Outdoor Cell Site Construction Best Practices &

Considerations

How do cell site construction practices relate to LTE?

LTE performance depends on having the right infrastructure in the right places. While many
LTE deployments involve adding technology to existing macro cell sites alongside 2G and 3G
infrastructure, there are still opportunities to construct entirely new sites in areas with growing
demand and population density.

HOW ARE CELL SITES BUILT?

Cell site construction involves a great number of partners and stages of development—even
more so for LTE deployments that have more exacting specifications. Once the site location has
been chosen, surveyed and secured, an operator must choose a service company to erect the
physical structure of the site.

Then the operator must identify vendors to supply the infrastructure that will power the LTE site.
This includes: cable connectivity, backhaul infrastructure, remote electrical tilt (RET)
articulators and other sector-shaping technology, antennas and other active components.

WHAT’S ON THE LINE WITH NEW CELL SITE CONSTRUCTION FOR LTE?

Construction is a complex process that involves many different priorities and players. There are
legal and zoning issues to consider; geographical and topographical factors; risk and liability
considerations; and, of course, the matter of providing LTE coverage where you need to have it.
FAST FACTS ABOUT OUTDOOR CELL SITE CONSTRUCTION

 A complex process involving several specialized partners

 LTE performance depends on specific methods of construction and deployment

 Service companies build the structure of the site

 Vendors provide infrastructure and active components

 Touches on multiple business considerations: legal, strategic, financial and others

With many opportunities to construct entirely new cell site areas, of course having the right
infrastructure in place is a key component for LTE performance, however there are also various
risk factors and considerations to consider first:

Tips On Selecting the Right Equipment for Cell Site Construction:

 As with any LTE deployment, a new site demands precise pairing of components.
Consider factory-tested, pre terminated coaxial and hybrid connectivity solutions to reduce
errors and deployment times.

 Maintain consistency by manufacturer for component types to ensure continuity and

quality across the installation of hybrid or coaxial cable.

 Passive intermodulation (PIM) is a constant threat to LTE performance. Always select

PIM-tested components for site deployments.

 Ensure that the people constructing your site are reputable, well insured and fully certified
in the kind of construction they will perform
Environmental Practices for Cell Site Construction:

 Survey the prospective cell site to ensure it is geographically and topographically

advantageous, and that all permits and consents can be obtained.

 Ensure that all components feature appropriate weatherproofing for their location and
specification. This includes cables, connectors and all outdoor tower-mounted
components.

 Proper electrical grounding is essential. A typical site should be grounded at the tower top
and base, and just outside the access point of the site’s outbuilding, shelter or cabinet.

Installation Practices to Consider When Constructing Cell Sites:

 Ensure the azimuth is accurate and that both mechanical and electrical tilt are set to match
the site’s plan.

 New tower-top solutions exist that are pre-assembled, configured and tested in a factory
before hoisting it as a single unit to the tower top, saving time and money.

 Observe the cable manufacturer’s bend radius specifications and use the manufacturer’s
hangers and supports to avoid damage during installation.

 Fiber-optic installations are a recent technology, requiring a new generation of highly-

trained specialists to handle.
A Guide to Antenna Selection and Deployment for
LTE

Why does selecting the right antenna matter so much in LTE?

In order to provide LTE-level capacity, antennas must support higher modulation schemes than
were required by 2G and 3G networks. Modulation compresses data, improving throughput but
increasing interference sensitivity. LTE also requires antennas with optimal RF containment to
prevent sector overlap, because it does not support soft handoffs.

HOW ARE LTE ANTENNAS DESIGNED TO IMPROVE

PERFORMANCE?
LTE antennas are built to provide precise sector-by-sector coverage with optimal signal-to-
interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR).

Their specifications include key characteristics such as:

 Horizontal and vertical beamwidths

 Pattern roll-off characteristics

 Upper side lobe suppression

 Front-to-back ratio

 Port-to-port isolation

 PIM performance
WHAT FACTORS SHOULD BE CONSIDERED WITH ANTENNA SELECTION?

There are several strategic considerations involved in your choice. Consider your current—and
future—spectrum plans, and ensure your choice supports them all. When considering an antenna
selection guide, look at the antenna’s support for migration to advanced technologies to ensure
you can scale capacity and coverage as needed. Understand the environment where the antenna
will be deployed, and, of course, choose a solution from an experienced, reliable supplier with a
solid track record and warranty protection.

FAST FACTS ABOUT ANTENNA SELECTION

 Enhanced sector power ratio and upper side lobe suppression increase LTE capacity.

 LTE requires clean sector handoffs.

 LTE antennas improve SINR through tighter radiation pattern controls and PIM
management.

 MIMO, RET and other technologies factor in as well.

ANTENNA SELECTION GUIDE: EQUIPMENT

 Choose remote electrical tilt (RET)-capable antennas to quickly optimize your network.

 Ensure that your chosen solution has undergone interoperability testing with your radio
platforms.

 During the planning phase, use network planning tools to ensure network KPIs are met in
your specific deployment scenario.

 Look for antenna solutions that support multiband capability, 2×4/4×4 MIMO and offer
sufficient ports to support local RF plumbing.
ANTENNA SELECTION GUIDE: ENVIRONMENTAL PRACTICES

 Towers should be analyzed for structural loading by a professional engineer prior to

antenna installation. To ensure structural integrity, use only manufacturer’s specified
antenna mounts, that are properly torqued.

 Observe radiation hazard warnings to ensure that personnel are not exposed to harmful
levels of RF exposure.

 When upgrading an existing deployment, remember that replaced antennas should be

disposed of in an environmentally responsible manner.

ANTENNA SELECTION GUIDE: INSTALLATION PRACTICES

 Follow vendor and network operator procedures for antenna commissioning, such as
system sweeps, PIM testing, RET configuration and RF connector torque levels.

 Ensure proper weatherproofing of antenna RF connections, preferably with a weather

proofing solution provided by the antenna manufacturer.

 Do not weatherproof RET connections, but apply silicone grease supplied with the RET
cables to the connector pins prior to connecting the cable.
The Microwave Backhaul Challenges Specific to
LTE Networks

Challenges with Microwave Backhaul in LTE Networks:

LTE networks exist to serve the skyrocketing demand for data. As a result, the backhaul needed
to move massive amounts of data requires a solution of greater capacity and performance than
for previous generations of mobile networks.

WHAT IS BACKHAUL?
Backhaul is the aggregation of a cell site’s traffic—voice and data, transmitting and receiving—
condensed into a single data stream connecting the cell site to the network’s backbone. The data-
intensive demands of LTE networks mean backhaul must support higher traffic capacities than
earlier networks.

Globally, the most common and cost-effective way to achieve this is using microwave radios to
provide the connectivity between sites.

WHAT MICROWAVE BACKHAUL CHALLENGES EXIST TO

EFFECTIVE BACKHAUL?
Microwave backhaul challenges can be experienced because microwave backhaul networks rely
on precise, line-of-sight connections between distant antenna dishes and misalignment due to
installation errors or structurally inadequate towers can greatly reduce link efficiency. In
addition, interference from poorly-planned adjacent networks can degrade link performance.

Fortunately, recent advances in microwave antenna design have given rise to cost-effective
antennas that are compliant to the ETSI Class 4 specification.
These antennas have greatly enhanced radiation pattern envelopes (RPEs) with lower side lobes,
allowing these antennas to support higher modulation schemes and, hence, increased data
throughput. The superior RPEs also give better immunity from interference, improved spectrum
reuse and, consequently, the ability to deploy far more links in a given area—critical for the high
cell density of an LTE network.

FAST FACTS ABOUT MICROWAVE BACKHAUL

 An aggregated, line-of-sight microwave signal connecting a cell site to the network’s

backbone via one or more links.

 ETSI Class 4-compliant antennas greatly improve backhaul performance and efficiency
over Class 3.

 Lower side lobes and better interference discrimination improve backhaul performance.

 Smaller backhaul antennas reduce tower weight, wind load and costs.

A GUIDE TO SELECTING EQUIPMENT TO AVOID MICROWAVE

BACKHAUL CHALLENGES

 Always choose quality and proper specification over price.

 While less-expensive antennas may save a little money up front, the purchase itself is a
small part of the total cost of ownership when operational expenses are considered.

 Compliant Class 4 antennas provide more link availability, more capacity, and more
efficient use of spectrum.

 Smaller antennas may be able to be deployed, reducing shipping and tower lease costs.

 Avoid third-party add-ons that have never been qualified with the antenna.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS WHEN DESIGNING A
MICROWAVE BACKHAUL PATH

 When designing a new microwave backhaul path, consider potential interference sources.
The planned link must not interfere with adjacent links or other operators in the area.

 Microwave links require line-of-sight clearance. There can be no obstructions between

transmitter and receiver, including the curvature of the Earth.

 Towers and mounting points must be capable of supporting the antenna without deflecting,
even under wind speeds approaching the survival rating of the antenna.

 Ensure that antennas are installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions and
that all hardware is correctly tighten.

MICROWAVE BACKHAUL CHALLENGES WITH INSTALLATION

PRACTICES:

 Rain, snow and other precipitation can degrade microwave links. Careful link design and
choice of suitable frequencies can mitigate the effects of bad weather.

 Weather also affects a microwave installation’s physical integrity. Accumulation of snow

or ice adds weight, which must be accounted for in the site’s design.

 Ensure your equipment is rated to withstand the maximum wind speed likely to be found
at the site location and installation height.

 Ensure that the tower has a good grounding system and all components are correctly
grounded.
How to Achieve a Small Cell Solution in LTE
Networks?

How do small cells fit into a LTE network?

Like sector splitting, small cell solutions allow operators to layer on new capacity without
physically building new macro infrastructure to meet growing demand. As a result, they
efficiently provide coverage to high concentrations of user traffic.

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SMALL CELLS?

Technically, anything less than a full macro cell site is considered a small cell solution, but this
includes a wide range of technologies built to address different degrees of capacity and coverage
area.

 Microcells operate similarly to macro cell sites. They are generally deployed indoors for
large concentrations of traffic.

 Pico cells supplement coverage for anywhere from 10 to 60, and sometimes up to 100
simultaneous users. They are often used indoors or where there is poor RF penetration.

 Femtocells operate much like Wi-Fi access points, and are commonly used in homes to
provide additional coverage.

FAST FACTS ABOUT SMALL CELLS

 Small, low-power radio access nodes covering discrete areas.

 Flexible, fast-to-deploy alternative to adding macro network architecture “Small cell”

encompasses multiple technologies.

 Small cell architecture is inherently more susceptible to cell overlap interference.

 LTE requires more precise cell design to limit overlap than older technologies do.
WHAT ARE THE CHALLENGES WITH SMALL CELLS?

Like all cellular systems, a small cell’s network performance is best when the users are close to
the radio, away from areas of overlap. LTE is particularly sensitive to this.

Providing adequate backhaul for small cell traffic is another key challenge. Because small cells
often operate in small, closed-off spaces near ground level, moving traffic to the core network is
much more complicated than with macro sites using microwave backhaul links.

HOW TO ACHIEVE A SMALL CELL SOLUTION – SELECT THE

RIGHT EQUIPMENT:

 Choose antennas with patterns that minimize sector overlap in the azimuth (horizontal)
plane.

 Ensure that antennas have electrical down tilt, allowing for fine-tuning coverage and a
sharp cell edge.

 Select antennas with maximum upper side lobe suppression available to avoid interference.

 Choose a combiner that covers both bands used by diplexers & splitters.

HOW TO ACHIEVE A SMALL CELL SOLUTION – ENVIRONMENTAL

PRACTICES:

 Choose a design that blends in with the surrounding area to improve chances of trouble-
free permitting.

 Attempt to utilize convection-cooled designs in order to minimize noise.

 Ensure that energy-efficient practices are followed throughout the deployment.

HOW TO ACHIEVE A SMALL CELL SOLUTION – INSTALLATION
APPLICATIONS:

 Perform a proper structural analysis (wind loading, terrain category, foundations, soil type
and so forth) prior to installation.

 Identify all sources of PIM and leverage antenna nulls to minimize or eliminate its effects.

 Ensure RF connectors are properly torqued and waterproofed to manufacturer

specifications.

 Ensure all equipment is bonded properly and equipped with surge suppression where
required.

 Secure and protect cabling to prevent strain, vibration or environmental damage.

RF Communications: Then and Now

RF systems, then and now:

Wireless RF communications systems have been in commercial use since the 1940s. Some of the
earliest implementations included community repeaters, paging systems, point-to-point links and
specialized mobile radio (trunked) systems.

More recent innovations and uses of the RF spectrum include cellular radio networks, which
originated in the 1980s and now drive the cell phone and mobile device industry. Even more
recent evolutions have given us familiar names like Wi-Fi and WiMAX, which let you connect
to a network anywhere in your house, or virtually anywhere you go.
RF COMMUNICATIONS: THE EARLY YEARS
While the full story of RF communications is far from complete, the capabilities of modern RF
technologies exceed the wildest dreams of the field’s earliest pioneers. While we are all familiar
with – and indeed, take for granted – living in a globally connected world, the early systems that
laid the foundation for our networked existence were much less powerful.

The first RF communications systems featured a base radio using an omnidirectional antenna to
communicate with one or more mobile users. Then, as now, the effective coverage radius of that
base radio was limited by certain characteristics, such as RF power, antenna height, and the
sensitivity of mobile receivers that were vulnerable to thermal noise and other interference
sources. These systems were also limited by the fact that certain frequencies could only be used
once in a particular geographical area.

Once a mobile user left that area, no communication was possible. The engineers of AT&T Bell
Laboratories envisioned a future that would require much higher RF capacities to service
thousands or millions of users at once. To deliver this future, they developed the cellular
concept: a wireless network that uses lower antenna heights and transmission power levels to
create limited-radius coverage areas that used and reused the same frequencies within its
coverage area. Voice and data calls could be seamlessly handed off to neighboring cells as the
user moved from one coverage area – or cell – to the next.

The close-proximity reuse of radio channels is the fundamental concept of cellular telephones,
and this is how today’s wireless networks carry enormous traffic loads in spite of limited
spectrum. The data riding these RF frequencies could be voice, data, or a combination of both;
by intelligently managing and reusing the limited available bandwidth, the amount of available
service increased by many orders of magnitude.
THE BUSINESS CASE FOR TECHNICAL EXPERTISE
Cell providers monitor key performance indicators within their territories to identify coverage
problems and assure customer satisfaction. These indicators include quality of service (QOS),
dropped calls, failed access attempts, and other criteria. Their engineers are on the front lines of
this battle for quality and constantly optimizing network performance as traffic grows.

