which brings adverse effects
towards the environment as well as human
health.
13 Combustion Manida The findings of controlled auto-ignition
Characteristics of CAI Tongroon and combustion of methanol, ethanol, gasoline,
Combustion with Alcohol Hua Zhao and their mixes are presented and analysed
Fuel in this work. On combustion characteristics,
the impacts of fuel qualities and spark
discharge are noted. The earliest and fastest
autoignition combustion is seen with
 methanol, followed by ethanol, and the
slowest and last with gasoline.
Chemiluminescence images demonstrate
that the chamber's perimeter is the place of
autoignition preference. Due to their
constrained molecular and reaction routes,
oxidised fuels—particularly methanol—
present lower picture intensities for all
emissions when compared to gasoline. The
article compares computational results
utilising a V4 engine with precise
specifications for gasoline, methanol,
ethanol, and indolene engines. Analysis is
done on the effects of various fuel
characteristics, including knock resistance,
air-to-fuel ratio, and heating value.
14 High Efficiency and Low Matthew The article presents a turbocharged, high-
Emissions from a Port- Brusstar, performance engine that burns neat alcohol
Injected Engine with Neat Mark fuels at high EGR dilution rates. The
Alcohol Fuels Stuhldreher, outcomes demonstrate that the alcohol fuel-
David Swain optimized engine outperforms
and William conventional-fueled engines in terms of
Pidgeon performance and has the potential to be a
less expensive substitute for diesel. Peak
BTE for the engine using methanol fuel was
close to 43%, and NOx, CO, and HC
emissions were minimal. The engine's less
complicated PFI fuel system makes it a
viable low-cost renewable fuel substitute
for diesel.
15 An overview of Higher Erdiwansyah Waste culinary oil, Pyrolysis oil, Palm oil,
alcohol and biodiesel as R. Mamat Jatropha oil, Karanja oil, and Linn oil are all
alternative fuels in M.S.M. Sani sources of widely used biodiesel. This
engines K. Sudhakar review's objective is to shed light on engine
Asep efficiency and combustion traits when using
Kadarohman alternative fuels like biodiesel and alcohol.
R.E Sardjono The authors discuss the properties and
production methods of higher alcohols, such
as propanol and butanol, and biodiesel
derived from vegetable oils and animal fats.
This review illustrates the effect of alcohol
and biodiesel on SI / CI engine
performance, combustion and emission
characteristics. The addition of
alcohol/biodiesel to gasoline/diesel engines
can result in more varied performance.
16 Bio-butanol as a new Xudong Zhen A renewable, cost-effective, and
generation of clean ecologically beneficial alternative fuel is
alternative fuel for SI Yang Wang bio-butanol (N-butanol) that is regarded as
(spark ignition) and CI one of the best fuels to substitute traditional
 (compression ignition)
engines.
17 A review on butanol
properties, production and
its application in internal
combustion engines
18 Impact assessment of
Ethanol as Fuel for
Engine operation
19 a comparison of ethanol,
methanol and butanol
blending with gasoline
and relationship with
engine performances and
emissions
hydrocarbon fuels (like gasoline or diesel),
Daming Liu along with many other alternative fuels like
methanol, ethanol, and natural gas.
In order to address some environmental and
financial concerns, bio-butanol fuel has
lately been used as a substitute fuel to
traditional fuels for IC engines (gasoline or
diesel engines).
The authors review the properties of bio-
butanol and its production methods, as well
as its potential use in various engine types.
The paper suggests that bio-butanol has
significant potential as a sustainable fuel
source and could play a key role in reducing
greenhouse gas emissions from
transportation.
Manoj n-Butanol has potential as a replacement for
Gwalwanshi, fossil fuels, particularly in spark ignition
Rajesh engines, due to its similarity to petrol and
Kumar, ability to be used in smaller quantities than
Manish ethanol. It can also reduce soot formation in
Kumar CI engines and emissions in low-
Chauhan temperature combustion engines, although
its production through fermentation is
expensive and less efficient than ethanol.
Sadanand Ethanol has several issues that make it a
Verma, poor-quality fuel for engine operation,
Bhavya including a low cetane number and flash
Sharma, point. Blending ethanol with diesel can
James improve its quality and reduce emissions,
Ahmad, with a blend of 15% ethanol and biodiesel
Gaurav showing similar performance to diesel.
Dwivedi, However, the low flash point of ethanol
Gopal Nandan remains a safety concern for engine
operation.
Simeon Iliev The addition of ethanol, methanol, and
butanol to gasoline affects the performance
and emissions of spark ignition engines,
with increased nitrogen oxide emissions and
decreased brake power as ethanol and
butanol content increases, while carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions
decrease with increasing ethanol or
methanol content, with the lowest nitrogen
oxide levels in pure gasoline and the lowest
carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon
emissions in blends containing 50%
methanol.
20 Methanol as a fuel for Sebastian The paper "Methanol as a fuel for internal
internal combustion Verhelsta, combustion engines" presents a
engines James WG comprehensive review of the use of
Turnerc, methanol as a fuel in internal combustion
Louis engines. The authors discuss the properties
Sileghemb, of methanol, its production methods, and its
Jeroen potential as an alternative fuel for reducing
Vancoillieb greenhouse gas emissions and improving air
quality. The paper also examines the
challenges and opportunities associated
with methanol fuel, including its energy
density, combustion characteristics, and
impacts on engine performance and
emissions.
21 An evaluation of the use Meltem The study investigates the effects of alcohol
of alcohol fuels in SI Goktas ¨ fuels on spark ignition (SI) engines of
engines in terms of ,Mustafa various power capacities. The use of alcohol
performance, emission Kemal Balki , fuels increases brake thermal efficiency
and combustion Cenk Sayin , (BTE), brake power (BP), and cylinder
characteristics: A review Mustafa temperature (T) due to their higher flame
Canakci speed, oxygen content, latent heat of
vaporization, and higher-octane number.
However, alcohol fuels generally increase
brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC),
carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen oxide
(NOx) emissions, and their impact on
particulate matter (PM) emissions varies.
Alcohol fuels reduce hydrocarbon (HC)
emissions due to their improved combustion
process, lower air-fuel ratios, and higher
volumetric efficiency (VE).
22 Critical review on T. Sathish The paper provides a critical review of the
combustion phenomena of Kumar, B. combustion phenomena of low carbon
low carbon alcohols in SI Ashok alcohols in spark ignition (SI) engines,
engine with its challenges including ethanol, methanol, and butanol,
and future directions highlighting the challenges and future
directions in this area. Major findings
suggest that low carbon alcohols can reduce
emissions and improve engine efficiency,
but face challenges related to lower energy
density, higher heat of vaporization, and
limited availability of refuelling
infrastructure. The paper suggests future
research directions, including developing
new engine technologies, improving fuel
properties, and expanding the use of
renewable fuels.
23 A review on butanol Manoj n-Butanol has potential as a replacement for
properties, production and Gwalwanshi, fossil fuels, particularly in spark ignition
Rajesh engines, due to its similarity to petrol and
 its application in internal Kumar, ability to be used in smaller quantities than
combustion engines Manish ethanol. It can also reduce soot formation in
Kumar CI engines and emissions in low-
Chauhan temperature combustion engines, although
its production through fermentation is
expensive and less efficient than ethanol.
24 Investigation into SI M. Mourad, The paper "Investigation into SI engine
engine performance K. Mahmoud performance characteristics and emissions
characteristics and fuelled with ethanol-butanol gasoline
emissions fuelled with blends" presents a study on the performance
ethanol/butanol-gasoline characteristics and emissions of spark-
blends ignition (SI) engines fueled with blends of
ethanol, butanol, and gasoline. The authors
conducted experimental tests to evaluate the
impact of different ethanol-butanol blend
ratios on engine performance, combustion
characteristics, and emissions of pollutants.
The paper discusses the findings, which
highlight the effects of alcohol content on
engine efficiency, emissions of carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and
hydrocarbons, as well as combustion
stability. The results provide insights into
the potential of ethanol-butanol gasoline
blends as alternative fuels for SI engines,
with implications for optimizing engine
performance and reducing emissions in the
context of biofuels utilization.
25 Characterisation of flame The article describes an optical study of the
development with ethanol, combustion of various liquid fuels and
butanol, iso-octane, methane in a direct-injection spark-ignition
gasoline and methane in a engine, providing insights into flame
direct-injection spark- growth and in-cylinder motion. The study
ignition engine suggests the need for further analysis and
comparison with current knowledge to
improve the understanding of combustion
processes in such engines.
26 The influence of mixing Hongqing In order to prevent knocking combustion,
ratio of low carbon mixed Feng, the study examines the impacts of n-butanol
alcohols on knock Hongdong and ethanol as blending ingredients in
combustion of spark Zhang⁎ , gasoline. The results demonstrate that the
ignition engine Jianan Wei, addition of alcohol lowers the temperature
Bowen Li, Di and peak explosion pressure, lowers knock
Wang intensity and KI, and raises BSFC. In
contrast to B5-Ey, the engine running on
E5-Bx suffers from a greater loss of
effective thermal efficiency.
27 Performance study of a Maher Abdul- When added to a gasoline engine, hydrogen
four-stroke spark ignition Resul Sadiq and ethyl alcohol enhance all engine
engine working with both Al-Baghdadi performance metrics while lowering
 of hydrogen and ethyl pollutant emissions, especially NOx. At a
alcohol as supplementary 9:1 compression ratio at 1500 rpm, adding
fuel 8% hydrogen and 30% ethyl alcohol
significantly reduced CO and NOx
emissions and specific fuel consumption
while improving engine thermal efficiency
and output power. Above 30% of ethyl
alcohol, however, might result in unstable
engine running and decreased efficiency.
28 The use of ethanol in Alexey The optimal mixed fuel composition with a
diesel engines Roslyakov, maximum water vapor content can
Andrey compensate for the lower heat of
Balakin, combustion of ethanol in diesel engines by
Oksana increasing the cycle efficiency, which
Valiullina, et maintains the same power output in diesel
al. engines, and this approach must consider
the physical properties of diesel fuel and
ethanol affected by temperature when
designing fuel systems.
29 An overview on the light Yahya The study examines the use of light alcohols
alcohol fuels in diesel Çelebia , (methanol and ethanol) as fuels in
engines Hüseyin compression ignition (CI) engines. The
Aydinb authors conclude that light alcohols can be
used as single, dual, or trio fuels without
engine modification, but the optimal alcohol
proportion in the blend depends on
combustion mode, engine load, and
blending method. Alcohols/biodiesel blends
improve combustion efficiency and
decrease CO, NOx, and SSP emissions, but
brake specific fuel consumption is
negatively affected, and brake thermal
efficiency is sometimes decreased. The
study suggests that the addition of a third
additive could improve mixture properties
and reduce pollutant emissions. Further
research is needed to develop engines fueled
with light alcohols and evaluate their
economic potential.
30 Influence of Short María D. This research paper investigates the impact
Carbon-Chain Alcohol Redel-Macías of short carbon-chain alcohols, such as
(Ethanol and 1- , David E. ethanol and 1-propanol, on diesel engine
Propanol)/Diesel Fuel Leiva-Candia emissions. The study examines the effects
Blends over Diesel , José A. of different blend ratios of the alcohols and
Engine Emissions Soriano , José diesel fuel on particulate matter, nitrogen
M. Herreros , oxides, and carbon monoxide emissions.
Antonio J. The authors find that the use of alcohol
Cubero- blends can significantly reduce particulate
Atienza and matter emissions and improve the
Sara Pinzi combustion efficiency of diesel fuel.
 However, they also note that the use of
alcohol blends can lead to increased
nitrogen oxide emissions and may require
modifications to engine calibration and
exhaust after-treatment systems. Overall,
the paper suggests that alcohol-diesel
blends have the potential to reduce the
environmental impact of diesel engines, but
further research is needed to optimize their
use.
31 Review on alcohol A. Imran n , This research paper discusses the use of
fumigation on diesel M. Varman, alcohol fumigation as a viable alternative
engine: A viable H.H. Masjuki, dual fuel technology for diesel engines. The
alternative dual fuel M.A. Kalam study highlights the benefits of alcohol
technology for fumigation in terms of engine performance
satisfactory engine and reduction of environmentally
performance and concerning emissions. The research
reduction of environment concludes that the use of alcohol fumigation
concerning emission can significantly reduce particulate matter,
nitrogen oxide, and carbon monoxide
emissions. It also suggests that alcohol
fumigation can improve engine
performance in terms of brake thermal
efficiency and specific fuel consumption.
Overall, the research indicates that alcohol
fumigation has the potential to be an
effective solution for reducing emissions
and improving engine performance in diesel
engines.
32 Promising catalytic Steffen This research paper discusses promising
synthesis pathways Schemme , catalytic synthesis pathways for the
towards higher alcohols as Janos Lucian production of higher alcohols as transport
suitable transport fuels Breuer, Remzi fuels, using hydrogen (H2) and carbon
based on H2 and CO2 Can Samsun, dioxide (CO2) as feedstocks. The study
Ralf Peters , explores various catalysts and reaction
Detlef Stolten conditions that can influence the synthesis
process, including temperature, pressure,
and catalyst composition. The research
suggests that higher alcohols such as
propanol and butanol have the potential to
be suitable transport fuels due to their high
energy density and compatibility with
current engine technology. The paper also
highlights the importance of sustainability
in the production of these fuels, using
renewable sources of H2 and CO2. Overall,
the research indicates that catalytic
synthesis pathways for higher alcohols have
the potential to be a sustainable and viable
solution for future transport fuel needs.
33 Alcohol Production from Seda Sarp, The article discusses the potential of
Carbon Dioxide: Santiago producing renewable alcohols through CO2
Methanol as a Fuel and Gonzalez electrolysis and hydrogenation, which only
Chemical Feedstock Hernandez, produce oxygen as a byproduct and can
Chi Chen, and store renewable energy. CO2 hydrogenation
Stafford W. is considered the most promising
Sheehan technology for large-scale deployment, and
the cost and carbon dioxide life cycle of
these methods are compared to the
traditional syngas method of methanol
production.
34 Process system N.H. The demand for bio-alcohol has increased
engineering aspect of bio- Kasmuri, S.K. due to sustainability concerns, and its
alcohol fuel production Kamarudin, production through pyrolysis can be
from biomass via S.R.S. optimized through process system
pyrolysis: An overview Abdullah, engineering, heat integration, and reactor
H.A. Hasan, design to increase yield and capacity.
A.Md. Som Further research is needed to create efficient
integrated systems for liquid and gaseous
fuels produced through pyrolysis.
35 A Technological and Mark Fulmer, The paper evaluates co-producing alcohol
Economic Assessment of Joan Ogden and electricity from sugar cane through
the Co-Production of technological and economic analysis of
Alcohol and Electricity production processes, highlighting potential
from Sugar Cane benefits like reduced fossil fuel dependence
and improved energy security, and
challenges such as regulatory barriers and
market limitations. It offers valuable
insights into the technical and economic
aspects of co-production from sugar cane.
36 Renewable methanol Tibor Svitnič This study aims to address omissions in the
production: Optimization- , Kai assumed process networks of previous
based design, scheduling Sundmacher optimization-based power-to-methanol
and waste-heat utilization designs. Important storage technologies,
with the FluxMax generation processes, and waste-heat
approach utilization are not being considered in these
previous designs. The authors propose
extensions to the FluxMax approach, a
multi-scale optimization-based design
methodology, to include these process
alternatives and analyse their economic
influence on the production of fully
renewable, universally deployable
methanol. The study will also examine the
flexibility of the methanol production
process.
37 Methanol production Nathalie The paper discusses the potential of using
using hydrogen from Monnerie, concentrated solar energy to produce
concentrated solar energy Philipe hydrogen and methanol. The authors
Gunawan propose a process that uses high-
 Gan, Martin temperature solar energy to split water into
Roeb, hydrogen and oxygen, and then reacts the
Christian hydrogen with carbon dioxide to produce
Sattler methanol. The study includes simulations
and experimental results to analyze the
efficiency and feasibility of the proposed
process. According to the simulation's
findings, a 350 MWth solar tower facility is
capable of producing 27.81 million litres of
methanol. It is discovered that 880685 m2
of mirror facets are required with a solar
tower height of 220 m in order to operate
this plant in the worst-case scenario. A
production cost of 1.14 V/l Methanol is
anticipated in this scenario. The authors
conclude that this process has the potential
to be a sustainable and carbon-neutral
method for producing methanol.
38 Methanol production from Tuan B.H. It is possible to produce valuable
captured CO2 using Nguyen, compounds and less greenhouse gas
hydrogenation and Edwin emissions by manufacturing methanol from
reforming technologies Zondervan CO2 that has been captured using
environmental and hydrogenation and reforming processes.
economic evaluation The CO2 source and energy consumed have
an impact on the environment. Using CO2
that has been captured during industrial
processes is better for the environment.
Renewable energy sources have the
potential to increase the advantages. Due to
high CO2 capture and equipment
expenditures, the manufacturing cost is now
greater than with traditional methods.
Nonetheless, cost-cutting technology
breakthroughs are possible. To increase
productivity and make this technology
sustainable in the long run, more research is
required. It is crucial to deploy cost-
effective carbon capture technologies and
renewable energy sources. Overall, using
captured CO2 to produce methanol can be a
sustainable way to lower greenhouse gas
emissions while also producing useful
molecules.
39 Production of cellulosic Yingjie Guo Due to its plentiful supply of residual starch,
ethanol and value-added Guodong Liu cellulose, and hemicelluloses, maize fiber, a
products from corn fiber Yanchun by-product of the corn processing industry,
Ning presents a potential raw material for the
Xuezhi Li production of cellulosic ethanol and value-
Shiyang Hu added goods.
 Jian Zhao As the advantages of corn fiber as raw
Yinbo Qu material, such as high reserves and low
costs of transportation and collection, it will
be of great benefit to the production of
cellulosic ethanol if the corn fiber can be
economically converted into ethanol, in
particular, if it is combined with the existing
ethanol production process with corn as a
feedstock.
40 Evaluation of dry corn Abid H. The paper assesses different bio-refinery
ethanol bio-refinery Tanzil, Xiao concepts for producing sustainable aviation
concepts for the Zhang, fuel (SAF) from dry corn ethanol,
production of sustainable Michael evaluating their environmental, technical,
aviation fuel Wolcott, and economic aspects. The authors analyze
Kristin energy efficiency, greenhouse gas
Brandt, emissions, feedstock availability, and
Claudio economic viability. The paper offers
St¨ockle, valuable insights into the potential of SAF
Ganti Murthy, production from dry corn ethanol bio-
Manuel refineries and emphasizes the importance of
Garcia-Perez sustainable biofuels in reducing aviation
emissions.
41 Genetic manipulation Chunjie Gong This paper highlights the difficulties of
strategies for ethanol , Liping Cao , producing bioethanol, particularly the high
production from Donglai Fang production costs, as a sustainable
bioconversion of , Jiaqi Zhang replacement for fossil fuels. A larger
lignocellulose waste , Mukesh adoption of these techniques, which include
Kumar genetic modification, is still required for the
Awasthi , manufacture of bioethanol. Even though
Dongsheng some solutions used in laboratories have
Xue been successful, additional research is
required to scale up lignocellulose
production and increase bioethanol's
accessibility on a worldwide scale.
42 Fuel ethanol production Jun Li, The paper provides an overview of fuel
from starchy grain and Renyong ethanol production from starchy grain and
other crops: An Zhao, Youjie other crops, highlighting the feedstocks,
overview on feedstocks, Xu, Xiaorong factors affecting production, and technical
affecting factors, and Wu , Scott R. advances. The authors suggest that corn,
technical advances Bean, wheat, and barley are the primary
Donghai feedstocks for fuel ethanol production, but
Wang there is potential for other crops, such as
sorghum and cassava, to be used. The paper
highlights the importance of optimizing the
fermentation process, as well as integrating
new technologies, to improve the efficiency
and sustainability of fuel ethanol
production.
43 Advances and Challenges Reeta Rani The paper highlights the importance of
in Biocatalysts Singhania , lignocellulosic biomass as a raw material
 Application for High
Solid-Loading of Biomass
for 2nd Generation Bio-
Ethanol Production
44 catalytic conversion of
methanol/ethanol to
isobutanol – a highly
selective route to an
advanced biofuel
45 Effect of Alcohol Fuels
on Fuel-Line Materials of
Gasoline Vehicles
46 Critical challenges in the
system development of
direct alcohol fuel cells as
portable power supplies:
An overview
Anil Kumar for second-generation bioethanol
Patel , Tirath production and the challenges associated
Raj , Mei- with high solid-loading. It discusses the
Ling Tsai , potential of biocatalysts, such as cellulases,
Chiu-Wen hemicellulases, and ligninases, to enhance
Chen the bioethanol production process. The
and Cheng-Di authors conclude that further research is
Dong needed to optimize the use of biocatalysts
and their application strategies for large-
scale bioethanol production. Overall, the
paper provides a comprehensive review of
recent advancements and challenges in
biocatalysts application for second-
generation bioethanol production
Richard L. this study demonstrates a promising
Wingad, approach towards sustainable biofuel
Emilie J. E. production using a highly efficient and
Bergstro¨m, selective ruthenium catalyst, supported by
Matthew small bite angle disphosphines, for the
Everett, Katy conversion of methanol-ethanol mixtures to
J. Pellow and isobutanol.
Duncan F.
Wass
Atsushi A biomass alcohol for automotive fuels
Kameoka, represents an important measure to reduce
Keiichi Nagai, global warming. However, the use of fuels
Gen containing alcohol, such as ethanol, in
Sugiyama , vehicles originally designed to be fueled
Toshiyuki with gasoline may affect vehicle safety and
Seko exhaust emission due to incompatibility
with the automotive-part materials and a
difference in the air-fuel ratio.
Immersion tests were conducted on the
materials used for fuel-supply system parts
to clarify the corrosion activity of each
component
The authors review previous studies on the
subject and conclude that alcohol fuels can
cause corrosion, swelling, and degradation
of certain fuel-line materials, particularly
elastomers and plastics.
D.M. The review paper suggests that the
Fadzillah development of efficient fuel supply
, S.K. systems and methods to mitigate
Kamarudin, contamination and manage heat and water