There are sophisticated parameters and advanced settings that help the RF engineer optimize a
wireless network. However, successful wireless network optimization requires a solid foundation
of physical components across the RF path (figure 1.1).

(Figure 1.1)

The interconnection of technology, design and optimization

TUNING AND OPTIMIZATION OF PARAMETERS

The tuning and optimization of parameters can never be maximized without a high-performance
RF path implemented with top-quality RF components. Conversely, wireless systems with weak
RF paths perform poorly, resulting in expensive problems on both the operational and customer
service fronts.
Once a network is active, taking down a part of a cell network for maintenance is a costly and
disruptive interruption; and, in most cases, one that could have been prevented by a better
understanding of the site’s requirements and the component choices available.

If you’d like to understand all aspects of wireless communications and infrastructure see our
selection of popular wireless courses.

Cell Site Development and Construction

Cell Site Development and Construction:

Building a new cell site raises some of the same questions as building a new house, such as
deciding what materials to use, who to entrust with the construction, and how to get the best
results for your money.

Of course, these problems are magnified when applied to cell site development
and construction because there are so many different people, companies, municipalities and
regulatory agencies involved. It takes a lot of experience to plan for every obstacle. That’s why
we offer the following proven recommendations.

These general guidelines are the result of decades of successful, practical field work. While no
guide can cover every aspect of cell site development, we’ll cover the most commonly
experienced technical issues here.

You will work with several different companies and agencies in the process of developing your
new cell site. You must be able to count on their competence and expertise. For each stage of
development, you should become familiar with the challenges and requirements each partner will
face. Knowing these factors will help you judge how well your partners are doing their work –
and the impact those factors will have on your network when the project is done.
CELL SITE DEVELOPMENT – CHOOSING A SERVICE COMPANY
A service company will help you build the actual structure of your cell site. This includes the
tower, shelters, cabinets, and other physical infrastructure to support the site’s operation (figure
1). This can involve heavy, demanding construction work – and the precision required by
modern cell networks means a lot can go wrong at this stage.

[figure 1]

A services company building a cell site tower

KEY FACTS TO LEARN BEFORE SELECTING YOUR SERVICE

COMPANY
As with building any structure, it pays to research your construction company in advance.

Here are some of the key facts you should learn before selecting your services company:

 How long has the company been in business, and in the wireless field? This is one of
the first questions to ask. Experience matters as much as, if not more than, expertise.

 How many employees do they have?

 How many of them work in the field and how many in their home offices? Their
staffing levels can directly affect how they handle your project.

 How financially sound is the company? For legal and logistical reasons, it’s critical that
they don’t disappear in the middle of construction. Plus, they will need to maintain a
certain minimum cash flow and credit to procure materials.

 What are their expected payment terms? Some require payment within 30 days. Others
may allow as many as 90 days. Make sure their terms work with your cash flow, too.

 What is their recent bond history? For everyone’s protection, all craftsmen in the field
should be bonded. Looking at their bond history can give you a good picture of how well
they perform

 What kind of insurance do they carry? The company should offer to share their
certificates of insurance. It’s also smart to request a report on their recent claims history.

 How does their safety plan hold up? Unfortunately, some companies keep a generic plan
on file simply as a token compliance effort. Speaking with the company’s safety manager
will tell you if they really understand the written plan.

 What’s in their OSHA logs? The Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) monitors workplace safety; your potential services company should have a log of
recent incidents, claims and actions. As a minimum, the previous three years should be
reviewed for diligence and completeness.

 Are their field employees properly certified? All field employees should carry current
certifications for first aid, CPR, the OSHA 10-hour training course, Competent Climber
and Tower Rescue operations.

 Is their gear properly certified for safety? You should request copies of current
climbing gear inspection certificates.

 How is their workplace record-keeping? To see what you could expect for your project,
ask to see their job site analysis worksheets.

 What kind of vehicles will they be using? If they use vehicles regulated by the
Department of Transportation (DOT), request a copy of the DOT Carrier Safety
 Measurement System (CSMS) rating. Prior to 2011, this rating was called Safe Stat, and
some companies may still refer to it by that name.

In general, finding the answers to these questions is simply a matter of thorough due diligence.
With so many certifications and other qualifications in play, you can see how important it is to
know your services company partner as well as possible.

Secure the knowledge you’ll need to work in wireless today with our certified wireless training
courses.

Cell Site Development & Construction: Choosing

Choosing coaxial cable and connectors:

Efficient cell site operation relies on the precise pairing of components. Certain cable types are
designed to work with certain antennas, those cables must interface with their systems via
connectors built for certain frequencies and power levels (figure 1).

An out-of-specification component or an improper installation of the correct component can

cripple an entire system. For this reason, it’s wise to contract with skilled engineers for the
installation.
[figure 1]
Coaxial cable examples; different types are available for different applications

TIPS FOR HANDLING COAXIAL CABLE AND CONNECTORS

DURING INSTALLATION:
Handling the coaxial cable and connectors during these installations is a delicate business. In
general, observing these tips can help assure a trouble-free installation and dependable, long-
term operation:

 Use the right tool for the job. Using the appropriate cable prep tool – usually available
from the cable’s manufacturer – is the only way to cut and prep cable ends for use in
connections. Never use a saw; they leave metal filings behind, which cause poor electrical
performance and problems with passive intermodulation (PIM).

 Watch those tricky curves. Different cable types have different degrees of allowable
bend radii, or flexibility, so you must observe the manufacturer’s prescribed bend radius
for your particular cable. Bending too tightly can lead to poor electrical performance and
failure in the RF path.
 Keep your cables consistent. If at all possible, use RF jumper cables from the same
manufacturer to make those tight connections. Doing so provides consistent electrical
performance and guarantees PIM performance.

 Ensure proper cable support. Manufacturers publish specifications describing how to

support lengths of cable, both vertically and horizontally. Your specific guidelines will
depend on your cable’s construction, size and weight. If possible, use support clamps from
the same manufacturer to avoid damage to the cable and loss of performance. Using third-
party clamps may also invalidate your warranty.

 Lift smart. Getting cables up an antenna tower is difficult. Fortunately, using the correct
hoisting grip will let you put that cable where it needs to be without damaging it. Hoisting
grips come in several types and sizes, so make sure yours matches your cable’s
specifications.

 Go to ground. Grounding the cable is very important to prevent damage from lightning
strikes. Best practices dictate at least three grounding points: at the top of the tower, at the
bottom of the tower and just outside the entrance to the outbuilding, shelter or cabinet.

 Put on the pressure. Air dielectric cables use an air-filled gap to insulate the inner and
outer conductors of a coaxial cable. This gap must be pressurized, like a bicycle tire, for
the cable to hold its shape and prevent damage to the conductors inside. When installing
air dielectric cable, it must be pressurized immediately – leaving it overnight can lead to
moisture condensation in the cable, which will degrade performance and is almost
impossible to remove once introduced.

 Finish with the seal of approval. Connectors are particularly vulnerable to infiltration by
weather and moisture. As soon as the connections are made, you should weatherproof
them. Butyl tape is the preferred method, but in tight connection spaces, like those atop the
antenna tower, you can opt for heat-shrink tubing applied with a heat gun.

By following these coaxial cable and connectors recommendations, you can help ensure that
your cell site will operate at peak efficiency with minimal maintenance.
Why not explore our RF Wireless Infrastructure Fundamentals course – ideal for anyone
involved in wireless communications from those just starting out, those specifying and
designing, through to actual installation engineers.

Understand Passive Infrastructure That the most of the opportunity, training is the

Remote Electrical Tilt Antennas

Setting and troubleshooting remote electrical tilt antennas:

Of the many ways you can improve performance from a cell site’s antennas, a particularly
effective method is beam-tilt. It involves physically tilting the orientation of the antennas below
the horizon, placing its greatest gain – its operational power – where it’s needed most.

Efficiently changing the orientation of an antenna to realize this benefit is a matter of using
electrical tilting mechanisms, or actuators, which can be operated from a remote location.

These mechanisms are controlled by an Antenna Interface Standards Group (AISG) Remote
Electrical Tilt (RET) controller, which connects via AISG cables at the cell site for adjustment.

AVOID COMMON PITFALLS WITH ELECTRICAL TILT ANTENNA

SOFTWARE
As precision equipment, these tilting antennas can be a challenge to install and adjust properly.
Getting the best result is a matter of understanding the software just as much as the hardware, but
there are several ways to avoid common pitfalls:

 Install the software first. Before your crew goes to the cell site, install the manufacturer’s
software and become familiar with the controller’s operation. This early training will help
your team hit the ground running when they arrive.
 Check for program updates. Driver software for your electronic tilt actuator system is
constantly updated to work with an ever-growing number of different antennas. Make sure
your software is current by checking for updates on the manufacturer’s Web site.

 Understand the naming conventions. To prevent onsite confusion, use conventions for
the configuration of actuators that everyone will understand.

 Test before installing. For new installations, a little upfront effort can prevent big
headaches later. Test the actuators, cables and other components before installing them on
the tower. It’s much easier to address problems when the components, and you, are on the
ground.

 Match antennas and tilts. Not every antenna has the same tilt range, so be sure you select
the correct one from the database before adjusting it. Each antenna’s address is based on
its product serial number, so be sure to keep a written record. You should double-check
your tilts through tab reports generated by the controller.

 Keep a spare cable on hand. Bring a spare cable to the site in case you need to
troubleshoot a non-reporting actuator. It’s the fastest, surest way to tell if the problem is a
faulty actuator or just a bad cable.

 Check before tilting. Before making any new tilt adjustments, pre-scan the other antennas
to determine their tilt values.

 Double-check your work. After making the adjustment, you should perform a post-scan
to confirm the new settings have been correctly applied.

 Don’t weatherproof cables and connectors. Using electrical tape won’t keep moisture
out – in fact, it gives water a place to accumulate in the connector, where it can cause
shorts.

 Protect against lightning. Lightning protection units should be installed at the base of the
tower, or just before the cable enters the shelter or cabinet. Also, as stated above, it should
 be grounded in at least three locations: at the top of the tower, at the bottom of the tower,
and just before entering the shelter or cabinet.

 Don’t splice in a ground lead. Cutting into the jacket to attach a ground to the thin foil
tape inside will cause water migration, damaging the conductors below the foil.

 Go right to the source for cable. It’s considered good practice to purchase your cable
directly from the manufacturer rather than obtaining it from a third party. Each
manufacturer’s system requires specific electrical conductors, and using a mismatched
cable may lead to actuator failure, voiding your warranty.

 Make the right connections. The home run cable’s male connector – the end with the
pins – is the end that connects to the controller. Also, be careful not to cross-thread
actuator cables at the controller or on the actuator itself. They should be hand-tightened
only – never use a wrench.

 Cycle the actuators when you’re done. After addressing each actuator, cycle it fully to
confirm there are no hidden problems.

 Check for cable stress. All cables should be free of stress and secured in intervals of 18 to
24 inches. Thorough planning and clear procedures like these will ensure that your cell site
reaches and maintains its maximum potential while also allowing you to make the proper
adjustments as your network evolves.
BEST PRACTICES ALWAYS YIELD THE BEST RESULTS
Like building a house, there are countless ways for things to go wrong when building a cell site –
which makes it all the more important to work with a partner who has the expertise and
experience you need to do the job right.

Explore our SP6500 Wireless Fundamentals course for more information around antenna
theory and design.

The Quest for A Stronger Signal Strength with Base

Station Antennas

Getting the signal across:

Today, the quest for a stronger antenna signal strength – or for some, any signal strength at all –
has become a routine part of our daily lives. We’re always searching for a way to get more
“bars” on our cell phones or faster Wi-Fi connections on our computers.

Whether you’re at home, at work or on the go, you need good reception to communicate – and
good reception depends on antennas. The antenna is one of the most critical parts of both
transmitters and receivers, and often, it’s often of the most visible.

You can see big antennas mounted on tall towers, and small ones attached to Wi-Fi adapters or
cell phones. Antennas come in all shapes and sizes because each one is built for a specific
purpose. However, all antennas share a common link: they are the key to how well – and how far
– communications can be shared.
What is an antenna?

At its most basic level, an antenna is the portion of a radio system that can:

1. Take radio energy from a transmission line and radiate it into space in a predictable
pattern, and
2. Receive radio energy from open space and feed it back down the transmission line.

Antennas are surprisingly efficient in this line-to-space and space-to-line energy conversion
process. In fact, when properly configured with the right components, antennas can yield 80
percent efficiency or greater – a remarkably high figure in engineering terms.

By way of comparison, consider the common incandescent light bulb, which yields only 20%
efficiency – this means that, of the amount of energy put into a bulb as electricity, only 20% of
that energy is put out as light. An important consideration to maintain an antenna’s extraordinary
efficiency lies in the transmission cable that connects it to the transmitter.

MATCHING THE LINE

To get maximum efficiency from a radio transmission’s power, the antenna and cable must share
certain characteristics to avoid wasted energy. For example, if a radio system uses an industry
standard coaxial cable fixed at 50 ohms to connect the antenna and its transmitter, the antenna
itself must rate reasonably close to 50 ohms as well.

Testing this configuration is a simple task. We connect the coaxial cable to the transmitter and
place a 50-ohm “dummy load” on the other end to simulate an antenna.

Using a watt meter will reveal two important factors that measure the efficiency of the system:

1. The amount of power entering the cable from the transmitter, and
2. The amount of power reaching the dummy load.

The difference between these two measurements represents the power lost in the line itself. The
better matched the cable, the smaller the difference – and the more power reaches our simulated
antenna.
If we reduce the simulated antenna’s load from 50 ohms to just 25 ohms, 11 percent of the
energy sent through the coaxial cable would be uselessly returned to the transmitter.

That would yield very low efficiency – unless we were to replace the 50-ohm coaxial cable with
one rated at near 25 ohms, thereby restoring the balance. However, the 25-ohm cable would
move mismatch to the source end where it connects to the transmitter.

Like water pouring through a funnel, the amount of throughput is dictated by the tightest portion
of the route. In a radio system, the excess energy bounces between the transmitter and the
antenna, which must reject all power above its capacity. This endlessly reflected power creates a
measurable wave pattern in the cable, an effect called the Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
(VSWR).

VSWR is the measurement of how well-matched a transmission line is to its antenna. Expressed
as a ratio, a VSWR of 1.0:1 indicates a perfect match. Likewise, a VSWR of 1.5:1 indicates a 4%
power reflection, which is another way of describing 96% efficiency, where 96% of the power
output from the transmitter actually makes it to the antenna (table 1).

(table 1) Calculating VSWR, and some sample efficiencies

VELOCITY, FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH
Like all forms of radiation, including visible light, radio waves travel about 186,000 miles, or
nearly a billion feet, per second. Like other forms of radiation, radio waves oscillate, or flip back
and forth, between plus and minus at a predictable rate.

Each complete flip is called a cycle, and cycles are expressed in hertz (figure 2). Measuring how
many cycles, or hertz, a signal oscillates per second gives us its frequency – literally, how
“frequently” the signal oscillates in one second.

Knowing a signal’s speed and its frequency, we can divide the first by the second to determine
its wavelength – the distance the signal travels while completing one full cycle. Wavelengths are
usually measured in feet or inches, and are useful in understanding what it means to be “in
phase” or “out of phase,” which we’ll explore later in this chapter.

[figure 2]
Relationship of time, frequency, and wavelength

ANTENNAS ARE TWO-WAY STREETS

In theory, antennas transmit and receive in precisely the same way; the same processes occur
both ways – only the direction is reversed. In actual practice, however, a number of complicating
factors, particularly on the receiving end, can impact the efficiency with which the antenna
operates.
In our SP6500 Wireless Infrastructure Fundamentals Course we further discuss methods of
increasing antenna coverage to meet the ever increasing wireless demands.

The Concept of Cellular Base Station Antennas

Cellular antenna concepts:

Cellular antennas are a familiar feature in nearly every corner of the world. In many cases, these
are cellular networks that bring new connectivity where it had never before been possible – and
these connections depend on cellular base station antennas.

In cellular base stations, there are two basic antenna types currently in use (figure 1):

1. Omnidirectional antennas, which we defined in previous blogs as antennas that exhibit a

circular radiation pattern and operate in virtually all directions, and
2. Directional (or sector) antennas, which operate in a specific direction, most commonly
covering an arc of 120 degrees or less, depending on capacity requirements.

[Figure 1] shows older legacy sites using vertically polarized antennas. Rural sites typically used
90° horizontal beamwidth models, suburban sites used 65° models and urban sites used models
ranging from 33° to 65°.

In these cases, two Receive antennas were required per sector to support Receiver diversity. For
modern sites, a single Dual-pol (±45° polarization) model with the appropriate horizontal
beamwidth supports Receiver diversity.
[figure 1]
The two types of commonly-used cellular base station antennas

CELL REUSE

What makes cellular networks different from other types of communications is the principle of
cell reuse. Cell reuse is a way of increasing network capacity by “reusing,” or reassigning,
individual frequencies on the fly within a particular cell.

To see this process in action, consider the shape of cells and how they fit together. Typically,
cells are represented as interlocking hexagons, as seen below [figure 2]. Depending on the
density of the area served, these hexagons can be miles across or cover just a few hundred feet.

As a result of this incredible flexibility, channel sensitivity is limited by external interference

rather than noise issues, as older radio communications have traditionally been.

The specialized pattern shaping available with directional antennas, both in azimuth (horizontal
direction) and elevation (vertical space), allows incredibly precise coverage that doesn’t interfere
with neighboring cells.
[Figure 2]
Cell reuse in a sample map. The entire map can be covered with just 7 unique cells and still
provide adequate channel isolation between cells.

ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS
A cellular base station’s antenna is the most critical consideration in an efficient cellular
network, and it all depends on choosing the antenna with exactly the right physical
characteristics for a specific application.

These characteristics relate to radiation pattern, antenna gain, front-to-back ratio and a number of
other critical factors.

In the real world, defining, choosing and testing these characteristics requires a great deal of
technical expertise and mathematical skill, so for the purposes of this discussion, we will cover
the basics with a far more generalized approach than an engineer would use in an actual
evaluation.
CELLULAR ANTENNAS ON A PRACTICAL LEVEL
When we move beyond the drawing board of theoretical antenna design to the real world, we
soon discover that the laws of physics are not the only limiting factors affecting an actual
installation.

These issues include everything from tower weight and wind limits to local zoning board
approvals for antenna size, shape, height and appearance. In most installations, compromises are
necessary to satisfy all the competing interests.

Most cellular antennas are produced in a variety of physical sizes to offer the best performance
while conforming to other requirements. Chances are that you’ve seen cellular antennas mounted
in a number of ways, featuring diverse sizes and designs, such as the commonly used lengths of
4, 6 and 8 feet.

MATERIALS AND ENVIRONMENT

Cellular base station antennas are only as reliable as the materials that go into their construction,
and the construction of their arrays. When it comes to working with the physical limitations of an
antenna’s location, matching the right materials to the environment is a critical consideration.

Here are just a few examples:

IN THE ANTENNA ARRAY ITSELF:

 Aluminum alloys offer lightweight strength, but can be vulnerable to the elements.

 Pressure cast aluminum is well suited to bases, sockets, mounts and clamps, where its
hardness and resistance to corrosion are critical.

 In circumstances where weight is not a serious factor, copper and brass are used for their
easy plating and conductivity properties.
ANTENNA RADOMES:

 High-strength, low-RF loss materials such as fiberglass offer protection from the elements.

 Materials must offer UV protection to prevent deterioration due to sunlight exposure.

TOWER APPEARANCE:

 For purposes of appearance and zone compliance, non-metallic paint can be applied to the
entire structure.

 For better wear, smooth surfaces should be roughed prior to painting.

These are just a few of the more obvious physical considerations. Other matters in cable
selection, connector choice and termination options demand close attention as well.

MORE CAPACITY WITH FEWER ANTENNAS

As mentioned earlier, cellular antennas are directional, often covering 120 degrees, or one-third
of a complete circle. Mounted together on a triangular tower, three sets of these antennas can
cover all directions.

But in densely urban areas that require more capacity, narrower focus-antennas (called a six-
sector scheme) can handle additional traffic – along with the cost of adding more antennas.

Having so many antennas in a single location makes it more likely to run afoul of local zoning
codes.

FURTHER LEARNING:

For more information on different antenna options and antenna theory and design explore the key
topics covered in our SP6500 RF Wireless Infrastructure Fundamentals course.
An Overview of Co-Siting Solutions

Challenges with Co-Siting Solutions:

If you’ve ever tried to get more use out of the space in your home by combining a home office
with a guest bedroom, you may not have been entirely satisfied with the results?

Sure, you’ve saved space by making one room do the job of two, but you probably found that it
can’t do either job quite as well as a dedicated space would have allowed.

This trade-off of space for utility is also the guiding principle behind co-siting a cellular
installation. With space at a premium, there are real incentives to reducing your equipment
footprint – but every square foot saved places new constraints on the way that base station
operates.

Since every site has unique limitations, it can be a challenge to identify and implement the best
co-siting solutions.

DEALING WITH THE REALITIES

Just as it would be ideal to have an unlimited number of rooms in your home for every possible
purpose, it would be ideal for cellular base stations to be equipped with their own dedicated
antennas and feeders at every cell site [figure 1].
[figure 1]
Multiband sector with separate feeders

DEDICATED ANTENNAS AND FEEDERS AT EVERY CELL SITE

If such an arrangement were possible in every installation, the benefits could include:

 Individually optimized antenna pattern, azimuth direction and down tilt angle

 Minimal RF path loss and signal mismatch

 Reduced interference and intermodulation between systems

 The ability to perform maintenance on one system without impacting the others

Sadly, this arrangement isn’t a practical option for most real-world designs. When a cellular base
station makes the move from the drawing board to the tower installation, its design becomes
subject to an incredible number of variables and limiting factors.

Some of the more common limits are:

 Local zoning ordinances that restrict quantity, size and location of antennas
 The tower’s structural weight limits and wind load restrictions

 Budget constraints that limit both the initial and ongoing costs

 Scheduling demands that require accelerated service rollouts

MAKING THE MOST OF EVERY WATT

To address these limits and wring greater performance from every watt of power, co-siting
solutions can help different technologies operate on a single architecture.

Even networks operated by competing companies can realize mutual benefits by sharing site
equipment, much as competing airlines will honour each other’s tickets in the event of flight
cancellations. In fact, such sharing agreements are now the norm with consumers benefiting from
the providers’ reduced operational costs in the form of better transmission speeds and reduced
cell phone and data bills.

Co-siting solutions are usually based on specific equipment and configurations designed to
improve performance within a defined set of circumstances under a defined set of limitations.

See our SP6500 course for more learning around the fundamentals of RF communications.
Co-Siting Solutions: Multi-band and Same-band
Combining

What is Multi-Band Combining?

Multi-Band Combining is a method of frequency multiplexing. It takes advantage of the fact that
feeder cables are naturally well suited to being shared by multiple frequency bands.

In other words, multiple base station services can be funneled into a single feeder cable that runs
up the tower to the antennas. Those services can then be split away from that one cable directly
beneath the antennas.

To visualize this concept, think of how you bundle your home or office computer’s wires into a
single plastic cable wrap; at one end, the cables separate into various ports on the back of your
computer. On the other end, the cables separate into your keyboard, mouse, network and printer
connections.

To achieve the benefits of frequency multiplexing, the feeder cable must be equipped with the
correct combining devices. Two or more frequency bands can be combined using multi-band
combiners. Multi-band combiners are often added to a system as separate components, but they
can also be built directly into other components such as antennas.

Widely known as cross-band couplers, these combiners may be referred to as diplexers (two
frequencies), triplexers (three frequencies), and so forth according to the number of frequency
paths involved [figures 1 and 2].
[figure 1]
Shared feeders using diplex cross band couplers

[figure 2]
Shared feeders using triplex cross band couplers, with broadband antennas using diplex cross
band couplers

TYPES OF CO-SITING SOLUTIONS

The kind of cross-band couplers required in a particular application is largely determined by the
frequencies the system uses, and, more specifically, how far apart from each other those
frequencies are.

In systems with wide frequency separation–such as 700-1000MHz, 1700-2200MHz and 2400-

2700MHz–the needed cross band couplers are likely to be low-cost, compact devices that
introduce virtually no loss or mismatch.

However, when dealing with frequencies that are relatively close to one another – such as
700MHz and 850MHz–the appropriate cross band coupler grows more complex, bulky and
expensive.
On the antenna side of the connection, additional efficiencies can be gained among broadband
antennas that can accept more than one frequency through a single port. This allows it to operate
over a range of bands through one feeder cable.

Like the other circumstances involved in planning an efficient and compliant base station site,
antenna selection and the base stations’ assigned frequencies can play a large part in how a
particular co-siting solution comes together.

SAME-BAND COMBINING
In some instances, multiple services require the use of the same frequency band. When this
happens, regular cross band couplers – which are designed to suit specific frequency separation –
don’t provide the solution we need. Instead, we can use a variety of same-band combining (SBC)
options, which can allow different services to share the same space on the electromagnetic
spectrum.

In some applications, same-band combining is even used for single-service systems – not to
allow other services, but to increase the channels available to the one operating service. In all
cases, the idea is to combine transmit signals (TX) and divide receive signals (RX).

The best way to achieve this depends on the specifics of the application. Now let’s look at some
of the more commonly used techniques.

HYBRID COMBINING
Hybrid combiners offer a low-cost means of combining TX signals and dividing RX signals. but
this advantage comes at the cost of other operational restrictions inherent in its design.

The main disadvantage of this technique is the high rate of loss experienced in both directions.
This loss increases with the number of ports involved, so hybrid combiners are generally used
only in two-port applications.
Another consideration is the significant heat it generates, which must be dissipated – adding
costs and creating even more design limitations. These drawbacks limit the practicality of hybrid
combining to in-building coverage and similar uses. It is rarely used in cellular sites.

LOW LOSS COMBINER-MULTIPLEXER

The low loss combiner (LLC) offers a different way to combine base station transmitters.
Commonly employed for combining TX signals, integrating a duplexer allows for distribution of
RX signals as well.

Like cross band couplers discussed earlier, the LLC is a filter multiplexer. However, unlike a
cross band coupler that requires spaces between bands–you’ll recall that the bigger the spaces,
the better the coupler operates–the LLC handles frequencies inside the same bandwidth.

This is possible due to the addition of guard bands, which act as very small gaps within the band.
They create boundary spaces between the frequencies, allowing them to be distinguished from
one another. Including these tiny guard bands often requires those narrow frequencies to be left
unused, which adds up to slight bandwidth loss.

In LLC design, smaller guard bands incur greater cost, size and complexity, so an economical
alternative is to re-use the “lost” guard band space with a second feeder and antenna. LLC design
significantly reduces insertion loss over that of a hybrid combiner, but its reliance on filter
multiplexing places significant restrictions on its scalability.

As technology develops, networks require constant upgrading, adjusting and scaling – which
often means the adjustment or replacement of the LLC component. Recent developments in
remotely tuned LLC hardware have helped reduce this limitation, but it remains a significant
drawback for many applications.
FURTHER LEARNING RESOURCES:

If you have an interest in RF Wireless communication networks, specification, termination,

cabling, antennas and need to understand the principals, then why not explore our SP6500 RF
wireless communications course?

Amplification Methods for Co-Siting Solutions

Amplification:

Another technology that makes co-siting possible is amplification. There are several ways
amplification can be used in support of the co-siting devices, expanding their utility, power and
range.

SINGLE CARRIER POWER AMPLIFIER:

One of the hybrid combiner’s drawbacks is its high rate of insertion loss for both TX and RX
signals. One way to compensate for this is to add a single carrier power amplifier (SCPA).

The SCPA is highly efficient in regard to power consumption, but is only suited to certain
engineering standards, such as the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)
established by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI).

In the applications where the SCPA is appropriate, the SCPA offers a low-cost means of
improving hybrid combiner performance.

MULTI-CARRIER POWER AMPLIFIER:

Like the SCPA, the multi-carrier power amplifier (MCPA) is a high-power amplifier for carrier
signals. Unlike the SCPA, however, the MCPA can also combine multiple RF signals into a
single output.

Its input circuits can be expanded to accommodate from two to eight ports, and sometimes even
more.

The MCPA’s strong suit is boosting transmit power to increase the coverage or capacity of a
particular base station. It also offers complete frequency agility, allowing free use of all
frequencies within a license band.

This makes it a very easy system to interface to other technologies. Its design generally
incorporates one or more amplification “bricks” working in parallel to provide the necessary
power.