, M.A. are critical challenges in the development of
Zainoodin active-feed direct alcohol fuel cells. Future
, M.S. Masdar studies should focus on these challenges to
improve the performance of DAFCs.
47 Novel Options and
Limitations of Methanol
Based Production and
storage for mobile
applications
48 Lean-Burn Stratified
Alcohol Fuels Engines of
Power Density up to 475
kW/Liter Featuring
SuperTurbocharging,
Rotary Valves, Direct
Injection, and Jet Ignition
49 High Efficiency with
Future Alcohol Fuels in a
Stoichiometric Medium
Duty Spark Ignition
Engine
D. Poetzsch, The use of methanol as a liquid fuel for
T. Bach, J.E. electrochemical energy conversion and
Zerpa Unda, storage is the main topic of this article. The
E. Roduner authors show how to use a supercapacitor
and a direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) for
spontaneous charging and short-term
chemical energy storage. Also, they
investigate the electro-reformation of
hydrogen and methanol to produce gas
phase hydrogen, which can be used as a
versatile supply of hydrogen. The research
demonstrates that the protons and electrons
from a modified DMFC may be stored
reversibly in a supercapacitor's electrical
double layer, acting as a flexible buffer for
cyclical energy needs. The method is
suggested for materials with thin layers, and
employing DMFC electrodes is advised for
faster reactions and reducing resistance. The
paper also makes the case that, despite large
losses caused by electrocatalysts' activation
of the reaction, methanol electro-reforming
can be a useful hydrogen source. A
hydrogen fuel cell is a viable substitute for
a comparable DMFC since its overall design
is anticipated to produce higher efficiency at
high power densities and use less catalyst.
Alberto Borett The article compares computational results
utilising a V4 engine with precise
specifications for gasoline, methanol,
ethanol, and indolene engines. Analysis is
done on the effects of various fuel
characteristics, including knock resistance,
air-to-fuel ratio, and heating value. In
comparison to indolene and ethanol,
methanol is found to have a higher power
density and fuel conversion efficiency;
nonetheless, the likelihood of knock rises at
lower engine speeds. Also shown are the
results for brake mean effective pressure
and specific power.
Matthew J. The use of bio-derived alcohol fuels in high
Brusstar and compression ratio engines like the EPA's
Charles L. can greatly reduce carbon dioxide
Gray, Jr. emissions, while cooled exhaust gas
recirculation can lower nitrogen oxide
levels and the brake-specific carbon dioxide
emissions can be used to compare different
engine technologies and fuels.
50 Passive Small Direct
Alcohol Fuel Cells for
Low-Power Portable
Applications: Assessment
Based on Innovative
Increments since 2018
51 Case studies—Portable
applications of direct
alcohol fuel cells
52 The comparison of
combustion, engine
performance and emission
characteristics of ethanol,
methanol, butanol on
HCCI engine
Maria H. de
Sá, Alexandra The paper provides an
M. F. R. Pinto assessment of the recent developments in
and Vânia B. passive small direct alcohol fuel cells
Oliveira (SDAFCs) for low-power portable
applications. The study covers the period
from 2018 to 2021 and highlights the
major improvements in the performance,
stability, and durability of SDAFCs. The
findings indicate that SDAFCs have the
potential to be a promising alternative to
batteries for low-power portable devices,
particularly for applications where frequent
recharging is not feasible. However, further
research is needed to optimize the design
and operational parameters of SDAFCs for
practical applications.
- The article discusses the challenges faced in
commercializing Direct Alcohol Fuel Cells
(DAFCs) that use methanol as fuel. DAFCs
have high power and current densities, but
their commercialization is hindered by high
costs and durability issues. Researchers are
exploring different materials for use in the
components of the DAFCs to reduce costs
and improve their durability. The
performance of DAFCs degrades over time,
and researchers are focusing on reducing
degradation rates in order to make them
suitable as portable power sources.
Alper Calam, The test fuels included naphtha, butanol,
Bilal isopropanol, fusel oil, ethanol, methanol,
Aydoğan, and n-heptane combined at a volume ratio
Serdar Halis of 25%. The studies were carried out in a
single-cylinder SI-HCCI test engine with
intake air at 333 K and various excess air
coefficients. According to the study, out of
all the test fuels, naphtha had the widest
operating range, while ethanol had the
highest suggested mean effective pressure
value. Due to the rise in octane number, the
fuels burned at richer mixture zones, and the
operating limit was changed under lean
conditions based on the fuels' evaporability.
The start of combustion (SOC) and duration
of combustion were significantly impacted
by the physical characteristics of the fuels.
Due to its water content, fusel oil had the
highest HC and CO emissions, whereas
naphtha had the lowest. All test fuels
 showed a tendency to knock, but this
tendency diminished as the lambda value
rose. The study finds that the combustion,
performance, and emissions of the HCCI
engine are greatly influenced by the
physical and chemical qualities of the fuels.
The findings offer helpful information for
creating alternative fuels for HCCI engines
that are more efficient and emit less
emissions.
53 Direct alcohol fuel cells, Khaled Methanol, ethanol, glycerol, and ethylene
Assessment of the fuels Elsaid, glycol are used as fuels in alcohol fuel cells
safety and health aspects Shereen (DAFCs) to generate power. Although the
Abdelfatah, majority of research has been on increasing
Ahmed Maher performance, it is vital for portable
Abdel Elabsir, applications to take the safety and condition
Raid J. of the fuel into account. By limiting,
Hassiba, Zafar substituting, altering, and condensing the
Khan Ghouri, fuel, the dangers of flammability and
Luc Vechot toxicity that can result from high fuel
concentration can be decreased. Methanol is
more hazardous than ethanol, and safer and
comparably cost fuels can be used in its
place. To keep the fuel content in the vapor
phase and lower the risk of a fire, working
at cooler temperatures is preferred for low
fuel concentrations, while higher
temperatures are advised for high
concentrations. It is safer to operate at
moderate or ambient pressure and
temperature, and it is more environmentally
responsible to use bio-resources like
ethanol, glycerol, and ethylene glycol
because they emit no carbon dioxide.
Intermediates of ethanol provide a greater
threat than methanol. Overall, when
designing DAFCs, performance must be
taken into account together with fuel safety
and sustainability.
54 Experimental Louis On a four-cylinder, 2.4 DI production
Investigation of a DISI Sileghem, engine, the performance and engine-out
Production Engine Andrew Ickes emissions of methanol, ethanol, and butanol
Fuelled with Methanol, , Thomas were compared to those of pure gasoline.
Ethanol, Butanol and ISO Wallner, Compared to gasoline, alcohol fuels showed
Stoichiometric Alcohol Sebastian higher thermal efficiency at the brakes and
Blends Verhelst fewer emissions. With over 40% braking
thermal efficiency and a 20.7% reduction in
CO2 emissions compared to gasoline,
methanol got the highest results in terms of
efficiency and emissions. In order to
 evaluate the idea of using iso-stoichiometric
mixtures as drop-in fuels for flex-fuel
engines, measurements were also done for
E85 and the isostoichiometric methanol-
gasoline blend M56. According to the
findings, the methanol-gasoline mixture can
be utilized as a direct replacement for E85
because its efficiency and emissions are
comparable to those of that fuel. With
spark-ignited flex-fuel engines, alcohol
fuels showed promise as a more effective
and sustainable substitute for gasoline.
55 Electrocatalysts for S.S. Siwal, S. The paper examines electrocatalysts for
electrooxidation of direct Thakur, Q.B. direct alcohol fuel cells (DAFCs), including
alcohol fuel cell: Zhang, V.K. their chemistry, applications, challenges,
chemistry and Thakur and recent advances. It discusses various
applications electrocatalysts, such as Pt-based and non-
Pt-based catalysts, used for oxidation of
methanol and ethanol in DAFCs.
Additionally, it highlights the use of
nanomaterials and hybrid catalysts and
offers insights into the current state and
future research directions for
electrocatalysts in the DAFC field.
56 The Technological José Henrique This paper discusses the development of
Innovation Process and de Sousa alcohol as a viable fuel in Brazil and
the Main Institutions and Damiani highlights the role of environmental factors
Actors Involved in the and institutional support in promoting and
Development of an sustaining technological changes. The paper
Ethanol-fueled Airplane: uses models of the general technological
The Case of Ipanema innovation process to understand the stages
and facets of the technological changes
involved, and emphasizes the contributions
of individual researchers, institutions, and
innovation networks in the region of São
José dos Campos. The results of the
Proálcool initiative, which included
substantial economic savings and set the
stage for the development of flex-fuel
technology currently used in Brazil, are also
discussed. The paper suggests that this
technology may have applications in
airplanes in the future.
57 ALCOHOL FUEL IN Adam Polcar, The article evaluates the feasibility of using
PASSENGER CAR Vojtěch a fuel mixture of E85 fuel and Natural 95
Kumbár , Jiří gasoline at a 50:50 ratio in a vehicle without
Čupera structural modifications. The use of such a
mixture leads to lean-burn combustion,
which carries a risk of thermomechanical
damage to the engine, particularly during
 high load and revolutions. However, the
higher heat of evaporation of ethanol helps
decrease this risk and maintains engine
power output. To optimize the combustion
of ethanol, a modification to the engine
should be made, including the installation of
a supplemental control unit to adjust the
injected fuel dosage and increase the
compression ratio or modify the ignition
advance. Overall, bioethanol has a positive
effect on engine output parameters and
efficiency.
58 Genetic manipulation Chunjie Gong This paper discusses the prospects and
strategies for ethanol , Liping Cao , limitations of bioethanol production and
production from Donglai Fang highlights the various strategies, including
bioconversion of , Jiaqi Zhang genetic manipulation, developed over the
lignocellulose waste , Mukesh years to meet the global demand for
Kumar bioethanol. However, despite these efforts,
Awasthi , bioethanol has not gained widespread
Dongsheng acceptance. While some strategies for
Xue ethanol production have been effective at
the laboratory level, significant work is
required to achieve a larger share of the
global bioethanol market using
lignocellulose.
59 Direct Alcohol Fuel Cells Angeliki A promising method for producing power
Challenges and future Brouzgou, from renewable sources like methanol and
trends Fotini ethanol is direct alcohol fuel cells (DAFCs).
Tzorbatzoglou To become a viable commercial technology,
and DAFCs must first overcome a number of
Panagiotis obstacles. These difficulties include the
Tsiakaras creation of membranes and catalysts that are
more effective, as well as the lowering of
system complexity and expense. Future
developments in the field of DAFC research
and development will focus on the use of
novel electrode, membrane, and catalyst
materials and designs as well as the creation
of hybrid systems that combine DAFCs
with other energy conversion methods like
solar cells and supercapacitors. Ultimately,
greater work in this field could result in
more effective and affordable DAFCs that
could be crucial to the creation of a
sustainable energy future.
Properties of alcohol fuels
No Properties Ethanol Methanol unit
1 Boiling point 96.93 83.189 C
2 Latent heat (hfg) 815.93 1062.20 kJ mol-¹
3 Cv (liquid) 2.7771 2.4691 kJ/kg K
4 Cv (vapor) 1.6683 3.6330 kJ/kg K
5 Cp (liquid) 3.3747 2.9964 kJ/kg K
6 Cp (vapor) 1.9120 4.7838 kJ/kg K
7 Viscosity (liquid) 0.33664 0.26502 m Pas
8 Surface Tension 0.013063 0.017285 N/m
9 Density of liquid 716.57 729.24 kJ/kg
10 Density of vapor 3.1869 2.3639 kJ/kg
11 Thermal conductivity (liquid) 0.14907 0.18580 W/mK
12 Thermal Conductivity (vapor) 0.0238 0.02290 W/mK