An MCPA’s demanding power consumption is its most notable drawback, which leads to
elevated implementation and operational costs.

RECEIVER MULTICOUPLER:

As its name implies, the receiver multicoupler (RXMC) distributes RX signals from shared
antennas to multiple receivers. By splitting the signal this way, a natural side effect is some loss
of power. To compensate, the RX input first crosses a low-noise amplifier (LNA) which
preserves signal strength, preceded by a preselector filter.

Inclusion of an LNA is recommended for most applications with more than two receivers.

As a rule, the RXMC distributes the full RX frequency band to all outputs with the same degree
of gain across the board. To individualize distributions, the RXMC may allocate specific signal
strength to each receiver by un-equally dividing the gain.

This is a useful option when dealing with different locations, or with a receiver that will further
divide its signal to other receivers down the line.
TOWER-MOUNTED AMPLIFIERS:

Working with the co-siting solutions, a tower-mounted amplifier (TMA) improves the base
station’s sensitivity the same way a hearing aid can improve diminished hearing. It works to
offset the losses experienced by RX signals as they travel to the receiver.

This improvement in signal clarity is seen in the carrier-to-noise ratio (C/N), measured in
decibels (dB). Adding a TMA to the RX circuit on a cellular base station can yield a
typical amplification improvement of 5-6dB.

TMAs are a key part of RF path technology. Properly implemented and configured, they
improve:

 Coverage. They boost the effective service radius of a cell base station while improving
signals in weak spots, such as indoors.

 Accessibility. They significantly reduce failed access attempts

 Retainability. They improve a site’s Retainability, or its ability to maintain connections

within and across cells for fewer dropped calls.

 Co-channel interference. They improve call capacity in spread spectrum systems.

 Data throughput. They enable higher order modulations for increased traffic capacity.

 Handset battery life. Because less power is required from the cell phone’s transmitter,
TMAs prevent unnecessary battery drain. With the right adjustments, TMAs offer all these
advantages that help operators enhance their network capacity and coverage.
TOWER-MOUNTED AMPLIFIERS ADVANTAGE
To gain the maximum advantage, it is important to boost the RX signal level before it becomes
degraded by feeder loss between the tower and the base station receiver. Therefore, the TMA
should be mounted at the tower top, as close to the RX antenna as possible.

An LNA may also be installed at the ground level and is then called a ground-mounted amplifier
(GMA). When it reaches the GMA, the RX signal will already be weaker and noisier than it
originally was at the antenna. Therefore, the sensitivity improvement a GMA can provide is
limited – it’s improving an already weakened signal.

On the other hand, its main advantage is that it is easier to install than a TMA, and does not
occupy precious tower space. Because it doesn’t introduce the size and weight concerns of a
tower-mounted TMA, the GMA design can focus on performance.

Super conductors and cryogenic cooling can be used to maximize performance and partially
offset the disadvantage of its ground-level location.

Many factors contribute to feeder loss. Smaller cable diameter, longer feeder runs, and higher
operating frequency all influence performance, and the TMA offers a single method of offsetting
all these factors with one remedial measure.

FURTHER WIRELESS LEARNING

Learn at your own pace with our online SP6500 Wireless Infrastructure Fundamentals course –
made up of a number of webcast lessons and online multiple choice assessments with immediate
feedback provided.
Remote Radio Head (RRH) & Their Advantage
A new kind of remote control:

In the innovation game, improvements often come in small steps. But, every now and then, a
quantum leap takes place, changing our ideas of what’s possible.

In the case of cellular base station technology, an innovative and increasingly popular approach
to its basic architecture means more performance for fewer watts. This innovation is the remote
radio head, or RRH.

Traditional design of cellular installations – antenna towers and their adjacent base stations –
places the transmitting and receiving components in climate-controlled cabinets or shelters,
connected to the antenna arrays via coaxial cable (figure 1).

(Figure 1) Typical cell site architecture, no RRH (left) and Typical cell site application, no RRH
(right).
In these configurations, equipment for multiple sectors of antenna coverage share space in the
site equipment racks, performing all the functions required to operate a multiple-service, multi-
sector cell site, such as:

 Line interfacing

 Backhaul connectivity

 Baseband signal processing

 Power amplification

 Frequency filtering

As cellular technology has grown more sophisticated in the ways voice and data are managed
across the network, the overall power requirements for base stations have inched steadily
downward.

At the same time, advancements in amplifier technology have moved power efficiency for these
stations upward, resulting in fewer power stages required in a given base station. And, of course,
network providers and service operators have always sought less expensive ways to deliver
quality connectivity to their customers.

The new thinking in base station design, embodied in the remote radio head, reflects the
emerging realities that drive all of these trends, improving efficiency and reducing operational
costs. The difference is in the “distributed base station” concept, which separates the baseband
signal processing unit, or BBU, from the RF front-end equipment, collectively called the remote
radio head.
REMOTE RADIO HEAD FUNCTIONALITY
The RRH contains all RF functionality, such as the transmit and receive functions, filtering, and
amplification in a single weatherized outdoor module (figures 2).

(Figure 2) Typical RRH cell site architecture (left) and Typical RRH cell site application (right).

As a bonus, an Remote Radio Head systems can also provide advanced monitoring and control
features that allow operators to optimize performance from a remote, centralized location.

It allows the operator to monitor and control the remote electrical tilt (RET) of antennas and
other functions outlined by the Antenna Interface Standards Group (AISG). An RRH can also
remove the need for tower-mounted amplifiers (TMAs) if it is installed at the top of an antenna
tower.
Because they are passively cooled, RRHs don’t require fans and blowers that can fail over time.
And since they are connected to their corresponding BBUs via fiber-optic interfaces, distance
between the two units is not a practical concern.

This flexibility means the RRH solution offers several mounting alternatives, including:

 Top of the antenna tower

 Bottom of the antenna tower

 Rooftop mounting

 Wall and post mounting

With the option of locating the RRH near the antenna, transmission line losses can be reduced.
Plus, this degree of mounting flexibility makes it easier to implement, and offers more ways to
remain compliant with local zoning ordinances – major advantages for this kind of deployment
or upgrade.

In order to promote standardization and interoperability, major RRH manufacturers have jointly
created a common protocol for communication between the BBU and RRH. This protocol is
known as the Common Public Radio Interface, or CPRI. This standard governs the BBU-to-RRH
optical interface in RRH applications.

Further standardization is achieved through the Open Base Station Architecture Initiative, or
OBSAI. The OBSAI was originated in 2002 by Hyundai, Nokia, Samsung, and ZTE with the
objective of creating an open market for standardized base station functional blocks.

The standard defines four primary base station functions and designates them as Reference
Points RP1, RP2, RP3, and RP4 as follows:

 RP1: Communication and control

 RP2: Transport to baseband interface

 RP3: Baseband to RF interface (baseband to RRH for RRH applications)

 RP4: Power interfaces

The reference point RP3 governs RRH interfaces and serves to promote open standards and
competition in the RRH market.

PUTTING THE POWER WHERE IT’S NEEDED

In our competitive cellular marketplace, every dollar and every watt count. And, as always,
necessity has proven to be the mother of invention – or at least innovation.

The remote radio head architecture represents a new way of thinking about how power is used at
thousands of cell sites across the world. It’s an exciting step forward for CommScope and
everyone who takes a deep interest in making the networks of today and tomorrow work even
better.

REMOTE RADIO HEADS

Remote radio heads are a key topic in our SP6500 online training course – understand the basics
of RF wireless systems and their associated infrastructure.

How to Overcome Interference Challenges in

Duplex Communications?

How isolation helps overcome challenges in duplex communications?

In duplex RF systems, transmitting and receiving frequencies are close to each other. In addition,
the antennas will also be physically close, or even share a single antenna. This results in two
main sources of interference – receiver desensitization and transmitter noise. How can we
overcome these interfering influences and assure reliable operation of our paired transmitters and
receivers?

The answer, as you may have guessed, is proper isolation.

HOW TO OVERCOME INTERFERENCE INFLUENCES?
In a previous blog post we explored how a duplex RF system required isolation between
transmitter and receiver using the example of a call on a mobile device. But when applying that
theory to practical application, adding isolation to the system requires some planning and a bit of
math.

Remember that we have not one but two sources of interference to overcome – receiver
desensitization and transmitter noise – and each requires its own solution.

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER:
It boils down to two simple questions:

 How much isolation is required to prevent receiver desensitization from the transmitter’s
carrier?

 And; how much isolation is required to reduce transmitter noise to a lower, even negligible
level?

While these are simple questions, each one has many more questions built into it, such as, but not
limited to:

 How close together are the transmitter and receiver frequencies?

 What frequency band are we using?

 What is the transmitter’s power output?

 What are the unique product specifications for the particular transmitter and receiver we’re
using?

While each application will have very different answers for these and other considerations, you
can usually find the answers in the equipment manufacturer’s data.

Determining the amount of required isolation is a matter of examining both sources of

interference and identifying the optimal isolation level. As shown below (figure 1), we see the
effect of frequency on both interfering influences, receiver desensitization (dotted line) and
transmitter noise (solid line).

(Figure 1) The effect of frequency separation on receiver desensitization and transmitter noise

FREQUENCIES AND ISOLATION

In short, the closer the frequencies are to one another, the greater the need for isolation. For
instance, the chart shows that reducing the frequency separation from 5 MHz to 1 MHz requires
double the isolation to assure that the receiver will not be sensitized and that transmitter noise
will be reduced to negligible levels.

Interference Isolation Techniques for Transmitters

and Receivers in Antenna Systems

Achieving sufficient isolation

The correct degree of isolation between transmitters and receivers can be implemented by one of
two methods:

1) Use two antennas, physically separated by a given distance, or;

2) Use the appropriate duplexer with a single-antenna system.

Let’s examine the first option of two physically separated antennas. Within this option, there are
two ways of achieving the desired result: horizontal and vertical separation.

Method 1: Two antennas – horizontal separation

If you’ve ever driven cross-country with the car radio on and heard a favorite song fade to static
in mid-chorus, you’ve experienced an effect called propagation loss.

Propagation loss describes the way an RF signal loses intensity and weakens (or attenuates) as it
travels across distance. This effect means that placing the two antennas apart – creating
horizontal separation – yields a certain amount of isolation, simply by virtue of signal attenuation
in the space between them (see figure 1).

With enough distance, we can achieve virtually perfect isolation and total protection from both
receiver desensitization and transmitter noise. However, even the most isolated RF system is
vulnerable to interference from outside sources located nearby.

(Figure 1) Horizontal antenna spacing and isolation

Method 1 alternative: Two antennas – vertical separation

Alternately, one may achieve the same isolating effect by separating the transmitter and receiver
vertically, a practice called vertical separation.
In real-world applications, this option is more convenient and efficient as it allows
both transmitter and receiver to be mounted on a single tower, one above the other, separated by
the requisite distance to achieve sufficient isolation.

A secondary benefit of vertical separation is that this arrangement takes advantage of what is
known as the “cone of silence” that exists between vertically stacked antennas (figures 2).

The cone of silence is a dead zone (technically known as a null or lack of gain) that extends
above and below communications antennas, allowing each to operate in the other’s shadow, so to
speak.

(Figure 2) Vertical antenna separation and isolation (left) and The “cone of silence” isolates
antennas directly above and below each other (right).

Method 2: One antenna with a duplexer

The other method of achieving the required isolation between transmitter and receiver is the use
of a duplexer in a single-antenna system. A duplexer replaces one of the two antennas and two
lengths of coaxial cable by allowing both transmitter and receiver to operate at the same time, on
the same antenna (figure 3).
The cost benefits from this option can be significant, as a duplexer cuts the needed infrastructure
in half. But the cost benefits are secondary to the other advantages, including:

 Isolation. A duplexer reliably isolates transmitter and receiver, regardless of external

circumstances or terrain.

 Antenna pattern. Without a duplexer, two separated antennas are required. Whether
arranged in a horizontally or vertically separated configuration, they cannot occupy the
same space. This separation means that the coverage area of either the transmitter or
receiver may be larger or smaller than the other, a variable that a duplexer eliminates.

 Tower space. Leasing tower space is expensive and space on the tower is at a premium.
By building or leasing only one tower instead of two, operators can realize lower total cost
of ownership.

Isolating the best solution

Modern two-way communications networks must contend with the interfering effects of both
receiver desensitization and transmitter noise. While a two-antenna solution is one way to
address these factors, most practical applications must contend with space, cost and antenna
availability limits.

In most cases, a band pass duplexer provides the requisite isolation between transmitter and
receiver, even when operating on the same antenna.

With the isolating properties afforded by a band pass duplexer, both transmitter and receiver can
operate efficiently while reducing transmitter noise and receiver desensitization. The result is a
compact, efficient and reliable communications network that easily accommodates two-way
communication of voice and data.

Behind every simple call or text on millions of mobile devices at any given moment is a world of
complex science and technology at work – and now you have a better understanding of the
important role that transmission and receiving isolation systems play in RF communications.
Maximizing Capacity with Microwave Backhaul

Network capacity and managing demand

Simply put, capacity is a network’s ability to handle transmission traffic. In the case of cell
communications, this traffic means voice and data – often, a great deal of data.

As capacity demands continue to rise with the spread of long-term evolution (LTE) and 4G
mobile devices, smart planning becomes even more important to assure headroom for
tomorrow’s data-hungry applications.

 Modulation. One way to boost capacity along a microwave link is called modulation. By
employing different modulation schemes, more traffic can be squeezed into the limited
bandwidth available when needed. The trade off is that higher modulation schemes require
higher signal-to-noise performance to maintain the integrity of the data, boosting operating
costs. Plus, any disruptive effects like those described above create bigger problems than
they do for un-modulated traffic.

 Adaptive modulation. Recently, adaptive modulation has become a universally adopted

technique to help operators balance traffic and reliability needs. Adaptive modulation
scales the amount of signal modulation employed as a function of the link’s condition – so,
if rain or other factors are present, modulation is dialed down to maintain error-free, if
somewhat slower, traffic rates. When the link condition improves, modulation is
automatically increased to take advantage of prevailing conditions.

 Co-channel dual-polar operation. Another capacity-boosting technique leverages the

polarization characteristics of microwaves themselves, which allow two streams of traffic
to travel the same bandwidth at the same time – one vertically, one horizontally. This
technique is called co-channel dual-polar (CCDP) operation. CCDP is often used in short-
haul antenna systems where an integrated dual-polarized antenna is created using an
Ortho-mode transducer (OMT) to attach two ODU radios to a single antenna. This
 arrangement maintains a high level of isolation between the two signals for maximum
clarity.