Fuel n- Isobutane Ethanol Gasoline

Butanol
Lower heating value (LHV) (MJ/L) 26.9 26.6 21.4 30-33
Density (kg/m³) at 20 C 809.5 801.8 789.3 720-780
Research octane number (RON) 96 105 130 88-98
Motor octane number (MON) 78 94 96 80-88
Cetane number 25 - 8 0-10
Melting temperature (C) -89.5 -108 -114.1 -
Boiling temperature (C) 117.7 108 78 35-200
Heat of vaporization (kJ/kg at 25 °C) 707.9 684.4 919.6 ~351
Self ignition temperature (C) 343 415.6 434 ~300
Solubility in water at 20 °C (wt%) 7.7 8.7 Miscible Negligible
Kinematic viscosity (cSt) at 20 °C 3.6 8.3 1.5 0.37-0.44

Propanol Molar Density Boiling Melting Appearance Odour Solubility

Mass point point
C3H8O 60.0952 0.803 g 97 C -126 C Colourless Similar Miscible
g mol^- ml^-1 liq to
1 ethanol
 Fig: comparison of energy densities of alternative fuels [2]
Production methods

Fig: Biogas conversion to transportation fuels [3]

 Fig: Alcohol fuels synthesis pathways [4]
Alcohols
Zeigler process
The Ziegler process is a way to make fatty alcohols from a chemical called ethylene. It uses a
substance made of aluminum to change ethylene and turn it into a type of alcohol that comes
from fats and oils. This method creates alcohols with an even number of carbon atoms in a
straight line.
The reverse water-gas shift reaction (rWGS) is a process that can convert carbon dioxide (CO2)
and hydrogen (H2) into a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and water (H2O), which can be
used to make hydrogen and carbon monoxide (synthesis gas) for industrial purposes. This
process requires high temperatures above 900°C and can use a special catalyst made of nickel
and aluminum oxide that is able to remain stable under these conditions.
Methanol
Methanol is produced by distilling methyl alcohol-containing fossil fuels such as wood and
coal under heat; processing natural gas several times; or combining CO and H2 in a catalytic
media. Also called “wood-alcohol”, it is the cleanest fuel when produced with recycled CO2
[5]. Methanol, with the molecular formula CH4O, is a colourless, odourless, and toxic alcohol.
[1]. At standard room temperature, it is in liquid state which makes its handling easier.
Sustainable production of methanol is done through biomass and solar production. Tough it
has higher corrosiveness than the gasoline, IC engines and tanks can be easily modified and
being used all over the world. Usually Methanol-diesel blends reduce the NOx emissions by
30%. It can also be used via fuel cells but has poor voltage/potential [5].
Biogas can also be converted into methanol via either direct or indirect approaches. Direct
conversion methods include partial oxidation of methane, photo-catalytic conversion, and
biological conversion, while the indirect conversion method involves biogas reforming to
syngas and subsequent conversion to methanol via FTS (Fischer-Tropsch synthesis).
Using wood chips
Initially, methanol (methyl alcohol) was made by heating wood chips in the absence of air.
Some of the carbohydrates in the wood are broken down to produce methanol, which is then
condensed. As a result of this procedure, wood alcohol became another common term for
methanol.
Partial Oxidation of Methane
It is carried out in extremely high pressure of 0.5-15Mpa, high temperatures of 700-750 C. This
method gives good results compared to catalytic POM. [3]
CH4 + 0.5O2 -> CH3OH; ΔH0 = -128 kJ/mol
Photocatalytic conversion [3]
The research describes a process for converting methane (CH4) to methanol using a photo-
catalytic reaction with hydroxyl radicals generated by shining light on a material called
LaWO3. In earlier investigations, ultraviolet (UV) light was used to generate hydroxyl radicals,
but this study found a new approach that does not require UV radiation. The hydroxyl radicals
react with methane to form methanol, and the process is critical for ensuring that enough
hydroxyl radicals are produced. The study found that at atmospheric pressure and 90 degrees
Celsius, methane was converted to methanol (70%), formic acid (11%), and ethanol (5%). The
new approach using LaWO3 as a photocatalyst was found to be effective in producing
methanol, with the steady-state mode producing 1.7 g of methanol per g catalyst per hour at 1
MPa and 94 degrees Celsius. When a hydrogen peroxide solution was added, the reaction
produced 43 g of methanol per g catalyst per hour.

Biological Conversion [3]

Ammonia-oxidising bacteria can convert methane (CH4) into methanol through partial
oxidation. To do this, they use an enzyme called methane monooxygenase (MMO) that
activates and converts CH4 into methanol. There are two types of MMOs: soluble MMO
(sMMO) and specific MMO (pMMO). SMMO is found in bacterial cytoplasm when there is a
lack of copper, while pMMO is found in copper-saturated environments and is a membrane
protein. Park and Lee studied the structure and function of both types of MMOs and found that
copper can increase the activity of pMMO while inhibiting sMMO. The reaction that converts
CH4 to methanol typically uses NADH as an electron donor. However, NADH is expensive,
so a cheaper alternative, H2O2, can be used instead, resulting in the same conversion outcome
as NADH. Purified MMO is not stable and requires electron donors for the catalysis of CH4
oxidation.

Commercial method (Fischer-Tropsch synthesis)

Methanol is commercially produced by a catalytic reaction of carbon monoxide (CO) and
hydrogen gas (H2) at high temperatures and pressures. In this process, methanol is produced
with a finely powdered Cu/Zn/Al2O3 catalyst dispersed in an inert liquid. Besides
Cu/ZnO/Al2O3, a variety of other catalysts such as Cu/ZrO2, ZrO2/CuZnO, Pd/CeO2, Mo
(CO)6, and Ni/ Mo have also been tested.

Syngas is produced by reforming or partially oxidizing carbon-based materials like coal,

natural gas, biomass, and heavy oils. The choice of raw material is influenced by factors such
as economic considerations, the long-term availability of raw materials, energy consumption,
and environmental aspects. Currently, natural gas is the most commonly used feedstock to
produce syngas, which is obtained by steam methane reforming and the water-gas shift reaction
(WGS) to optimize the ratio of carbon monoxide to hydrogen, followed by methanol formation.
These reactions are reversible and their efficiency depends on the reaction conditions, which
include temperature, pressure, and the composition of the syngas.
 Fig: Schematic of bi- and tri- reforming [6]
Direct CO2 Electrolysis: [7]
CO2 electrolysis is a promising method for efficient chemical production on-site, but it requires
suitable reactor and catalyst combinations that have the necessary stability, selectivity, and
capability to sustain commercially relevant current densities. If CO2 electrolysis can achieve
the same efficiency as water electrolysis for hydrogen production, which now has an overall
thermal efficiency of greater than 70% in modular systems, it could become a practical method.
To reduce CO2 to saturated straight-chain alcohols like methanol, ethanol, and n-propanol, six
protons and six electrons from water oxidation are required. Catalyst development is necessary
to sustain high current densities and selectivity for the production of methanol, and the reactor
design and engineering should consider the recycling of side products and unreacted CO2
through the electrolyser
Fig: (A) An electrolyser that operates at a temperature below the boiling point of methanol with
an output mixture of water and methanol to be distilled to a pure product
(B) An electrolyser that operates at a temperature above the boiling point of methanol (which
is more typical in Polymer Electrolyte Membrane electrolysis), wherein methanol is collected
as a vapor and condensed. [7]
CO2 Hydrogenation coupled with water electrolysis: [7]
The process of converting renewable CO2 to alcohols involves the exothermic hydrogenation
of CO2 in fixed-bed flow reactors, typically using a catalyst comprising copper oxide, zinc
oxide, and alumina (CZA), similar to that used in the syngas process. Captured CO2 and H2
from a water electrolyser are compressed and preheated to up to 280°C to maintain an optimal
thermal profile in the reactor. The reactor is loaded with pelletized CZA catalyst to ensure that
it does not pulverise under the differential pressure present during the reaction, while also
optimizing the catalyst mass to reactor volume ratio.
The reaction takes place according to the following equation: CO2 + 3H2 → CH3OH + H2O
In addition to methanol, side processes also occur in the reactor, yielding by-products like CO
and CH4. Equilibrium is established between the reactants and products, and the resulting
mixture contains methanol, water, and unreacted CO2 and H2. After leaving the reactor, the
unreacted CO2, H2, and other gaseous products are separated from the liquid products, and the
liquids are distilled to separate methanol from water. In many instances, the unreacted CO2,
H2, and product gases are recompressed and recycled back into the reactor. The water obtained
from the distillation column can be further recycled to the electrolyser for hydrogen production
to minimize the water usage of the process.
Optimal reaction conditions for the conversion of CO2 to methanol depend on several factors,
including the catalyst used, reaction temperature, and pressure. In general, the reaction
temperature is maintained between 220°C to 280°C and the pressure is kept between 30 to 50
bar to favor methanol production. The choice of catalyst is critical for achieving high activity
and selectivity towards methanol production. Commercial CZA catalysts, which consist of
copper oxide, zinc oxide, and alumina, are commonly used for this process. However, they may
face issues such as sintering at high temperatures and poisoning by impurities commonly found
in flue gas.
To address these challenges, researchers have explored the use of alternative catalysts such as
palladium-based catalysts. Pd-based catalysts supported on cerium, lanthanum, zirconium,
gallium, indium, and other supports have been shown to exhibit high activity and selectivity
for the hydrogenation of CO2 to methanol. However, the cost of precious metals limits their
widespread use in industry.
Overall, the optimization of reaction conditions and the development of advanced catalysts are
critical for improving the efficiency and sustainability of the CO2 to methanol conversion
process.
Fig: Integrated CO2 hydrogenation coupled with H2O electrolysis [7]

Table: comparision of energy use and net GHG emissions from the methods mentioned above
[7]

Fig: Life cycle analysis of methanol production from A) direct CO2 hydrogenation, B) natural
gas [7]
From Anaerobic Digestion:
The biological conversion of biogas to methanol involves a series of enzymatic reactions
catalyzed by methanotrophs. The reactions are carried out aerobically, and the process starts
with the oxidation of methane to methanol, which is carried out by methane monooxygenases
(MMOs). There are two forms of MMOs: particulate MMO (pMMO) and soluble MMO
(sMMO), and their expression is dependent on copper concentration in the growth medium.
pMMO has higher affinity for methane compared to sMMO and is active when the copper
concentration exceeds one μmol per one-gram dry weight of cells.
MMOs cleave the O-O bonds in molecular oxygen (O2) into monovalent oxygen atoms, which
are incorporated into methane to form methanol. Methanol is then oxidized to formaldehyde
by methanol dehydrogenase (MDH), a pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ)-dependent enzyme.
Formaldehyde is further oxidized to formate and then to CO2 through the action of
formaldehyde dehydrogenases (FaldDH) and formate dehydrogenases (FateDH), respectively.
The oxidation of methanol to CO2 generates reducing equivalents that are utilized by MMOs
to sustain methane conversion to methanol. The CO2 can be reduced to methanol via the
reverse oxidation of methanol if a sufficient amount of reducing equivalent is supplied. Overall,
the biological conversion of biogas to methanol is a promising approach for the production of
methanol, as it utilizes renewable resources and has the potential to be highly efficient.

Fig: conversion of biogas to methanol

source:(https://www.eeer.org/journal/view.php?number=1316 )
Fig: Composition of Biogas produced from AD of different types of Feedstocks
Source:( https://www.eeer.org/journal/view.php?number=1316 )
From municipal solid wastes:
• Feed ultimate composition: C-44%, H-7%, O-29%, Ash-18%
• Direct gasification carried out with steam and oxygen, Steam/MSW=0.44,
Oxygen/MSW=0.21
• Sulphur removal involves LOCAT-S system and ZnO catalyst beds
• Tar reforming and steam reforming carried out in two separate steps to increase syngas
yield by reforming hydrocarbons
 • CO2 removed prior to methanol synthesis to reduce CO2 mole fraction at reactor inlet
to 7.5%
• Final product yield from simulation = 0.48 kg methanol/kg MSW

Fig: conversion of municipal solid waste to ethanol

Source:( https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy22osti/82656.pdf )

Renewable methanol production through FLUXMAX approach (case study):[8]