MICROWAVE CAPACITY
With all these capacity-boosting tools at our disposal, modern microwave backhaul data rates
typically range between 32 and 155 Mbps (megabits of data per second).

However, as technology and techniques continue to improve, much higher data rates are
becoming possible and economical. In the near term, 1 Gbps (gigabits of data per second) single-
channel systems are coming online now.

THE FUTURE OF MICROWAVE BACKHAUL

Explosive demand for mobile communications drives the need for cost-effective microwave
backhaul, which, in turn drives new innovations. Old technologies are replaced by new, more
efficient ways of moving data faster, more reliably and at less cost.

Microwaves form the backbone of these new technologies. For instance, legacy networks built
on circuit-based transmission protocols maintain their connection regardless of how much, if
any, traffic is actually being transmitted at any given time.

This was once necessary to carry voice communications, but the world has moved on and this
technology isn’t efficient in our on-demand data world. Packet-based microwave radios encode
traffic from multiple sources and routes it through IP over Ethernet, so it only utilizes bandwidth
as it’s needed, reducing wasted energy and capacity.

CAPACITY AND COVERAGE

Improved network coverage is another critical requirement for emerging mobile technologies,
such as long-term evolution (LTE) and 4G mobile networks.

Customer-level access is required in all regions if high-speed connectivity is to be available as a

constant resource, and the ongoing rollout of base stations (known as macro-cells) offers more
and more coverage to broad geographical areas.
At the same time, the capacity available from these macro-cells diminishes with distance from
the base stations, requiring the addition of smaller coverage micro-cells to sustain capacity. Pico-
cells represent a further layer of coverage for built-up urban areas. Both micro- and pico-cells
require backhaul connectivity, and that means microwave links.

Microwave backhaul makes modern communications possible

The ever-increasing complexity of modern communications networks demands more efficient

and innovative ways of managing backhaul. In our wireless age, microwave backhaul moves the
information that moves the world forward.

Though an efficient and cost-effective means of moving data through central processing,
microwaves face challenges and limitations from weather, topography and interference from
other nearby links.

Smart planning and the right equipment can overcome these obstacles, allowing microwaves to
connect us to one another – wherever we may be. As children, we first experienced the idea of
backhaul as a length of string between two soup cans or the scratchy sound of a walkie-talkie.

As adults, backhaul has become a key part of daily life as we depend on our cell phones,
computers and other devices to connect with friends, family, colleagues and the world at large.
From strings to radio waves to microwaves, backhaul is the technology that keeps us all
connected.
Glossary of RF Path Terms
We’ve put together a blog post compiling a RF path glossary with a list of terms that are
commonly used in radio frequency applications.

ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)

An electrical current that changes polarity (i.e., direction) 50 to 60 times per second. It offers
significant efficiencies when transmitted across power lines, making it the standard current for
household use. See also: Direct Current.

ANTENNA

The element of an RF system that radiates radio energy into space and collects it from space.

ANTENNA INTERFACE STANDARDS GROUP (AISG)

An industry group comprised of more than 40 top manufacturers and service providers from all
over the world. AISG was founded in 2001 and publishes universally accepted industry protocols
for communications between base stations and tower-based equipment, such as antennas and
tower-mounted amplifiers.

ATTENUATION

Measured in decibels (dB), attenuation is the loss of power experienced by an RF signal as it

moves from one point to another. Transmission line attenuation is expressed in either decibels
per 100 feet (dB/100 feet) or decibels per 100 meters (dB/100m) of cable length.

AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION POWER CONTROL (ATPC)

A system that dynamically raises transmission power to overcome the effects of interference.

BACKHAUL

The process of connecting two ends of a transmission through a central routing point.
BANDPASS CAVITY

A “frequency filter” that limits the channels that pass through the filter to a radio receiver’s
select set of frequencies. Other frequencies are prevented from passing. Most devices have multi-
stage band pass cavities that filter out different frequencies at each stage.

BANDPASS DUPLEXER

A duplexer that uses multiple band pass cavities to separate transmitter and receiver signals,
allowing for simultaneous two-way communications. See also: Duplexer, Duplex
Communications,

CO-CHANNEL DUAL-POLAR (CCDP) OPERATION

Using both horizontal and vertical polarity of a single frequency to double available bandwidth.

CO-SITING SOLUTIONS

The technology and techniques that allow cellular base stations and air interfaces to share
architecture and operate within limiting factors of their locations.

COAXIAL CABLE

A transmission line built to prevent interference while carrying multiple signals. Coaxial cable
consists of an inner core conductor and an outer sleeve conductor, separated by a nonconductive
dielectric layer. Coaxial cable is often used to connect antennas to base stations.

DIRECT CURRENT (DC)

An electrical current that runs continuously in a single direction, making it well suited for use in
motors and electronic components such as semiconductors. Batteries also produce DC current.
See also: Alternating Current.
DISTRIBUTED ANTENNA SYSTEM (DAS)

A network of nodes serving a specific place, area or building. They connect through a central
base station for backhaul out to the public network.

DUPLEX COMMUNICATIONS

A transmitter and receiver that work at the same time on the same RF device, allowing two-way
communications.

DUPLEXER

A device situated between a duplexed antenna and its associated transmitter and receiver that
provides isolation between the two signals.

ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL

The difference in electrical charge between two points in space, measured in volts. The greater
the difference, the higher the potential – and therefore, the greater the voltage. See also: Volt.

ELECTRICAL TILT ANTENNA

An antenna fitted with actuators that can adjust its tilt relative to the ground. These adjustments
affect gain, or performance, of the antenna within defined geographical areas.

FLAT FADING

Total signal loss caused by atmospheric refraction. It is the result of a signal being bent
completely out of its LOS connection with its receiver.

FREQUENCY MULTIPLEXING

A configuration that connects multiple base station services that operate in separate bands to
multiple antennas via a single feeder cable and its associated couplers.
GROUNDING

Measures taken to control and facilitate the path of an electrical discharge from its source to the
ground, avoiding potential damage to sensitive equipment along the way. Grounding is a key
element in protecting an installation from damage by lightning strike or other hazards.

GUARD BANDS

Narrow gaps inserted into the bandwidths managed by the low loss combiner (LLC) to
distinguish between different signals riding on the same bands.

HORIZONTAL SEPARATION

The practice of placing a transmitter’s antenna a certain distance from the same device’s
receiving antenna to achieve the necessary isolation.

IN PHASE

A state of operation referring to multiple antennas radiating together at precisely the same time
and rate.

ISOLATION

The amount of separation achieved between the transmitter and receiver in a duplex
communication system. In general, more isolation translates to less interference between the two
functions, and correspondingly clearer communications.

LINE OF SIGHT (LOS)

The unobstructed space between transmitter and receiver. Longer hops must even account for the
curve of the Earth as an obstruction.
LOW LOSS COMBINER (LLC)

A device in the RF path that permits the simultaneous operation of multiple transmitters on a
single antenna. It applies guard bands and band pass cavities to provide the necessary isolation
between signals.

NONLINEARITY

A location within an electrical circuit where voltage does not remain consistently proportional to
power, generally caused by imperfect connections between components and cables or damage to
a cable’s structure.

OHM

The unit of measurement of a material’s electrical resistance. When applied to discussions of RF

transmission lines, ohms refer to the inherent, or characteristic, loss of strength a signal
encounters as it passes along a length of cable.

PASSIVE INTERMODULATION (PIM)

A potential side effect of having more than one high-powered signal operating on a passive
device such as a cable or antenna. PIM occurs at non-linear points in a system such as junctions,
connections or interfaces between dissimilar metal conductors, creating interfering frequencies
that can decrease efficiency. The higher the signal amplitude, or power, the greater the effect.

RADIATION PATTERN

The three-dimensional shape of an antenna’s strongest signal transmission.

RADOME

A wind- and water-proofed fabric or plastic cover that protects an antenna from the elements.

RECEIVER DESENSITIZATION

Interference caused by unwanted frequencies entering a receiver’s upper stage passbands. These
errant signals create electrical variances that impede the receiver’s operation.
RELIABILITY

The probability of a device working correctly over a defined length of time, operating under
specified conditions.

REMOTE RADIO HEAD (RRH)

A recent advance in base station architecture that separates a cell site base station’s RF and
baseband functions for improved efficiency. RRH advantages include no active cooling
requirement, lower overall power loss, less weight on the tower and compact size.

RESONANT FREQUENCY

The natural tendency of a system to oscillate with larger amplitude at particular frequencies. At
these frequencies, even small periodic driving forces can produce large amplitude oscillations.

SAME-BAND COMBINING (SBC)

A base station configuration that allows multiple services to share the same bands.

SHANNON’S LAW

Created by Claude Shannon and Ralph Hartley, this law establishes a theoretical limit to how
much data can be reliably pushed through a given amount of bandwidth.

SIGNAL POLARIZATION

The orientation of a signal’s electric field relative to the ground. It may be horizontal or vertical.

SPLIT-MOUNT RADIO SYSTEM

A two-stage connection that let’s microwave radios located in an Indoor Unit (IDU) receive and
transmit through an antenna fitted with an Outdoor Unit (ODU).

TRANSMISSION LINES

In RF applications, the physical medium that conducts RF power from one point to another,
usually between a base station and an antenna.
TRANSMITTER NOISE

Interference experienced by a receiver as a result of transmission power “leaking” into other

nearby frequencies.

VERTICAL SEPARATION

The practice of placing a transmitter and receiver in separate locations on a single antenna,
allowing the height difference to achieve the necessary isolation.

VOLT

A measurement of electric potential difference between two points in a path. Voltage is

sometimes referred to as “pressure,” because it shares many characteristics with pressure in a
water pipe.

VOLTAGE POLARITY (+ AND –)

The positive (+) and negative (–) designations of voltage refer to which polarity of a circuit is
measured; in terms of actual power produced, the distinction is meaningless.

VOLTAGE STANDING WAVE RATIO (VSWR)

A key measurement of cable performance and signal quality. It quantifies the amount of signal
reflected backward along a cable to its source. Theoretically, perfect operation yields a VSWR
value of 1.0, or “unity,” meaning zero reflections.
The Qualities of a Successful Service Provider
Network

The Qualities of a Good Service Provider Infrastructure

Lower operations costs, greater reliability and flexibility in service offerings, quicker
deployment of new and upgraded services—these are the characteristics of a successful service
provider in a competitive global market. Service providers continue to build out high-bandwidth
networks around the world.

These networks use a great deal of fiber—the medium that meets both their bandwidth and cost
requirements. But just deploying the fiber is not enough; a successful fiber network also requires
a well built infrastructure based on a strong fiber cable management system.

Management of the fiber cables has a direct impact on network reliability, performance, and cost.
It also affects network maintenance and operations, as well as the ability to reconfigure and
expand the network, restore service, and implement new services quickly.

A strong fiber cable management system provides bend radius protection, cable routing paths,
cable accessibility and physical protection of the fiber network. If these concepts are executed
correctly, the network can deliver its full competitive advantages.

WHY DEPLOY FIBER?

Facing ever-increasing competition, service providers deploy fiber because of its high bandwidth
and its ability to deliver new revenue-generating services profitably.

A look at the numbers clearly tells the bandwidth story

While twisted pair copper cable is limited in its bandwidth capacity to around 6Mbps, and
coaxial cable is limited to an STM-1 level of 155Mbps, single mode fibers are commonly used at
STM-1 (155Mbps), STM-4 (622Mbps), STM-16 (2.5Gbps), and even higher levels around the
world (see Table 1).

[Table 1]

The use of fiber translates into more revenue for providers, especially from business customers
who demand high-bandwidth networks delivering voice, video and data at increased speed,
assured service levels and guaranteed security.

Potential revenue varies by country, system usage, fiber allocation and other factors, but the
bottom line is clear: a single fiber cable can carry a larger amount of revenue-producing traffic
than a single twisted pair or coaxial cable can.

TIME TO REALISE FIBER’S ENORMOUS ADVANTAGE

Service providers are pushing fiber closer and closer to the end user, whether that is fiber to the
home or to the desk. An increasing amount of an operator’s revenue flows through the fiber.

To realize fiber’s enormous advantage in revenue-producing bandwidth, fiber cables must be

properly managed. Proper management affects how quickly new services can be turned up and
how easily the network can be reconfigured.
In fact, fiber cable management, the manner in which the fiber cables are connected, terminated,
routed, spliced, stored and handled, has a direct and substantial impact on the networks’
performance and profitability.

FIND OUT MORE

For further information on fiber infrastructure why not consider our SP4420 Fiber Optic
Infrastructure Specialist training course.

Fiber Optic Bend Radius Protection: A Critical

Element of Fiber Cable Management

There are four critical elements of fiber cable management: bend radius protection; cable
routing paths; cable access; physical protection. All four aspects directly affect the network’s
reliability, functionality, and operational cost.

This blog post is going to talk about the importance of bend radius protection.

Fiber Optic Bend Radius Protection

There are two basic types of bends in fiber—micro bends and macro bends.

As the names indicate, micro bends are very small bends or deformities in the fiber, while macro
bends are larger bends (see Figure 1).
[Figure 1]

The fiber’s radius around bends impacts the fiber network’s long-term reliability and
performance. Simply put, fibers bent beyond the specified minimum bend diameters can break,
causing service failures and increasing network operations costs. Cable manufacturers, Internet
and telecommunications service providers, and others specify a minimum bend radius for fibers
and fiber cables.

The minimum bend radius will vary depending on the specific fiber cable. However, in general,
the minimum bend radius should not be less than ten times the outer diameter (OD) of the fiber
cable. Thus a 3 mm cable should not have any bends less than 30mm in radius.

Telcordia recommends a minimum 38 mm bend radius for 3 mm patch cords.

This radius is for a fiber cable that is not under any load or tension. If a tensile load is applied to
the cable, as in the weight of a cable in a long vertical run or a cable that is pulled tightly
between two points, the minimum bend radius is increased, due to the added stress.

MAINTAINING MINIMUM BEND RADIUS PROTECTION

There are two reasons for maintaining minimum bend radius protection: enhancing the fiber’s
long-term reliability; and reducing signal attenuation. Bends with less than the specified
minimum radius will exhibit a higher probability of long-term failure as the amount of stress put
on the fiber grows.
As the bend radius becomes even smaller, the stress and probability of failure increase. The other
effect of minimum bend radius violations is more immediate; the amount of attenuation through
a bend in a fiber increases as the radius of the bend decreases. The attenuation due to bending is
greater at 1550 nm than it is at 1310 nm—and even greater at 1625 nm.