 Fig: FluxMax design [8]
This process uses a thermal energy storage, a steam turbine, a heat pump operating
synchronously with a direct air capture process and a solid-oxide electrolyser. Analysis on
flexibility of methanol process and waste heat utilisation is done. This designs a subsystem for
a cost-effective renewable methanol production.
Ethanol
Bioethanol refers to alcohol produced by the microbial fermentation that is used as
transportation biofuel. Basically, it is produced by the fermentation of the biomass-derived-
sugars (which will not contribute to the greenhouse gas since the CO2 produced can be cleaned
up by photosynthesis) and can be utilised as liquid fuels in the combustion engines. The octane
number of 99 (compared to petrol at around 88) shows that the combustion of the ethanol in
the SI engines with the highest compression ratios gives greater power outputs with reduced
knocking. Nonetheless, automobiles running on pure ethanol consume 20% less fuel (miles per
gallon or kilometres per litre) than gasoline, nevertheless the exhaust gas emissions contain
carcinogenic formaldehyde, ozone precursor and acetaldehyde. Data on ethanol-petrol mixes
used in various countries. (For example, E10, E85, and so on.). Ford has mass produced the
engine cars which runs on ethanol in the early 1900s, Rudolf diesel designed a prototype diesel
engine which runs on peanut oil in the early 1898. Although ethanol for fuel may be created
using other pathways such as hydration of petrochemically-derived ethylene and
thermochemical biomass-to-liquid (BTL) processes, such technologies have a higher demand
for fossil fuel energy than biochemical routes. The latter method employs pyrolysis/gasification
technologies to generate "syngas" (CO + H2), which serves as a precursor to bioethanol
synthesis. The heating value is close to 27MJ/kg which is lower than the gasoline which is
close to 44MJ/kg which in turn indicates that a larger tank is required for operation. It 35% O2
and the high latent heat of vaporization indicates its problems with cold start-ability. The
emissions include CO2, H2O, heat bust this doesn’t conclude to global warming.
Worldwide production of bioethanol
The primary reasons for the development of renewable transportation fuels such as bioethanol
are the preservation of future fuel security, the promotion of the rural economy, and the
protection of the environment/reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. The combustion of fossil
fuels in the transportation sector presently accounts for around 20% of worldwide CO2
emissions, and this figure is rising as nations such as India and China grow. National
governmental requirements and international biofuel regulations, which are linked to
environmental concerns and climate change issues, are serving as impulses for the bioethanol
industrial sector. For example, the United States Energy Policy Act of 2005 established a
Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS), which was expanded when the US Congress passed the
Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, which will see renewable fuels reach more
than 57 billion litres by 2012, 136 billion litres by 2022, and 150 billion litres by 2030
(according to the US Department of Energy Roadmap). However, more than 750 billion litres
of biofuels would be required to completely replace liquid fossil fuels in the United States. In
2010, there were 187 operational bioethanol plants in the United States, with numerous
additional ones under construction. It is worth noting that the United States, the world's largest
producer of bioethanol, has set a limit of 56.8 billion litres for bioethanol that may be generated
from maize, with growing objectives being fulfilled from other feedstocks (such as sugar cane)
as well as cellulosic feedstocks. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency, by
2022, about 57 billion litres of American bioethanol will be generated from sugar cane.
In response to growing oil costs, the Brazilian government launched the Pro-alcohol initiative
in 1975 to use sugar cane fuel alcohol as a gasoline alternative. Brazil, with over 400 sugarcane
bioethanol facilities, is the world's second biggest producer of fuel alcohol. Brazilian output is
predicted to reach 37 billion litres per year by 2012/13, from 728 million tonnes of sugar cane.
Bioethanol use in Europe is expanding year after year, owing mostly to state mandates and
European Commission directives. According to the 2009 EU Renewable Energy Directive,
European nations must ensure that by 2020, 20% of their energy consumption originates from
renewable sources, and biofuels account for 10% of transportation sector energy.

Fig. Global (a) and European (b) fuel alcohol production. Information from: Biofuel and Industrial
News

Source: (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/j.2050-0416.2011.tb00438.x )
Production methods
Direct method
Exxon patented a technique in 1996 that uses a catalytic approach to directly convert CH4 into
ethanol and methanol. This process required reacting CH4 with an acidic (pH141-3) water
solution of an electron acceptor, such as Fe2(SO4)3 or Fe (ClO4)3, to generate ethanol and
methanol mixes. Noble metal catalysts with a diameter of at least 10 nm, such as platinum or
palladium, were favoured. The reaction took place at a temperature of 60-100 degrees Celsius.
Syngas fermentation
The acetyl-CoA pathway involves the conversion of CO and H2 into acetyl-CoA, which is then
further metabolized into various products such as ethanol, acetic acid, butanol, and butyrate.
The microorganisms mentioned above are known to utilize this pathway for the fermentation
of syngas.
In this process, H2 serves as an electron donor, whereas CO provides both electrons and carbon
for conversion via the action of the enzymes hydrogenase and carbon monoxide
dehydrogenase, respectively. The H2/CO ratio is an important parameter for controlling the
metabolic pathway and the type of product produced.
The maximum ethanol yield reported using this method was found to be 48 g/L-reactor, while
most other studies have shown yields of less than 12 g/L. The maximum yields for n-propanol
and n-butanol were found to be 6 g/L and 1.11 g/L, respectively. It should be noted that the
production of n-butanol is a relatively new area of research in this field.

Catalytic conversion (from syngas) and Synthesis from DME \ COAL:

This is similar to the commercial production method of methanol. Usually, it is used for the
production of ethanol and higher alcohols from the syngas. Operational pressure is close to
20MPa with a temperature of 400 deg C.
 Fig: single pass conversion of syngas to ethanol
Source; (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-14672-8 )

High-Temperature Deconstruction: (Bio-mass)

High-temperature deconstruction makes use of extreme heat and pressure to break down solid
biomass into liquid or gaseous intermediates. There are three primary routes used in this
pathway:
• Pyrolysis
• Gasification
• Hydrothermal liquefaction.
During pyrolysis, biomass is heated rapidly at high temperatures (500°C–700°C) in an oxygen-
free environment. The heat breaks down biomass into pyrolysis vapor, gas, and char. Once the
char is removed, the vapours are cooled and condensed into a liquid “bio-crude” oil.
Gasification follows a slightly similar process; however, biomass is exposed to a higher
temperature range (>700°C) with some oxygen present to produce synthesis gas (or syngas)—
a mixture that consists mostly of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
When working with wet feedstocks like algae, hydrothermal liquefaction is the preferred
thermal process. This process uses water under moderate temperatures (200°C–350°C) and
elevated pressures to convert biomass into liquid bio-crude oil.
Following deconstruction, intermediates such as crude bio-oils, syngas, sugars, and other
chemical building blocks must be upgraded to produce a finished product. This step can involve
either biological or chemical processing.
Low-Temperature Deconstruction:
Low-temperature deconstruction typically makes use of biological catalysts called enzymes or
chemicals to breakdown feedstocks into intermediates. First, biomass undergoes a pre-
treatment step that opens up the physical structure of plant and algae cell walls, making sugar
polymers like cellulose and hemicellulose more accessible. These polymers are then broken
down enzymatically or chemically into simple sugar building blocks during a process known
as hydrolysis.
Microorganisms, such as bacteria, yeast, and cyanobacteria, can ferment sugar or gaseous
intermediates into fuel blend stocks and chemicals. Alternatively, sugars and other intermediate
streams, such as bio-oil and syngas, may be processed using a catalyst to remove any unwanted
or reactive compounds in order to improve storage and handling properties.

Fig: Use of lignocellulose waste for bio-ethanol production [9]

 Fig: Biomass Fired Gas turbine systems [10]

Fig: conversion of sugar cane to ethanol: from sugar, direct conversion

From Crops:

The production of cellulosic or second-generation ethanol differs significantly from traditional

ethanol production processes, which rely on sugar- and starch-based feedstock. Cellulosic
feedstock contains hemicellulose and lignin, making it resistant to degradation, and therefore
requires pretreatment. However, there is a need for more effective pretreatment methods, which
can be achieved through a deeper understanding of plant cell wall biosynthesis and regulation,
leading to engineered plant cell walls with reduced recalcitrance. Currently, simultaneous
saccharification and cofermentation of pentose and hexose sugars is possible using engineered
strains of thermophilic bacteria, brewing yeast, and other microbial consortiums. Nevertheless,
there is room for improvement, particularly in the development of more efficient strains that
can withstand high ethanol concentrations, increase ethanol productivity, and lower production
.
costs.
Fig: Ethanol production, recovery
Source:( https://in.pinterest.com/pin/ethanol-production-recovery-and-uses--
696650636107594287/ )

Fig: steps for production of ethanol from starch-rich crops, Free-sugar-rich crops,
Lignocellulosic biomass [11]
 Fig: Worldwide production of ethanol by 2020 [11]
Dry corn ethanol bio-refinery for production of sustainable aviation fuel: [12] (case
study)

Fig: Schematic of some of the proposed integrated pathways between DGCEM and emerging
jet fuel production technologies; The bold arrow represents integrated approach where
DGCEM derived sugar stream goes into ATJ and DSHC process; The double head arrow
represents two separate integration strategy where infrastructures and salaries (partial) are
shared between DGCEM and GFT and FP, respectively. [12]
Butanol
Until mid-1950, 1-butanol was industrially produced by the crotonaldehyde hydrogenation of
acetaldehyde. The crotonaldehyde hydrogenation is subdivided in the aldolization of
acetaldehyde to acetaldol over alkaline catalysts, the acidification of acetaldol to
crotonaldehyde and the hydrogenation of crotonaldehyde to Butanol over copper catalysts.
Aldol Condensation [4]:
During conventional aldol condensation, an unsaturated Cn+1 aldehyde is formed from two Cn
aldehydes with the elimination of water. The Cn aldehydes are formed by the dehydrogenation
of Cn alcohols. To transform unsaturated Cn+1 aldehydes into Cn+1 alcohols (see Fig. 1:
butanol), either a Cannizzaro reaction or hydrogenation with H2 is carried out.

Fig: aldol condensation of ethanal to n-butanol [4]

Oxo synthesis (similar for propanol) [4]:
the oxo synthesis of propene to butanol. During hydroformylation, a Cn olefin reacts with
H2/CO (synthesis gas) and an unsaturated Cn+1 aldehyde, which is then converted into a Cn+1
alcohol via hydrogenation. The required olefins are currently obtained exclusively through
petrochemical processes.

Fig: Oxo synthesis of propene and synthesis gas to 1-butanol [4]

Ethane is converted to propanol using the catalyst: rhodium or cobalt. The hydrogenation of
propanol corresponds to the hydrogenation of the aldehyde in the scope of oxo synthesis.
Catalytic conversion from methanol/ethanol:
In the process of n-butanol synthesis, a catalytic conversion from methanol/ethanol is used with
Guerbet type catalysts. This type of reaction is referred to as "Borrowed Hydrogen" chemistry
and allows for the formation of C-C bonds using typically unreactive alcohols. While it is not
clear how this method could be adapted to directly convert ethanol to isobutanol, the co-
condensation of methanol and ethanol is a promising route. In this approach, methanol and
ethanol are dehydrogenated to formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, respectively, which then
undergo aldol coupling to produce n-propanol after re-hydrogenation. A subsequent
dehydrogenation, aldol coupling, re-hydrogenation cycle with methanol yields isobutanol. It is
essential to achieve high selectivity to isobutanol instead of other possible alcohol coupling
products to ensure the viability of the process. However, this method also results in a small
amount of propanol (1.8%).