An attenuation level of up to 0.5 dB can be seen in a bend with a radius of 16 mm. Both fiber
breakage and added attenuation have dramatic effects on long-term network reliability, network
operations costs, and the ability to maintain and grow a customer base.

BEND-RADIUS PROBLEMS
In general, bend radius problems will not be seen during the initial installation of a fiber
distribution system (FDS), where an outside plant fiber cable meets the cable that runs inside a
central office or headend. During initial installation, the number of fibers routed to the optical
distribution frame (ODF) is usually small.

The small number of fibers, combined with their natural stiffness, ensures that the bend radius is
larger than the minimum. If a tensile load is applied to the fiber, the possibility of a bend radius
violation increases.

The problems grow when more fibers are added to the system. As fibers are added on top of
installed fibers, macro bends can be induced on the installed fibers if they are routed over an
unprotected bend. A fiber that had been working fine for years can suddenly have an increased
level of attenuation, as well as a potentially shorter service life.

The fiber used for analog video CATV systems presents a special case. Here, receiver power
level is critical to cost-effective operation and service quality, and bend radius violations can
have different but equally dramatic effects.

Bend radius protection in the #FiberNetwork helps ensure long-term reliability

Analogue CATV systems are generally designed to optimize transmitter output power. Due to
carrier-to-noise-ratio (CNR) requirements, the receiver signal power level is controlled, normally
to within a 2dB range. The goal is for the signal to have enough attenuation through the fiber
network, including cable lengths, connectors, splices and splitters, so that no attenuators are
needed at the receiver.

Having to attenuate the signal a large amount at the receiver means that the power is not being
efficiently distributed to the nodes, and possibly more transmitters are being used than are
necessary.

Since the power level at the receiver is more critical, any additional attenuation caused by
bending effects can be detrimental to picture quality, potentially causing customers to be
dissatisfied and switch to other vendors.

Since any unprotected bends are a potential point of failure, the fiber cable management system
should provide bend radius protection at all points where a fiber cable makes a bend.

Having proper bend radius protection throughout the fiber network helps ensure the network’s
long-term reliability, thus helping maintain and grow the customer base. Reduced network
downtime due to fiber failures also reduces the operating cost of the network.

Effective Integration of Reduced Bend Radius Fiber into the Network

Bending of single mode has everyone talking these days. The idea that you can bend a fiber
around a pencil without a dramatic increase in attenuation is a concept that has everyone
considering new fiber applications and design possibilities.

Today, industry standards for traditional single mode jumpers typically specify a minimum bend
radius of ten times the outside diameter of the jacketed cable or 1.5” (38 mm), whichever is
greater.

This breed of flexible single mode optical fiber has the potential to significantly reduce these
minimum bend radius requirements to values as low as 0.6” (15 mm), depending on the cable
configuration, without increasing attenuation. There are many names for optical fiber that can
endure a tighter bend radius— “bend insensitive,” “bend resistant” and “bend optimized” are
several that come to mind.

WHAT IS REDUCED BEND RADIUS OPTICAL FIBER?

As mentioned above, reduced bend radius fiber is able to withstand tighter bends within frames,
panels and pathways. In general, reduced bend radius optical fiber is designed to perform with
low loss across the spectrum of wavelengths, from 1285 nm to 1650 nm, using all the channels
available on those wavelengths to maximize bandwidth.

Current designs include low water peak or zero water peak so that high attenuation is avoided at
1383 nm. Many reduced bend radius optical fiber products meet ITU-T Recommendation G.657,
meaning they work well at 1550 nm for long distance and voice applications and at 1625 nm for
video applications.

DOES IT IMPROVE PERFORMANCE?

Despite the improved bend radius, the reality of this fiber is that bend radius protection is still a
concern—just not to the extent of regular fiber. There is still a mechanical limit on how tightly
an optical fiber can be routed before the structural integrity of the glass is violated.

The assumptions about improved performance are not accurate either, at least beyond the
exceptional bend radius performance. In reality, the performance of reduced bend radius optical
fiber—or any optical fiber—depends upon many factors, not just bend radius properties. By
itself, reduced bend radius optical fiber does not offer improvements in attenuation. True, it
bends more tightly without causing additional attenuation.

Yet laid out on a long, straight run next to a standard optical fiber, there is no difference in
performance that can be attributed to the cables’ construction. It is inaccurate to believe that
reduced bend radius optical fiber is the end-all solution when, in fact, there are many other
factors that determine optical fiber link performance, including durability, connector pull-off
resistance and connector performance.
BEND RADIUS PROTECTION – JUST ONE COMPONENT OF PROPER
CABLE MANAGEMENT
When it comes to an optical fiber network, success may be measured in one or many ways—
maximum system uptime, minimum operational and material costs, no lost revenue due to
outages. Achieving these goals requires a complete cable management system that includes cable
routing paths, cable and connector access, physical protection and, of course, bend radius
protection.

In recognition of the increasing importance of fiber optics, we offer a SP4420 fiber certified
training course.

Cable Management: Routing Paths, Access and

Physical Fiber Protection

This blog post is going to talk about these three critical elements of fiber cable
management; cable routing paths, cable access, physical protection. All aspects directly affect
the network’s reliability, functionality, and operational cost.

We explored the fourth critical element of fiber cable management; bend radius protection in our
previous blog post.

Cable Routing Paths

As we have already discussed the first element of bend radius protection in a previous blog, the
second aspect of fiber cable management is cable routing paths. This aspect is related to the first
as improper routing of fibers by technicians is one of the major causes of bend radius violations.

Routing paths should be clearly defined and easy to follow. In fact, these paths should be
designed so that the technician has no other option than to route the cables properly. Leaving
cable routing to the technician’s imagination leads to an inconsistently routed, difficult-to-
manage fiber network.

Improper cable routing also causes increased congestion in the termination panel and the
cableways, increasing the possibility of bend radius violations and long-term failure.

Well-defined routing paths, on the other hand, reduce the training time required for technicians
and increase the uniformity of the work done. The routing paths also ensure that bend radius
requirements are maintained at all points, improving network reliability.

Additionally, having defined routing paths makes accessing individual fibers easier, quicker and
safer, reducing the time required for reconfigurations. Uniform routing paths reduce the twisting
of fibers and make tracing a fiber for rerouting much easier.

Well-defined cable routing paths also greatly reduce the time required to route and reroute patch
cords. This has a direct effect on network operating costs and the time required to turn-up or
restore service.

Cable Access

The third element of fiber cable management is the accessibility of the installed fibers. Allowing
easy access to installed fibers is critical in maintaining proper bend radius protection.

This accessibility should ensure that any fiber can be installed or removed without inducing a
macro bend on an adjacent fiber. The accessibility of the fibers in the fiber cable management
system can mean the difference between a network reconfiguration time of 20 minutes per fiber
and one of over 90 minutes per fiber.

Accessibility is most critical during network reconfiguration operations and directly impacts
operation costs and network reliability.
Physical Fiber Protection

The fourth element of fiber cable management is the physical protection of the installed fibers.
All fibers should be protected throughout the network from accidental damage by technicians
and equipment.

Fibers routed between pieces of equipment without proper protection are susceptible to damage,
which can critically affect network reliability. The fiber cable management system should
therefore ensure that every fiber is protected from physical damage.

All four elements of fiber cable management come together in the fiber distribution system,
which provides an interface between outside plant (OSP) fiber cables and fiber optic terminal
(FOT) equipment.

A fiber distribution system handles four basic functions: termination, splicing, slack storage, and
housing of passive optical components.

LEARN MORE ABOUT FIBER

 For further learning around Fiber Optic Infrastructure see the [SP4420 Fiber Optic
Infrastructure Specialist] course.

Fiber Distribution Management System:

Terminations

‘Connection determined by quality’

Let’s return now to the four basic functional requirements of any fiber distribution management
system: terminations, splicing, slack storage, and housing of passive optical components.
In order for the signal to get from one fiber to another, the cores of the two fibers need to be
joined, and brought into near-perfect alignment.

The measurements that determine the quality of the junction are insertion loss and return loss.
Insertion loss (IL) is a measure of the power that is lost through the junction
(IL=-10log(Pout/Pin)), where P is power.

An insertion loss value of 0,3dB is equivalent to about 7-percent of the power being lost.

Return loss (RL) is a measure of how much power is reflected back to the source from the
junction (RL = 10log (Pin/Pback)).

A return loss value of 57dB is equivalent to 0,0002-percent of the light being reflected back.
There are two means of joining fibers in the industry today: connector terminations and splices.

CONNECTOR TERMINATIONS IN FIBER OPTICS

Connector termination in fiber optics refers to the physical joining, using a mechanical
connector, of two separate fibers, with the goal of having 100-percent signal transfer. Connector
terminations used for junctions are meant to be easily reconfigurable, to allow easy connection
and reconnection of fibers.

There are several fiber connectors available in the industry today; the most commonly used
single mode types are SC, FC and LC. Typical single mode ultra polish connectors (UPC) will
provide insertion loss values of <0,3dB and return loss values of >52dB, while single mode
angled polish connectors (APC) have insertion loss values of <0,2dB and return loss values of
>55dB.

Reliable operation of connectors depends on the proper geometry of the convex polished ferrule
end face. The following parameters are routinely checked by interferometric inspection: radius of
curvature, apex offset, fiber projection/undercut, polishing angle. A connector is installed onto
the end of each of the two fibers to be joined.
Single mode connectors are generally factory-installed, to meet requirements for optical
performance and long-term reliability. The junction is then made by mating the connectors to
each side of an adapter. The adapter holds the connectors in place and brings the fibers into
alignment (see Figure 1).

Figure 1

The adapters are housed within a termination panel, which provides a location to safely house the
adapter/connector terminations and allows easy access to installed connectors. Fiber termination
panels typically house from twelve to 144 terminations.

Termination panels should adapt easily to any standard style of connector/adapter. This allows
easy future growth and also provides more flexibility in evolving network design. Fiber cable
management within the termination panel is critical.

Requirements of a cable management system

Cable management within a termination panel must include proper bend radius protection
and physical routing paths. The fibers should have bend radius protection along the route from
the adapter port to the panel exit location.

The path the fiber follows in getting to the panel exit should also be very clear and well defined.
Most cable management problems in termination panels arise from improper routing of patch
cords. Improper fiber routing within the panels can make access to installed connectors very
difficult, and can cause service-affecting macro-bends on adjacent fibers. Connectors should also
be removable without the use of special tools, which can be costly and easily lost or left behind.

Proper fiber cable management in the termination panel improves network flexibility,
performance and reliability while reducing operations costs and system reconfiguration time.
When fiber is used in the local serving loop, such as in PON networks or fiber-fed digital loop
converters (DLCs), backup fibers run to the optical network unit (ONUs) or to the DLCs.

These fibers are provided in case a technician breaks the active fiber or damages the connector
during installation and maintenance. In the event of such an occurrence, the signal has to be
rerouted from the original active fiber to the backup fiber.

This rerouting is done at the OSP termination panel within the ODF. While the fiber appearances
on the termination panel are generally located either adjacent to each other or within a few
terminations of each other, this reconfiguration should not jeopardize the integrity of the other
installed circuits.

If installed fibers must be moved in order to access the target connector, then the probability of
inducing a bending loss in those adjacent fibers is increased. And that loss could be enough to
cause a temporary service outage.

These effects are especially pronounced in CATV systems, in which the system attenuation is
adjusted to an optimal power level at the receiver to provide the best picture quality. Enabling
easy access to individual terminations without disturbing other fibers is an important feature of a
termination panel.

CONNECTOR CLEANING
Reliable optical networks require clean connectors. Any time one connector is mated to another,
both connectors should be properly cleaned and inspected. Dirty connectors are the biggest cause
of increased back-reflection and insertion loss in connectors, including angled polish connectors.
A dirty ultra polish connector with a normal return loss of >55dB can easily have >45dB
reflectance if it is not cleaned properly. Similar comparisons can be made with angled polish
connectors. This can greatly affect system performance, especially in CATV applications where
carrier-to-noise ratios (CNR) are directly related to signal quality. In order to ensure that both
connectors are properly cleaned, the termination panel must allow them both to be easily
accessed.

This easy access has to be for both the patch cord connector and the equipment or OSP connector
on the back side of the termination panel. Accessing these connectors should not cause any
significant loss in adjacent fibers. A system that allows uncomplicated access to these connectors
has much lower operating costs and improved reliability. Without easy access to connectors,
technicians will take more time to perform their work, delaying implementation of new services
or redeployment of existing services.

Dirty connectors can also jeopardize the long-term reliability of the network, because dirt and
debris can be embedded into the end face of the connector, causing permanent, performance-
affecting damage.

FIND OUT MORE

For further information on fiber distribution and management methods, consider the SP4420
Fiber Optic Infrastructure Specialist course.
The Importance of a Slack Storage System for
Network Reliability

Overcoming Cable Management Problems with Storage:

Most ODF systems encounter cable management problems in the storage of excess fiber cable.

Since most single mode connectors today are factory-terminated to a patch cord of a
predetermined length, there is always some excess fiber remaining after the connections have
been made.

At some point during the life of the fiber network, it is likely that virtually every fiber circuit will
be reconfigured. For most circuits, the duration between reconfigurations will be long, perhaps
three to five years. During this time, these fibers need to be properly protected to ensure they are
not damaged during day-to-day network operations.

The Importance of a Slack Storage System

As the fiber’s physical length and its potential exposure to damage and bend radius violations is
greatest here, the slack storage system is perhaps the most critical element in terms of network
reliability and reconfigurability.

The slack storage system needs to provide flexible storage capacities, permanent bend radius
protection, and easy access to individual fibers.

Slack storage systems come in many styles and configurations. Many systems involve coiling or
wrapping fibers in open troughs or vertical cableways, which can increase the probability of
bend radius violations and can make fiber access more difficult and time-consuming.
ACCESSIBILITY
The accessibility and thus the amount of time required to reconfigure the network is optimal in a
system that maintains a continuous non-coiled or twisted routing of fibers. As single mode
connectors become more reliable and easier to install in the field, some of the need for slack
storage will disappear.

It is also true, however, that terminating the connectors in the field, while reducing the initial
ODF purchase price, will increase the installation cost and time.

In existing central offices, there will be a substantial base of installed fiber that will require
storage for life, unless it is all replaced, an unlikely event due to high costs.