Fig: proposed conversion procedure from methanol to ethanol [13]

Challenges involved in utilisation of alcohol fuels (basic):
Presence of alcohol in the fuel mixture causes corrosion in the components due to the moisture
content and organic acids in them. Other major disadvantages include their low boiling point
and high vapour pressure. Methanol is more corrosive compared to other higher alcohols.
Ethanol has lower vapour pressure, better anti-knock, volatile properties which review it more
usage in fuels. Alcohol corrosion is classified into three types: general corrosion, dry corrosion,
and wet corrosion. Ionic contaminants such as chloride ions and acetic acid cause general
corrosion. The ethanol molecule and its polarity cause dry corrosion. Wet corrosion is caused
by the azeotropic formation of ethanol and water. Ethanol with a neutral pH is not corrosive.
If the alcohol/gasoline mixture remains within the tank for an extended period, the alcohol
absorbs moisture from the environment and corrodes the fuel injection system. Because to the
presence of alcohols in fuels, non-metallic components such as seals and O-rings in the fuel
injection system expand and stiffen.
Modifications required for vehicles (basic):
1. A stainless steel gasoline tank with stainless flame eliminators in the fill and vent tubes to
avoid accidental ignition.
2. A corrosion-protected float level potentiometer that is resistant to methanol.
3. Methanol-tolerant fuel injector and fuel pump with greater flow rates.
4. Stainless steel fuel lines with Teflon fuel hoses.
5. Modified pressure regulator and anodized aluminium fuel injection rail.
Utilization Of Alcohol Fuels:
Energy is one of the key components of sustainable human development and the raising of
living standards all over the world. The demand for energy in the industrialization and
transportation sectors has grown at an even faster rate than the rate at which the world's
population has risen over the past few decades, which has directly affected crude oil prices.
Nowadays, just the transportation sector consumes 58% of the fossil fuels used for primary
energy consumption globally . Global primary energy demand has risen steadily since 1973,
increasing at a pace of 2.0% on average annually. Moreover, almost a third of the world's
population still relies on noncommercial fuels (United Nations 2007, 1). The widespread use
of fossil fuels in many sectors of industry and in transportation, which contribute significantly
to air pollution, ozone depletion, global warming, climatic changes, and difficulties linked to
human health, is one of the primary environmental issues. However, inefficient fuel burning
produces CO2, which is a significant pollutant, and NO x, which is a significant pollutant
created by both natural and artificial processes. The burning of fossil fuels including coal,
petroleum, and other industrial combustibles also releases SO2, one of the main air pollutants.
Environmental awareness first gained widespread attention in the 1960s, when smog in
industrialised places like Mexico City, Los Angeles, and Tokyo City became a significant
problem. More than 185 million buses, vehicles, and trucks were utilised in the United States
for transportation in 1992, according to the National Energy Plan, using two-thirds of the
country's oil supply. Similar to India, where in 1991 50% of oil was used for transportation, by
2010 that number had risen to 61%. The consumption of oil has significantly increased daily,
resulting in severe environmental damage. The United Nations' Earth Summit on Environment
and Development was held in June of 1992. (UNCED). The main goal of the attendees from
all over the world at this summit was to slow global warming.
Finding potential fossil fuel substitutes is so crucial. In this respect, a perfect substitute would
feature clean, efficient, cost-effective energy sources that are renewable and sustainable.
Alternative fuels are the most eco-friendly energy source available among energy substitutes.
An unsettling statistical analysis shows that the world is finding one new barrel of oil for every
four it uses, and that global oil and gas production is approaching its maximum level. As a
result, alcohol fuels are the ideal substitute for fossil fuels. Alcohol fuels have been touted as a
leading source of energy in the future that can boost supply security, cut down on car emissions,
and provide consistent income for farmers.
Current situation of Alcohol fuels in key countries:
Henry Ford powered his first automobile in 1896 with pure ethanol as the fuel source. After
that, in 1908, he created another well-known automobile, the Ford Model T, which could run
on both petrol and ethanol [6]. Throughout the world, Brazil was one of the biggest nations to
adopt biofuel projects for the production of ethanol from sugarcane [7]. Brazilians used 18%
ethanol fuel for their nation's road transportation in 2006, and by April 2008, they were using
more than 50% of it for petrol. Brazil dominated the production of alcohol fuel until 2005,
when the United States overtook it.
Brazil dominated the production of alcohol fuel until 2005, when the United States overtook
it. Brazil and the United States jointly were responsible for 87.1% of the world's alcohol fuel
production in 2011.To lessen its reliance on fossil fuels, China was actively promoting alcohol
fuel in five important cities in its northeast and centre. Zhaodong in Heilongjiang Province,
Luoyang, Nanyang in Henan Province in Central China, Zhengzhou, Harbin, and northeast
China are among these cities. The United States currently generates and consumes more
alcohol fuel than any other nation in the globe. The majority of automobiles on American roads
today can operate on alcohol fuel, and automakers already build cars that are built to run on
substantially higher ethanol ratios.

Fig: Fuel Ethanol production worldwide in 2022

(Source: https://www.statista.com/statistics/281606/ethanol-production-in-selected-
countries/)
Effect Of Alcoholic Fuels on Fuel-Line Materials:
Alcohol fuels like ethanol and methanol can cause the nitrile rubber and fluorocarbon rubber
used in fuel lines to deteriorate, resulting in swelling,[29] breaking, and a loss of mechanical
strength. The type and concentration of the alcohol fuel, the material utilised in the fuel line,
and the length of exposure are only a few examples of the variables that affect how severe the
degradation is.
According to Atsushi Kameoka, Keiichi Nagai, Gen Sugiyama, and Toshiyuki Seko's study
paper, "Impact of Alcohol Fuels on Fuel-Line Materials of Gasoline Cars," examines the effects
of alcohol fuels, such as ethanol and methanol, on the fuel-line components of gasoline
automobiles. The study analyses several fuel-line materials for degradation brought on by
contact with ethanol and methanol.[29]
In the investigation, several fuel-line components were exposed to ethanol and methanol at
various concentrations over various amounts of time. Fuel-line parts comprised of nitrile
rubber, fluorocarbon rubber, nylon 6, and polyethylene terephthalate were employed in the
experiment (PET). The amounts of ethanol and methanol utilised in the study were 10%, 20%,
and 30% by volume, respectively. The exposure period was between 24 and 30 days. To
ascertain whether the fuel-line materials had deteriorated following the exposure period, a
number of tests were performed on them, including checks for swelling, cracking, and loss of
mechanical strength.
[i] Nitrile Rubber:
Due to its great compatibility with fuels derived from petroleum, nitrile rubber is a frequently
used material in fuel lines of gasoline-powered automobiles. Nevertheless, nitrile rubber can
degrade when exposed to alcohol fuels like ethanol and methanol, which can result in swelling,
cracking, and a reduction in mechanical strength.
There are various processes by which alcohol fuels cause nitrile rubber to degrade. Rubber
swells when exposed to alcohol fuels because of a change in the solubility parameter of the
rubber. This swelling causes voids and microcracks to occur, which can eventually result in
macroscopic cracking and a reduction in mechanical strength. Moreover, the rubber may
become plasticized as a result of the alcohol fuels, which will reduce its mechanical strength
and make it more prone to cracking. Many variables affect how severely alcohol fuels cause
nitrile rubber to degrade. These variables include exposure time, exposure temperature, and
alcohol fuel content. Research have indicated that longer exposure times and greater alcohol
fuel concentrations might result in a more substantial deterioration of nitrile rubber.
Furthermore, exposure to high temperatures might quicken the degrading process.
Many tests are carried out to assess the nitrile rubber deterioration caused by alcohol fuels.
These tests consist of chemical analysis, mechanical testing, and swelling testing.
Measurements of the size change of the nitrile rubber following exposure to alcohol fuels are
used in swelling tests. Mechanical tests involve determining the nitrile rubber's tensile strength
and hardness before and after exposure to alcohol fuels. Chemical analysis entails examining
the modifications to the nitrile rubber's chemical structure and makeup that result from
exposure to alcohol fuels.
For the automotive sector, the deterioration of nitrile rubber caused by alcohol fuels is a major
concern. While designing and building gasoline automobiles, manufacturers must take the
compatibility of fuel-line materials with alcohol fuels into account. It is advised to either create
new materials that are suitable with alcohol fuels or utilise materials that are resistant to them.
To further enhance the security and longevity of gasoline vehicles, regular inspection and fuel
line replacement are required.
 Fig: Natural rubber and gutta percha conversion to Isoprenoid Oligomers
(Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014305722000052 )
[ii] Fluorocarbon Rubber:
Due to its outstanding chemical resistance and thermal stability, fluorocarbon rubber is another
material frequently utilised in the fuel lines of gasoline-powered automobiles. Fluorocarbon
rubber, like nitrile rubber, can deteriorate when exposed to alcohol fuels like ethanol and
methanol, which can result in swelling, cracking, and a reduction in mechanical strength.
There are various processes through which alcohol fuels cause the fluorocarbon rubber to
degrade. The rubber might become permeated by the alcohol fuels and swell as a result,
creating voids and microcracks. In the end, this may result in mechanical strength loss and
macroscopic cracking. The fluorocarbon rubber can also react with alcohol fuels, which can
crosslink and weaken the polymer chains. The concentration of alcohol fuel, the amount of
time exposed, and the exposure temperature all affect how severely fluorocarbon rubber
degrades when exposed to alcohol fuels. Research have indicated that longer exposure times
and greater alcohol fuel concentrations can cause more substantial fluorocarbon rubber
breakdown. Furthermore, exposure to high temperatures might quicken the degrading process.
Similar tests are carried out for nitrile rubber in order to assess the breakdown of fluorocarbon
rubber caused by alcohol fuels. Swelling tests measure how the fluorocarbon rubber changes
in size after being exposed to alcohol-based fuels. The fluorocarbon rubber's tensile strength
and hardness are measured mechanically both before and after exposure to alcohol fuels.
The Ethanol Effect:

Fig: Carburettor damage caused by ethanol fuel blends

Source: https://www.onallcylinders.com/2014/10/29/ethanol-effect-understanding-ethanol-
can-protect-classic-ride/
For the automotive sector, the deterioration of fluorocarbon rubber caused by alcohol fuels is
a major concern. While designing and building gasoline automobiles, manufacturers must take
the compatibility of fuel-line materials with alcohol fuels into account. It is advised to either
create new materials that are suitable with alcohol fuels or utilise materials that are resistant to
them. To guarantee the longevity and safety of gasoline cars, fuel lines must be regularly
inspected and replaced.
In conclusion, both the nitrile rubber and the fluorocarbon rubber used in the fuel lines of
gasoline automobiles can degrade when exposed to alcohol-based fuels. The degree of
degradation is influenced by a number of variables, including the material utilised, temperature,
exposure intensity and duration, and concentration. For the fuel-line components of gasoline
automobiles, it is crucial to select the appropriate material or create novel materials that are
resistant to alcohol fuels.
[iii]Nylon-6
Due to its superior mechanical strength, chemical resistance, and thermal stability, Nylon-6 is
another material that is frequently utilised in fuel lines of gasoline-powered automobiles.
Nevertheless, nylon-6 can degrade when exposed to alcohol fuels, changing its physical
characteristics and reducing performance.
The breakdown of nylon-6 brought on by alcohol fuels happens in a number of ways. Alcohol
fuels have the ability to pierce nylon-6, causing it to expand and create voids and microcracks
in the process. In the end, this may result in mechanical strength loss and macroscopic cracking.
Moreover, nylon-6 may get plasticized as a result of using alcohol fuels, which lowers the
temperature at which it transitions to glass and lowers its mechanical strength.

Fig; Ethanol-gasoline blend mixture in engine (Describing effect of biofuel(alcoholic) on

particulate matter)
(Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306261918312352 )
The concentration of alcohol fuel, the amount of exposure time, and the exposure temperature
all affect how severely nylon-6 degrades when exposed to alcohol fuels. Longer exposure
lengths and greater alcohol fuel concentrations have been proven to cause more substantial
degradation of nylon-6. Furthermore, exposure to high temperatures might quicken the
degrading process. Similar tests to those used for nitrile rubber and fluorocarbon rubber are
carried out on nylon-6 to assess how it degrades in the presence of alcohol fuels. Swelling tests
measure how the dimensions of nylon-6 change after being exposed to alcohol fuels. The
nylon-6's tensile strength and hardness are measured mechanically both before and after it has
been exposed to alcohol fuels. composition of nylon-6 following alcohol fuel exposure.
For the automotive industry, deterioration of nylon-6 caused by alcohol fuels is a major
concern. While designing and building gasoline automobiles, manufacturers must take the
compatibility of fuel-line materials with alcohol fuels into account. It is advised to either create
new materials that are suitable with alcohol fuels or utilise materials that are resistant to them.
To guarantee the longevity and safety of gasoline cars, fuel lines must be regularly inspected
and replaced.In summary, nylon-6 used in fuel lines of gasoline automobiles might degrade
when exposed to alcohol fuels. Many variables, including the concentration and length of
exposure, temperature, and the substance utilised, affect how severe the deterioration is.
Utilization:
(Traditional Si-Engine to Alcohol Based Engine)
A number of modifications to the design, construction, and other elements are necessary to
convert a conventional gasoline-fuelled spark-ignition (SI) engine to an alcohol fuel-based
engine. Depending on the type of alcohol fuel being used as well as the engine's current layout
and specs, additional changes may be required. The following general adjustments may be
necessary:

Fig: Fuel Blend test setup

Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960148119307244
Fuel system: In order to use the new alcohol fuel, the fuel system of the engine must be
changed. To manage the greater concentration of alcohol fuel, it could be necessary to replace
or modify the fuel lines, fuel pump, and fuel injectors. Moreover, a gasoline filter and fuel tank
compatible with alcohol may be required.
Compression ratio: To maximise performance with alcohol fuel, the engine's compression ratio
may need to be raised. Due to its greater octane rating than gasoline, alcohol fuel is able to
endure higher compression ratios without experiencing engine knock. The efficiency and
power output of an engine can be increased by increasing the compression ratio.
Ignition system: To account for the unique properties of alcohol fuel, the ignition system may
need to be adjusted. For instance, to account for the greater energy needed to ignite alcohol
fuel, the spark plug gap may need to be changed.
Engine materials: It might be necessary to replace some engine parts with ones that can run on
alcohol fuel. Because alcohol fuel is more corrosive than gasoline, it has the potential to
gradually harm some materials. For instance, stainless steel or other corrosion-resistant
materials may need to be used in place of aluminium and rubber components.
ECU tuning: To maximise performance with alcohol fuel, the engine control unit (ECU) may
need to be reconfigured or replaced. The ECU, which regulates the timing of the fuel injection
and ignition as well as other engine parameters, must be modified to accommodate the unique
properties of alcohol fuel.
Exhaust system: To increase engine performance when using alcohol fuel, the exhaust system
may need to be modified. Alcohol fuel burns more intensely than gasoline, which might raise
the temperature of exhaust gases and perhaps harm the catalytic converter. In order to handle
the extra heat, an expansion or improvement of the exhaust system may be necessary.
In order to maximise performance and ensure compatibility with the new fuel, it is necessary
to make a number of modifications to a SI engine that runs on gasoline. The fuel system,
compression ratio, ignition system, engine materials, ECU tuning, and exhaust system are just
a few examples of the components that may undergo adjustment.

Fig: test setup

Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960148103003562

Utilization:
(Traditional Ci-Engine to Alcohol Based Engine)
A standard diesel-fuelled compression-ignition (CI) engine must also undergo a number of
design, material, and other component changes in order to run on alcohol fuel. The following
adjustments may be necessary:
Fuel system: In order to use the new alcohol fuel, the fuel system of the engine must be
changed. To manage the greater concentration of alcohol fuel, it could be necessary to replace
or modify the fuel lines, fuel pump, and fuel injectors. To stop fuel system corrosion and lessen
the likelihood of fuel leaks, the fuel injection system may also need to be switched from direct
injection to indirect injection.
Compression ratio: To maximise performance with alcohol fuel, the engine's compression ratio
may need to be changed. Alcohol fuel requires a larger compression ratio to ignite properly
since it has a lower energy density than diesel fuel. The efficiency and power output of an
engine can be increased by increasing the compression ratio.
Engine materials: It might be necessary to replace some engine parts with ones that can run on
alcohol fuel. Because alcohol fuel is more corrosive than diesel, it can eventually harm some
materials. For instance, it could be necessary to swap out aluminium and rubber parts for
stainless steel or other corrosion-resistant materials.

Fig: Detailed schematic of the intake air manifold and the methanol injector positions
Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666052021000030
Ignition system: To account for the unique properties of alcohol fuel, the ignition system may
need to be adjusted. Alcohol fuel needs an ignition source to ignite, in contrast to diesel fuel,
which ignites on its own. As a result, the engine might require a glow plug or spark plug system
to start combustion.
ECU tuning: To maximise performance with alcohol fuel, the engine control unit (ECU) may
need to be reconfigured or replaced. The ECU, which regulates the timing of the fuel injection
and ignition as well as other engine parameters, must be modified to accommodate the unique
properties of alcohol fuel.
Exhaust system: To increase engine performance when using alcohol fuel, the exhaust system
may need to be modified. Alcohol fuel burns hotter than diesel fuel, which might potentially
harm the exhaust system and raise the temperature of the exhaust gases. In order to handle the
extra heat, an expansion or improvement of the exhaust system may be necessary.
In order to maximise performance and guarantee compatibility with the new fuel, it is necessary
to make a number of modifications to a diesel-fueled CI engine before switching it to an alcohol
fuel-based engine. Changes to the fuel system, compression ratio, engine materials, ignition
system, ECU tuning, and exhaust system are just a few examples of the adjustments that may
be made.

Fig: Test stand

Source: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/14/10/2817

EMISSIONS (various alcoholic fuels):

When it comes to emission characteristics, alcohol fuels have some advantages and
disadvantages compared to traditional fossil fuels like gasoline and diesel.One of the main
advantages of alcohol fuels like ethanol and methanol is that they produce fewer harmful
emissions like carbon monoxide, particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide. These emissions are
major contributors to air pollution and can have negative health impacts, particularly in urban
areas with high levels of traffic. Alcohol fuels can also reduce emissions of greenhouse gases
like carbon dioxide when they are produced from renewable sources like corn or sugarcane.
However, alcohol fuels can also produce higher emissions of certain pollutants like nitrogen
oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) compared to gasoline. NOx emissions
are a major contributor to smog and can have negative impacts on human health and the
environment. VOCs can contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone, another harmful air
pollutant.
The emission characteristics of alcohol fuels can also vary depending on the concentration of
alcohol in the fuel, the type of engine, and the environmental conditions. For example, alcohol
fuels tend to produce more NOx emissions at higher concentrations, while gasoline produces
more VOC emissions at lower concentrations.
Overall, while alcohol fuels have some environmental benefits compared to traditional fossil
fuels, they are not without their drawbacks in terms of emissions. Ongoing research is focused
on developing more efficient and clean-burning alcohol fuel technologies that can help reduce
emissions and improve overall air quality.
Emission characteristics of methanol

Methanol is a type of alcohol fuel that has some unique emission and performance
characteristics compared to traditional fossil fuels like gasoline and diesel.
In terms of emissions, methanol has some advantages over fossil fuels. It produces lower
emissions of harmful pollutants like sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, and carbon monoxide.
It also produces lower greenhouse gas emissions, particularly when produced from renewable
sources like biomass or waste.However, methanol also has some disadvantages in terms of
emissions. It produces higher emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and formaldehyde compared
to gasoline, which can contribute to air pollution and have negative health impacts.
Formaldehyde is a known carcinogen, and NOx can contribute to the formation of smog and
acid rain.
Methanol, also known as wood alcohol, is a type of alcohol derivative that has been studied as
an alternative fuel due to its potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on
fossil fuels. In this section, we will discuss the performance and emission characteristics of
methanol as an alternative fuel.
When it comes to performance, methanol has some advantages and disadvantages compared to
traditional fuels. Methanol has a higher octane rating than gasoline, which means it can
improve engine performance and reduce engine knocking. It also has a higher heat of
vaporization, which can help cool the engine and prevent overheating.
However, methanol has lower energy density than gasoline, which means it may produce less
power per unit of fuel. Methanol also has some corrosive properties that can damage engine
components over time, particularly when used in higher concentrations.
Overall, while methanol has some environmental and performance benefits compared to fossil
fuels, it is not without its drawbacks. Ongoing research is focused on developing more efficient
and clean-burning methanol fuel technologies that can help reduce emissions and improve
overall performance.
Methanol, also known as wood alcohol, is a type of alcohol derivative that has been studied as
an alternative fuel due to its potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on
fossil fuels. In this section, we will discuss the performance and emission characteristics of
methanol as an alternative fuel.
Performance Characteristics of Methanol:
a. Energy Content: Methanol has a lower energy content compared to gasoline and diesel.
Methanol has an energy content of about 50% less compared to gasoline, which means that a
larger volume of methanol is required to produce the same amount of energy. This can
potentially result in lower fuel efficiency compared to fossil fuels, as more methanol may need
to be burned to generate the same amount of power.
b. Combustion Characteristics: Methanol has different combustion properties compared to
gasoline and diesel. One of the notable differences is its higher octane rating. Methanol has a
higher octane rating compared to gasoline, which can result in better engine performance and
improved fuel efficiency. The higher octane rating of methanol allows for higher compression
ratios in engines, which can lead to improved thermal efficiency and power output.
c. Heat of Combustion: Methanol has a higher heat of combustion compared to gasoline and
diesel. This means that methanol produces more heat energy upon combustion, which can result
in higher engine temperatures and thermal loads on engine components. This can pose
challenges in terms of engine durability and may require modifications or upgrades to engine
materials and cooling systems to handle the increased heat of combustion.
d. Cold-start Performance: Methanol has a higher latent heat of vaporization compared to
gasoline, which means that it requires more heat energy to vaporize. This can result in reduced
fuel atomization and vaporization in the combustion chamber, leading to poor cold-start
performance and increased fuel consumption, especially in colder climates. Engine
modifications, such as heated fuel systems and engine calibration, may be required to overcome
this challenge.
Emissions Characteristics of Ethanol

Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, is a type of alcohol derivative that has been extensively
studied as an alternative fuel due to its potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and
dependence on fossil fuels. In this section, we will discuss the performance and emission
characteristics of ethanol as an alternative fuel.

Performance Characteristics of Ethanol:

a. Energy Content: Ethanol has a lower energy content compared to gasoline and diesel.
Ethanol contains about 34% less energy per unit volume compared to gasoline, which means
that a larger volume of ethanol is required to produce the same amount of energy. This can
result in lower fuel efficiency compared to fossil fuels, as more ethanol may need to be burned
to generate the same amount of power.

b. Combustion Characteristics: Ethanol has different combustion properties compared to

gasoline and diesel. One of the notable differences is its higher octane rating. Ethanol has a
higher octane rating compared to gasoline, which can result in better engine performance and
improved fuel efficiency. The higher octane rating of ethanol allows for higher compression
ratios in engines, which can lead to improved thermal efficiency and power output.
c. Heat of Combustion: Ethanol has a lower heat of combustion compared to gasoline and
diesel. This means that ethanol produces less heat energy upon combustion, which can result
in lower engine temperatures and thermal loads on engine components. This can potentially
have a positive impact on engine durability and may require fewer modifications or upgrades
to engine materials and cooling systems compared to methanol.
d. Cold-start Performance: Ethanol has a higher latent heat of vaporization compared to
gasoline, which means that it requires more heat energy to vaporize. This can result in reduced
fuel atomization and vaporization in the combustion chamber, leading to poor cold-start
performance and increased fuel consumption, especially in colder climates. Engine
modifications, such as heated fuel systems and engine calibration, may be required to overcome
this challenge.

Emission Characteristics of Ethanol:

a. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Ethanol is considered a renewable fuel as it can be produced
from a variety of renewable sources, such as biomass, sugar crops, and cellulosic materials.
When used as a fuel, ethanol has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions compared
to fossil fuels, as it is a low-carbon fuel and does not contain sulfur. However, it is important
to note that the production and distribution of ethanol also contribute to greenhouse gas
emissions, and the overall greenhouse gas emissions associated with ethanol as a fuel depend
on the production pathway.

b. Air Pollutant Emissions: Ethanol combustion produces lower levels of harmful air pollutants,
such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), and particulate matter (PM), compared to
gasoline and diesel. This can lead to improved air quality and reduced health impacts associated
with air pollution.

c. Aldehyde Emissions: One of the challenges associated with ethanol as a fuel is the potential
for aldehyde emissions. Ethanol combustion can produce acetaldehyde, which is a toxic air
pollutant and a respiratory irritant. However, proper engine calibration, exhaust aftertreatment
systems, and fuel blending can be used to reduce aldehyde emissions from ethanol combustion.