The ODF system used should have an effective slack storage system that is easily incorporated
or can be omitted, depending on the current network requirements and configuration.

MANAGING INTRA-FACILITY (IFC) CABLES

When working with IFC cables, the following factors must be taken into consideration to ensure
the best possible performance and ease of maintenance:

 Bend Radius–For cables with load, it is necessary to maintain a bend radius that is 20
times the diameter of the cable jacketing. However, if no load is on the cable while tied
down, you are able to maintain a lower (10 times) bend radius.

 Strain Relief – Always use the recommended cable clamp as well as properly sized
grommet inserts.

 Lacing -CommScope recommends wax lacing, which makes it easier to manage tension
and reduces micro bends.

 Tie-Off–Installers should always use some type of insert for protection between lacings
and the cable jacketing.

 Segregating – Because of weight issues, CommScope also recommends separate racking

systems for fiber cables and copper cables.
LEARN MORE:
Interested to learn more about fiber storage systems and accessibility? Explore our Fiber Optic
Infrastructure Specialist Course.

Functional Requirements of a Fiber Distribution

System: Splicing

Splicing:

Splicing in fiber optics is the physical joining of two separate optical fibers with the goal of
having 100-percent signal transfer. Splicing connections are meant to be permanent, non-
reconfigurable connections.

There are two basic splicing methods in use today: mechanical and fusion (see Figure 1) below:

[FIGURE 1]

Mechanical Splicing

Mechanical splicing involves the use of an alignment fixture to bring and hold two fibers in
alignment. Mechanical splices typically give insertion loss values of <0.15dB with return loss
values of >35dB and involve the use of an index-matching gel.
FUSION SPLICING
Fusion splicing uses an electric arc to “weld” two fibers together. Fusion splices typically have
insertion loss values of <0.05dB and return loss values of >70dB.

Whichever splicing type is used, the ODF needs to provide a location to store and protect the
splices. The splicing function can be performed on the ODF (on-frame splicing) or in a location
near the place at which the OSP cables enter the building, such as the cable vault (off-frame
splicing).

Storage: Splice Tray

In either situation, the splice enclosure or panel provides a location to store all splices safely and
efficiently. The individual splices are housed within a splice tray, generally holding between 12
and 24 splices.

The splice trays in turn are housed within a panel that accommodates between 96 and 192
splices. Large splice enclosures can generally house up to 864 splices in a single unit. For splice
enclosures/panels, the most critical fiber cable management features are bend radius and physical
protection.

The fiber cable management within the splice enclosure/panel and the splice tray contributes to
the long-term reliability of the fiber network and determines the ability to reconfigure or rework
any splices. In routing fibers between the enclosure/panel entrance point and the splice tray,
enough slack should be provided and made easily accessible for the technicians to perform any
necessary re-splices.

ACCESS TO THE SPLICE TRAY

In accessing a splice tray, the technician should move as few installed fibers as possible. Moving
fibers routed to the splice trays will increase the time required for the splicing functions as well
as the probability of causing a failure within the system. Each splice tray needs a sufficient
amount of slack fiber stored around it to allow the tray to be easily moved between one and three
meters from the splice panel.
This ensures that the splice technician can do any work in a proper position and work
environment. If the splice technician has to struggle to gain access to the service loop for the
splices, the probability of the technician’s damaging another fiber is greatly increased, and the
probability of the technician properly performing the assigned duties is reduced. In the splice
trays, proper bend radius protection also needs to be observed.

Aside from the points mentioned previously regarding fiber breakage and attenuation, a sharp
bend within the splice tray near the splice will put added strain on the splice, increasing the
possibility of a failure in the splice.

Fusion splices have a higher probability of failing if added stress is put on the splice by a sharp
bend before the splice.

INCORPORATING OPTICAL COMPONENTS

As networks grow and technologies change, the ability to add optical splitters, wavelength
division multiplexers (WDMs), optical switches and other opto-mechanical products to the ODF
becomes more important.

These devices should be easily, safely and economically integrated into the ODF. One type of
passive optical component, the optical splitter, is used in networks for serving multiple nodes
from one transmitter. This equipment allows fewer transmitters to be used in the network, greatly
reducing system costs. Splitters are also used in local and long distance networks to allow non-
intrusive network monitoring.

This non-intrusive access allows an active signal to be monitored without interrupting or

rerouting service to spare facilities, greatly reducing the time required to perform testing
procedures and troubleshooting.
[FIGURE 2]

WDMs are being used to increase the bandwidth of installed OSP fiber. For example, a 16-
channel dense wavelength division multiplexer (DWDM) can increase a single fiber’s bandwidth
capacity 16-fold. WDMs can also be used in conjunction with optical time domain reflectometers
(OTDR) to perform out-of-band testing (testing on one wavelength, operation on another) on
active fibers.

The use of OTDRs for out-of-band testing allows for very fast and efficient troubleshooting of
fiber networks, as well as the ability to detect problems before they become service-affecting.

PROTECTION AS AN IMPORTANT CONSIDERATION

Whatever the optical components, or the means by which they are incorporated into the fiber

distribution system, they need to be properly protected. Bend radius protection and physical
protection are the most important considerations for these devices.

Following proper fiber cable management practices in incorporating these devices will reduce
the cost of network installation, and network reconfigurations, while improving network
reliability.

LEARN MORE
To learn more about fusion splicing and external plant termination into housings explore
our Fiber Optic Infrastructure Specialist Training Certification Course.
Optical Distribution System Architecture:
Interconnect

When configuring an Optical Distribution Frame (ODF), one of the first considerations is the
decision between interconnect and cross-connect architectures. As with the location of optical
components, this decision has large implications for the network’s future growth,
reconfigurability, cost and reliability.

Interconnect Systems Architectures

Interconnect involves the OSP cable being spliced to a pre-connectorized pigtail, which in turn is
terminated to the back of a termination panel. The front of the panel allows access to the OSP
fiber via a patch cord that is routed to the ODF directly from the optical equipment (see Figure
1).

(Figure 1)

In interconnect, the optical equipment fiber patch cord does not have a dedicated port location.
When the distance between the ODF and the equipment rack is great, more than five meters,
reconfiguring the network can be difficult.

If the patch cord routed from the equipment and the ODF is too short to reach the far end of the
lineup, another patch cord may have to be run between the ODF and the equipment.
In large central office applications, this can take between 20 minutes and two weeks, depending
on the layout of the office, the state of the cable raceway system, and the availability of a long
enough patch cord (see Figure 2).

Also, any time a patch cord and corresponding fiber are moved, damage can occur. And if the
patch cord is damaged during the rerouting, a new patch cord will have to be installed. These
situations increase the time required to turn up new services or to reconfigure or restore existing
services. This also increases network operating costs and can adversely affect customer service.

(Figure 2)

In interconnect systems, the slack storage system is generally not thoroughly considered,
exposing large numbers of fibers to potential macro-bending problems. Bend radius violations
are common, and individual fiber access can be difficult.

The introduction of field-terminated connectors could eliminate any storage issues, but it would
also mean that any network reconfiguration would require a new patch cord to be run between
the ODF and the equipment. This would increase the congestion in the cable raceway between
the frames, since the existing fibers would more than likely be left in place. The time required to
reconfigure the network would also increase.
If no network reconfiguration is anticipated, an interconnect architecture can work; however,
as network requirements change, the ability to reconfigure the network effectively and
efficiently becomes more important.

The fact that the equipment patch cords don’t have a dedicated termination location makes patch
cord labeling and record keeping both more difficult and more critical. Interconnect generally
works best in low fiber count (less than 144 fibers) systems in which the distance between the
ODF and the equipment is short.

CONCLUSION
Interconnect can be more cost- efficient in initial installation, requiring a minimum amount of
equipment and floor space. But the more a network changes, the more desirable a cross-connect
architecture becomes.

To learn more about connectors and to understand the requirements for intra- and inter- linking
buildings with fiber explore our Fiber Optic Infrastructure Specialist Training Certification
Course.

Optical Distribution System Architecture: Cross-

Connect

When configuring an optical distribution frame (ODF), one of the first considerations is the
decision between interconnect and cross-connect systems. As with the location of optical
components, this decision has large implications for the network’s future growth,
reconfigurability, cost, and reliability.
Cross-Connect Systems Architecture

A cross-connect ODF architecture provides a dedicated termination point for both the OSP
fibers and the equipment fibers. The OSP and equipment fibers are connected via a cross-
connect patch cord routed between the two ports on the front of the ODF.

This makes accessing the network elements much easier and more cost-efficient and improves
the long-term reliability of the installed fiber network (see Figure 1).

(Figure 1) Optical Distribution Frame

CROSS-CONNECT CONFIGURATION

A cross-connect configuration provides the greatest flexibility when it comes to future

network reconfigurations. If reconfiguration is required, all the work is done from the front of the
frame with a patch cord that is generally less than ten meters in length.

If by chance this cross-connect patch cord is damaged during handling, another patch cord can be
easily used to replace it. This is not the case within an interconnect network, where the patch
cord being rerouted is connected to the equipment that may be on the other side of the central
office.

Additionally, having proper slack storage for the cross-connect patch cord will ensure that the
network can be quickly reconfigured without inducing attenuation on adjacent fibers.

An ODF system with a strong, flexible slack storage system will require only a few standard-
length patch cords for use in cross-connect routings. Having fewer standard lengths of short
patch cords required means that keeping such an emergency supply of cross-connect patch cords
on hand is much easier and cheaper than keeping many different lengths in store.

CROSS-CONNECT AND MULTI-FIBER CABLES

Using a cross-connect architecture also allows multi-fiber cables to be routed between the
equipment and ODF. Using multi-fiber cable assemblies can reduce the total amount of time
required to install the fiber network. They also provide additional protection to the fibers being
routed.

At the same time, there are operational and economic disadvantages to using multi-fiber cables,
in both interconnect and cross-connect applications.

For example, a rack of FO equipment may handle equipment using a certain number of fibers in
a multi-fiber bundle. If in four years, that equipment is obsolete and replaced with equipment
that has fewer terminations in the same frame, the excess fibers will be very difficult to redeploy.

The key factor when considering cross-connect and interconnect architectures is the future
reconfiguration capability of the method chosen.

NETWORK GROWTH AND EVOLUTION

As the network grows and evolves, new and different technologies will be incorporated into the
FO equipment frames, and the existing equipment will become obsolete or will be redeployed
one or more times until the oldest equipment is discarded or all fibers are used.

This network reconfiguration could involve moving large amounts of electronics and many long
patch cords, or reconfiguring short patch cords on the front of the frame. The ease with which
equipment is integrated into the network, and its potential effects on the installed network, will
depend on the fiber cable management system.

CROSS-CONNECT SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

A cross-connect system with proper cable management features will allow the equipment within
the fiber network to be redistributed simply by rerouting patch cords on the front of the ODF.
Additionally, with cross-connect, both the OSP and equipment terminations have dedicated
permanent locations on the ODF. This means that even if the record keeping for a cross-connect
patch cord reconfiguration is not properly done, the technicians will always know where the
equipment terminations and the OSP terminations are.

This greatly reduces the time required to turn-up or restore services. It is true that in initial
installation a cross-connect system is about 40-percent more costly than a comparable
interconnect system because more equipment is needed.

A cross-connect system will also require more floor space, from 30- to 100-percent more,
depending on the configuration, since there are more terminations required in the ODF
network (see Figure 2).

In most OSP fiber networks, 50-percent of the fibers are spare or backup fibers (2:1 OSP: FOT
ratio). These fibers are routed in the same sheath as the active fiber but are used if the connector
or the fiber at the far end is damaged. Reconfiguring the network to use the spare fibers is done
at the ODF termination panel.

Using cross-connect in this type of configuration will result in roughly a 35-percent increase in
equipment costs, but will greatly improve network flexibility and the ability to reconfigure the
network, while increasing network reliability.
(Figure 2) Cross Connect System

FLEXIBILITY OF THE ODF SYSTEM

The ODF system should be able to accept either interconnect or cross-connect, and allow both
architectures within the same system.

This flexibility allows a network that starts out using interconnect to migrate to cross-connect
when and if it is needed, without having to replace existing equipment. The ease with which the
equipment can be redeployed and installed into the network depends largely on the ODF.

In a full cross-connect ODF, in which the equipment has a dedicated location in a termination
panel, the existing equipment can be easily redeployed to a different OSP fiber via the cross-
connect patch cord.

The accessibility of this patch cord directly affects the cost of this network reconfiguration. The
ODF should allow the entire cross-connect patch cord, including excess stored slack, to be easily
removed for rerouting. Accessing this fiber should be done without causing additional
attenuation on any installed active fiber.

LEARN MORE

To learn more about fiber, explore our Fiber Optic Infrastructure Specialist Training
Certification Course.

Splicing Connectors: On-Frame and Off-Frame

Splicing Connectors

The splicing of outside plant (OSP) fibers to connectorized pigtails, to allow termination panel

access to the OSP fiber, can be done in two basic configurations: on-frame and off-frame.

ON-FRAME SPLICING
On-frame splicing (See figure 1) is performed within the confines of the optical distribution
frame (ODF), whereas off-frame splicing is done away from the ODF, generally in or near the
OSP cable vault. Original fiber networks incorporated on-frame splicing, since the fiber counts
were very small.

Even today, on-frame splicing can be a cost-effective solution for small and medium fiber count
(less than 432 fibers) networks where future growth is limited. There are some drawbacks to this
method, however.

For one thing, the number of terminations in a single rack is reduced by the presence of the
splice panels, so generally there are fewer than 432 terminations in a single frame. One other
drawback to on-frame splicing is the access to the ODF.
Different organizational groups are usually responsible for splicing functions and cable
installation. Having splicing on the fiber frame limits the functions that can be performed on the
fiber network at the same time.

For example, if the splicers are in the office splicing the OSP fibers to the pigtails, they will not
want the operations group working on the frame at the same time trying to route patch cords.

This conflict can result in delays in service turn-up as well as possible scheduling conflicts over
accessing the ODF, resulting in an increase in the installation costs and an increase in the
probability of failure in the network. When OSP fiber counts become larger and floor space is at
a premium, off-frame splicing can provide many advantages over on-frame splicing.

(Figure 1) On-Frame Splicing

OFF-FRAME SPLICING
Off-frame splicing (see Figure 2) involves splicing the OSP fibers to pigtails in a location
away from the ODF, such as the cable vault. The splicing is done in a large-capacity splice frame
or wall mount cabinet. Splice cabinets able to handle 864 splices are common. The link
between the splice closure and the ODF is made via an intra facility cable (IFC) that is
connectorized on one end.