In conclusion, ethanol as an alternative fuel has specific performance and emission

characteristics that need to be considered. While ethanol has a higher octane rating and
potential for reduced greenhouse gas emissions and air pollutant emissions compared to
gasoline and diesel, it also has challenges such as lower energy content, potential for poor cold-
start performance, and potential aldehyde emissions. Engine modifications, fuel blending, and
other technologies may be required to optimize the performance of ethanol as an alternative
fuel while minimizing emissions.
Performance and Emission Characteristics of Butanol

Butanol, also known as n-butanol or normal butanol, is a type of alcohol derivative that has
gained attention as a potential alternative fuel due to its favorable performance and emission
characteristics. Let's discuss in detail the performance and emission characteristics of butanol
as an alternative fuel.

Performance Characteristics of Butanol:

a. Energy Content: Butanol has a higher energy content compared to ethanol. It contains about
25% more energy per unit volume compared to ethanol, making it closer to the energy content
of gasoline and diesel. This means that butanol can potentially provide higher fuel efficiency
compared to ethanol, as less volume of butanol may be required to produce the same amount
of energy.

b. Combustion Characteristics: Butanol has combustion properties that are more similar to
gasoline compared to ethanol. It has a lower octane rating compared to ethanol, which can
result in slightly lower engine performance and fuel efficiency compared to ethanol. However,
butanol has a higher flash point and lower volatility compared to ethanol, which can lead to
better fuel atomization and vaporization, resulting in improved combustion stability and
reduced engine knocking.

c. Heat of Combustion: Butanol has a higher heat of combustion compared to ethanol, which
means that it produces more heat energy upon combustion. This can potentially result in higher
engine temperatures and thermal loads on engine components compared to ethanol. However,
proper engine calibration and cooling system design can mitigate this challenge.

d. Cold-start Performance: Butanol has better cold-start performance compared to ethanol. It

has a lower freezing point and higher vapor pressure, which makes it less prone to cold-start
issues, such as poor atomization and vaporization. This can result in improved fuel economy
and reduced emissions during cold starts.

Emission Characteristics of Butanol:

a. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Butanol is considered a renewable fuel as it can be produced
from biomass, such as agricultural residues, and other renewable feedstocks. When used as a
fuel, butanol has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuels, as
it is a low-carbon fuel and does not contain sulfur. However, similar to other biofuels, the
overall greenhouse gas emissions associated with butanol depend on the production pathway,
including feedstock sourcing, processing, and transportation.
b. Air Pollutant Emissions: Butanol combustion produces lower levels of harmful air
pollutants, such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM), compared to gasoline
and diesel. This can lead to improved air quality and reduced health impacts associated with
air pollution. However, similar to other alcohol fuels, butanol combustion can still produce
some emissions of other pollutants, such as unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide,
which may require proper engine calibration and exhaust aftertreatment systems for effective
emission control.
c. Volatility and Evaporative Emissions: Butanol has lower volatility compared to gasoline and
ethanol, which means that it has lower evaporative emissions. This can lead to reduced
emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which are precursors to air pollutants, such
as ozone and smog. This can contribute to improved air quality in areas where VOC emissions
are a concern.
In conclusion, butanol as an alternative fuel has favorable performance and emission
characteristics, with higher energy content, better cold-start performance, and lower
evaporative emissions compared to ethanol. However, it also has challenges such as lower
octane rating compared to ethanol and potential higher engine temperatures due to higher heat
of combustion. Proper engine calibration, cooling system design, and exhaust aftertreatment
systems may be required to optimize the performance of butanol as an alternative fuel while
minimizing emissions

Source:[57]
Source-[44]
Ethanol
Ethanol is a type of alcohol fuel that has some unique emission and performance characteristics
compared to traditional fossil fuels like gasoline and diesel.
In terms of emissions, ethanol has some advantages over fossil fuels. It produces lower
emissions of harmful pollutants like sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, and carbon monoxide.
It also produces lower greenhouse gas emissions, particularly when produced from renewable
sources like corn or sugarcane.
However, ethanol also has some disadvantages in terms of emissions. It produces higher
emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) compared to gasoline, which can contribute to air pollution
and have negative health impacts. Additionally, ethanol can increase emissions of volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) which can contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone, a
major component of smog.
When it comes to performance, ethanol has some advantages and disadvantages compared to
traditional fuels. Ethanol has a higher octane rating than gasoline, which means it can improve
engine performance and reduce engine knocking. It also has a higher heat of vaporization,
which can help cool the engine and prevent overheating.However, ethanol has lower energy
density than gasoline, which means it may produce less power per unit of fuel. Ethanol also
has some corrosive properties that can damage engine components over time, particularly in
higher concentrations.
Addition of ethanol to diesel fuel improved the brake thermal efficiency of the engine for all
three blends, with the B15 blend showing the highest improvement. However, the exhaust gas
temperature increased with the addition of ethanol. In terms of emissions, the B5 blend showed
the lowest CO and HC emissions, while the B15 blend showed the lowest NOx emissions.
Overall, the study suggests that using ethanol as an additive in diesel fuel can improve the
performance of diesel engines while reducing certain emissions, but further research is needed
to optimize the blend ratios and ensure that the emissions reductions are consistent across a
wide range of operating conditions.
Overall, while ethanol has some environmental and performance benefits compared to fossil
fuels, it is not without its drawbacks. Ongoing research is focused on developing more efficient
and clean-burning ethanol fuel technologies that can help reduce emissions and improve overall
performance.
Alcohol derivatives as alternative fuels have gained significant attention in recent years due to
their potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on fossil fuels. These
derivatives, which are derived from alcohol, offer several advantages as alternative fuels,
including their renewable nature, high-octane ratings, and low toxicity levels. In this review,
we will delve into the emission characteristics of alcohol derivatives as alternative fuels,
examining their potential to mitigate environmental impacts and improve air quality.

One of the primary reasons why alcohol derivatives are considered as alternative fuels is their
potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Unlike fossil fuels, which release carbon dioxide
(CO2) when combusted, alcohol derivatives emit lower levels of CO2 during combustion. For
example, ethanol (C2H5OH), a common alcohol derivative used as a fuel, has a significantly
lower carbon footprint compared to gasoline. When used as a fuel, ethanol emits about 25%
less CO2 compared to gasoline on a per-unit-energy basis. This reduction in CO2 emissions
can contribute to mitigating climate change and reducing the overall carbon footprint of the
transportation sector, which is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions.

Furthermore, alcohol derivatives as alternative fuels have the potential to reduce emissions of
other harmful pollutants, such as particulate matter (PM), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and sulfur
dioxide (SO2). PM is a type of air pollution that consists of tiny particles suspended in the air,
which can penetrate deep into the lungs and cause respiratory problems. Alcohol derivatives,
such as methanol (CH3OH) and ethanol, have lower PM emissions compared to fossil fuels,
which can help improve air quality and reduce the health risks associated with PM pollution.

NOx and SO2 are pollutants that contribute to air pollution and can cause respiratory and
cardiovascular health issues. Alcohol derivatives have the potential to reduce NOx and SO2
emissions compared to fossil fuels. For instance, ethanol and methanol have lower NOx
emissions compared to gasoline and diesel. This can help mitigate air pollution and reduce the
adverse health impacts associated with these pollutants.

Moreover, alcohol derivatives are considered as cleaner-burning fuels due to their lower
toxicity levels. Unlike fossil fuels, which contain harmful chemicals and pollutants, alcohol
derivatives are less toxic and pose fewer risks to human health and the environment. For
example, ethanol is biodegradable and has a lower toxicity level compared to gasoline and
diesel. This makes alcohol derivatives a more environmentally friendly option for fueling
transportation.

In addition to their emission characteristics, alcohol derivatives offer other advantages as

alternative fuels. They are renewable and can be produced from various feedstocks, such as
corn, sugarcane, cellulose, and even waste materials, making them a sustainable option for
reducing dependence on fossil fuels. They also have high-octane ratings, which can lead to
better engine performance and improved fuel efficiency. Alcohol derivatives can be used as a
blend with gasoline or diesel, or as standalone fuels in dedicated alcohol-fueled vehicles.
However, there are also some challenges associated with the use of alcohol derivatives as
alternative fuels. One of the main concerns is the potential for increased emissions of volatile
organic compounds (VOCs), such as formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and other aldehydes, which
are released during the combustion of alcohol derivatives. These VOCs can contribute to the
formation of ground-level ozone, a harmful air pollutant that can cause respiratory issues and
damage crops. Therefore, proper emission control technologies, such as catalytic converters,
may be required to mitigate VOC emissions from alcohol derivatives.
Another challenge is the energy-intensive production process of alcohol derivatives. Although
alcohol derivatives are renewable, the production process can require significant energy inputs,
including fertilizers, pesticides, and processing equipment. When they are manufactured,
transported, and used, alcohol derivatives like ethanol and methanol can contribute to the
emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants. Typically, fossil fuels are used in the
production of these derivatives, which may cause the release of greenhouse gases like carbon
dioxide. Moreover, the distribution and transportation of alcohol derivatives can potentially
increase emissions, especially when using diesel trucks or other large machinery for the
transportation.
Alcohol derivatives that are utilised as fuels, such the ethanol found in blended petrol, can emit
gases when burned. The air quality and public health may be negatively impacted by these
emissions, which may also include carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter.
It is important to keep in mind, though, that alcohol derivatives can also be made from
renewable resources, like biomass, which can lower the emissions linked to both their
manufacture and usage. Moreover, some alcohol derivatives, like methanol, can be utilised as
feedstocks to create other chemicals and materials, which can aid in lowering the emissions
linked to the manufacturing of these items.

Source http://dx.doi.org/10.4271/2013-01-1692
Overall, the emissions related to alcohol derivatives depend on a number of variables, including
the origin of the raw materials used to make them, the energy sources needed to make them
and transport them, and the final usage of the derivatives.
When compared to conventional fossil fuels, alcohol derivatives like ethanol and methanol
have lower energy densities, which means they might offer less energy per unit volume or
weight. As a result, engines that run on alcohol derivatives might need to burn more fuel to
perform at the same level as they would on conventional fuels.
However, petrol or diesel can be blended with alcohol derivatives to enhance performance and
cut emissions. Specifically, ethanol has been added to petrol as a fuel additive to raise its octane
rating, which can enhance engine performance and lessen engine knocking. Additionally,
methanol can be used as fuel, particularly in racing applications where its high octane rating
and cooling capabilities may benefit performance.
Additionally, alcohol derivatives don't burn like conventional fuels do, so to get the best
performance out of an engine, fuel injection systems may need to be tuned. For instance, to
produce the same amount of power as conventional fuels, alcohol derivatives need to be
injected into the engine with more fuel.
GRAPHS INDICATING EMISSIONS AND PERFORMANCE CHARACTERSTICS:

Influence of ethanol, methanol and butanol gasoline blended fuels on engine brake power.
Influence of ethanol, methanol and butanol gasoline blended fuels on brake specific fuel consumption.
Influence of ethanol, methanol and butanol gasoline blended fuels on CO emissions.
Influence of ethanol, methanol and butanol gasoline blended fuels on HC emissions.
Influence of ethanol, methanol and butanol gasoline blended fuels on NOx emissions.

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Comparison-of-VGG-16-inference-times-by-layer-of-
our-two-proposed-systems-and-two-other_fig6_330638173
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