The connectorized end is loaded into a termination panel. The loading of the connectorized IFC
into the termination panel can be done at the factory or in the field. However, experience has
shown that factory loading reduces the overall cost of installation (including training costs) and
the amount of time required for installation. Factory loading also increases network reliability.

Termination panels with IFC assemblies generally are generally configured in 72- or 96-fiber
counts. In large fiber count applications, with more than 432 incoming OSP fibers, splicing in a
remote location can increase the termination density with the ODF to the point of reducing the
number of racks required.

This allows the floor space within the office to be utilized more cost-efficiently and provides
room for future network growth. Off-frame splicing can also improve flexibility in handling
incoming OSP cables.

For example, a service provider may have only 48-fiber OSP cables being routed through the
network and may be using the most common rack mount splice panels, which come in multiples
of 48-splice capacity (up to 192 splices per panel). These panels work well if the incoming OSP
cables remain consistent in size through the life of the network.

However, problems can arise when a variety of fiber cable sizes are deployed, with a mix of 24-,
72-, 96- and 144-fiber cables entering an office. In order to match these cables to a 48-splice
capacity panel, the cable sub-units must be split between splice panels. The splitting of the sub-
units between panels requires additional protection to shield the sub-units from damage.
(Figure 2) Off-frame Splicing

A dedicated splice facility, such as a wall mount splice enclosure accommodating 864 splices
with any combination of OSP fiber counts, allows flexibility in the selection and routing of OSP
cables.

Another advantage of off-frame splicing is that routing OSP cables through an office can be
more difficult than routing IFC cables. OSP cables have a thicker, more rigid jacketing than IFC
cables. OSP cables may also have metallic strength members that require special grounding not
normally used on ODFs.

In any case, the OSP cable’s stiffness can make it very difficult to route through a central office
or headend. IFC cable’s jacketing, on the other hand, is more flexible, but still rugged enough to
be routed through an office without any additional protection.
There is a perception that off-frame splicing is more expensive than on-frame splicing, as it
requires additional costs for equipment and IFC cable. In actuality, when looking at a system
with more than 432 fibers in a cross-connect architecture, the price of a full ODF system with
off-frame splicing will be equal to or slightly less than that of a full system with on-frame
splicing.

There are two reasons for this cost difference: the elimination of the splice panels from the ODF;
and the reduction in the number of racks required. Reducing the number of racks increases the
amount of equipment that can be incorporated into the installation, increasing the overall
flexibility, and profitability, of the network. Whatever splicing system is chosen, the decision
needs to be based on long-term network requirements.

A network in which on-frame splicing works well initially may require off-frame splicing in the
future. The ODF system should have the flexibility to easily incorporate both on-frame and off-
frame splicing. The operational impact of using the wrong splicing system can include running
out of floor space, increasing network installation time and cost, and reducing long-term
reliability.

Learn more:

For more information around fusion splicing for fiber optics see our SP4420 Fiber Optic
Infrastructure Specialist Course.
Fiber Cable Management Best Practices
Exploring Fiber Cable Management Best Practices:
RACK SIZE AND REAR ACCESS
The decision between 19- or 23-inch racks, ETSI racks or cabinets, as well as between front and
rear Optical Distribution Frame (ODF) access or only front access, has implications for the
operation and reliability of the ODF system.

As a rule, the larger the rack and the greater the access, the better the cable management will be.
An ODF in a 19-inch enclosed cabinet with no rear access will have far less accessibility and
fiber cable management features than an ODF in a 23-inch open rack with front and rear access.

This limited access space and lack of cable management features will have a direct impact on the
flexibility and reconfigurability of the fiber network, as well as on the network’s long-term
reliability.

Even though floor space requirements and existing practices may indicate a particular type of
rack configuration, attention needs to be paid to the overall effect on fiber cable management.

DEDICATED CABLE RACEWAY SYSTEM

As fibers are routed from the ODF to the Fiber Optic equipment, they need to be protected. In
order to provide proper protection and ensure future growth and reconfiguration capabilities, all
fibers routed between the ODF and the equipment should be placed in a dedicated cable raceway
system.

This system is generally located at the lower level of the auxiliary framing/ ladder racking
structure. Locating the raceway system there makes access for installing and routing fibers
easier.

As the system is in an area of the central office in which technician activities are common, the
cable raceway system needs to be durable and robust enough to handle day-to-day activities.
For example, technicians installing copper or power cables on the ladder racking can come into
contact with the system.

If the system is not robust enough to withstand a technician accidentally putting his weight on it,
the integrity of all the fibers in the system is in jeopardy.

A durable, properly configured raceway system with suitable cable management, especially bend
radius protection, helps improve network reliability and makes network installation and
reconfiguration faster and more uniform.

CABLE RACEWAY CONGESTION

Cable congestion is just like traffic congestion. Put too many cars at one time onto a small road
and you have traffic problems. It becomes difficult to move from one point to another, and the
probability of an accident increases. The same basic rules apply to fiber congestion in an ODF’s
raceway system.

If too many fibers are routed into a single trough, accessing an individual fiber becomes very
difficult, and the probability of fiber damage increases. This can lead to decreased network
reliability and an increase in the time it takes to reconfigure the network.

Telcordia recommends that the fiber cable in any given horizontal raceway not exceed 50 mm in
depth. There are also formulas that can be used to calculate the maximum number of fibers that
can be safely installed in a given cable trough.

Following the rules ensures that the fiber cables are always accessible and helps maintain the
network’s long-term reliability.

Future Growth

The ODF system put into a central office should be capable of handling the future requirements
of the network. These requirements include the addition of more fibers as well as new products
such as splitters, WDMs, optical switches and the like.
The addition of any new panels, whether for splicing, termination, storage or other functions
should not cause any interference with or movement of the installed fibers. This ensures that
network reliability is maintained and also allows new services to be implemented quickly and
cost-effectively.

This ability to add equipment as needed allows the ODF to grow as the network requirements
grow, thus reducing the initial installation cost of the network while reducing the risk of network
failure.

EFFECT OF HIGH DENSITY

Manufacturers are developing high-density ODFs to accommodate higher and higher numbers of
terminations in a smaller and smaller area. While high termination density requires less floor
space, strong consideration needs to be given to the overall cost of such increased density.

A higher-density ODF does not necessarily correspond to a higher fiber count potential in the
office. The focus needs to be on having a system with strong cable management features that are
flexible enough to accommodate future growth while allowing for easy access to the installed
fiber network.

LEARN MORE:
For more information on best practices for fiber cable management explore our SP4420 Fiber
Optic Infrastructure Specialist Course.

The Network Operating Costs of Fiber Cable

Management Systems

Fiber Network Operating Costs:

As a means of keeping operational network costs down, service providers around the world are
increasingly turning to systems integrators to install their networks.
This practice allows the service provider’s technicians to focus on operations and maintenance,
rather than network installation. There is, however, an inherent risk in this practice.

As the purchasing decision for the fiber cable management system moves from the service
provider’s engineering group to the systems integration prime contractor, the cable management
features of the distribution system are generally not specified.

What can happen, then, is the equipment installed may lack key features and functionalities. In
light of the importance of proper cable management within the ODF, the service provider needs
to specify the basic requirements for the cable management system.

Industry specific standards:

There are several industry-standard specifications that can assist service providers in writing
specifications for their cable management systems.

Two of these specifications are:

 Telcordia Generic Requirements for Fiber Distribution Frames GR-449-CORE, Issue 2,

July 2003

 Network Equipment Building System (NEBS) Generic Equipment Requirements, TR-

NWT-000063

Relative Cost and True Value of Fiber Cable Management

In looking at the initial purchase cost of the typical fiber cable management system in
comparison to the overall cost of installing a complete network, one sees that the cable
management system accounts for a small percentage of the overall network cost.

In a synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) project involving SDH hardware, fiber cable
management equipment, OSP fiber cables and full installation and turn-up, the ODF equipment
may run only 1- to 2-percent of the overall network cost, depending on configuration and fiber
count.
When the fiber cable management system is viewed as part of the entire network, including the
copper and coax portions, the fiber management cost drops to less than 0.1-percent of the total
cost.

COST AND VALUE

While the fiber cable management cost is small in relation to the overall system cost, it is the one
area through which all the signals in the fiber network route, the one area in which the future
flexibility and usability of the fiber network can be most affected.

Yet even though the fiber cable management system’s quality is critical to network reliability
and network operations’ cost- effectiveness, the sole consideration in many purchases is the
price.

But initial cost is only one part of the total cost of ownership and doesn’t give a true indication of
the other factors that go into the real cost. A 15-percent difference in fiber cable management
system price will result in negligible savings in the overall network cost, but it could cost
hundreds of thousands in lost revenue and higher operating expense.

The focus of the purchasing decision for the cable management system should be on getting the
most cost-effective system that provides the best cable management, flexibility, and growth
capabilities, that helps ensure the long-term reliability of the fiber network while allowing easy
reconfigurations and keeping operating costs at a minimum.

Reaping The Full Benefits of Fiber

As competition intensifies in telecommunications markets, low cost, high bandwidth, flexibility

and reliability will be the hallmarks of successful service providers. Fiber is the obvious medium
for networks with these characteristics.

But providers will miss many of fiber’s benefits unless they get the cable management right.
Going with the cheapest approaches for fiber cable management can be “penny-wise and pound-
foolish.”
It can mean dramatically higher long-term costs and lower reliability. On the other hand, strong
fiber cable management systems with proper bend radius protection, well-defined cable routing
paths, easy fiber access and physical protection will enable providers to reap the full benefits of
fiber and operate a highly profitable network.

LEARN MORE:
For further learning around Fiber Optic Infrastructure explore our SP4420 Fiber Optic
Infrastructure Specialist course.

What Is Patch-by-Exception and Why Do We Need

It?

Patch-by-Exception

For engineers looking for an easy, inexpensive yet high performing cabling alternative, Patch-by-
Exception offers a solid solution. Helping to save time and money while improving performance,
manageability, security and aesthetics, we explore what Patch-by-Exception is, and the need
behind its use.

Why We Need Patch-by-Exception

The most common method of installing communications cabling systems throughout the world is
to utilize a standard RJ45 patch panel style solution.

While the RJ45 patch panel solution offers some advantages (for example patch-cord changes
can be made by most staff, without the requirement of a qualified technician), the RJ45 patch
panel solution also comes with certain disadvantages:

 There are either no records kept, or it’s very hard to keep records up to date.

 Unauthorized changes can be made without approval.

 Testing of outlets requires disconnection of the service.

 Patch cords required for every service.

 Poor management can lead to a patch cable nightmare.

 Takes up space in equipment racks.

 Changes can be made to network equipment within the equipment rack.

Patch cord mismanagement and an inability to test/monitor circuits create a costly operational
nightmare. The good news is that there is a better way, one that will not result in a tangled mess
of patch cords – Patch-by-Exception.

WHAT IS PATCH-BY-EXCEPTION (PBE)?

Patch-by-Exception technology offers a superior patching solution while avoiding many of these
issues associated with traditional RJ45 systems.

SO HOW CAN WE DEFINE PBE?

The following definitions come from satisfied users around the world:

 “PBE is the ability to create a completely interconnected communications management

system at the floor distributor without the entangled mess of patch cords or expensive
patch cord management systems.”

 “PBE is where hard wiring is used to connect circuits. This hard wiring can then be
overridden by a patch cord making patching the exception rather than the rule. “

 “PBE is a solution whereby you hard wire your network and make subsequent changes
utilizing patch cords. To go back to the original configuration, simply remove the patch
cords. “

PATCH-BY-EXCEPTION AND DISCONNECTION MODULES

IDC (Insulation Displacement Connection) termination modules with their unique Patch-by-
Exception design provide an easy and inexpensive cabling alternative. CommScope offers a
Patch-by-Exception solution for Category 6 and 6A applications.
These Category 6 and Category 6A modules all contain disconnection contacts. It’s this
distinctly unique feature that sets them above other IDC contact types. You can only achieve the
benefits of a Patch-by-Exception solution by utilizing disconnect modules.

A disconnection module has two contacts for each wire, an ‘in’ and an ‘out’. These two contacts
touch in the middle of the modules with a controlled amount of spring pressure.

The central spring contacts allow the single-wire circuit to be disconnected, hence the name
‘disconnection contact’, and provides the access for patch plugs, test plugs, monitoring plugs or
isolation plugs.

DESIGN OF DISCONNECTION MODULES

The design of disconnection modules provides a clean front panel. The insulation displacement
contacts for the wire and the disconnection spring contacts are recessed inside the module so
accidental contact of the module with a metallic tool like a screwdriver will not cause any short
circuits.
During moves, adds and changes, the act of plugging a patch cord into the work area modules
open the internal spring contacts, thereby disconnecting the existing circuit.

When the other end of the patch cord is plugged into the module on the network equipment field,
it will disconnect that existing circuit and feed the signal via the patch cord to the new work area
outlet.

The patch cord has therefore created a new patched configuration, bypassing the original hard-
wired configuration. The patch has become an exception to the original, hence the name “Patch-
by-Exception.”

To revert back to the original jumpered configuration, simply remove the patch plug from the
network equipment modules, then the work area module.

This sequence ensures no signal voltages will appear on the plug ends. The patch cords can be
hung in a cupboard ready for use the next time an exception is required to the original jumpering.

Putting antenna theory into practice

All About Antennas:

It’s obvious that the antenna system is an important part of an RF communication system —
without it the system wouldn’t work. Equally obvious is the fact that the antenna system is
common to both the transmitter and the receiver; any change made in the antenna system affects
both transmission and reception.

An antenna is formed of a few basic parts:

 The Basic radiating element – which radiates energy in the required manner. An array of
multiple elements is usually employed to increase directivity.
 The Feed network – which transports energy from the input connector and distributes it to
each radiating element with the correct amplitude and phase.

 The Reflector – on sector antennas – which shapes the azimuth plane power distribution so
that it radiates in only one spatial region. Also, this usually serves as a structural element.

 The Housing or Radome – which provides protection of internal components from

environmental factors like wind vibration, rain, snow and salt.

The antenna is the portion of the radio system found at the top of the tower. It could be a simple
one-element antenna, or it could be a complex multi-element array. The antenna takes radio
energy from the transmission line and radiates it into space; it also receives radio energy from
space and feeds that received energy down the transmission line to the receiver. To oversimplify,
an antenna is designed to radiate radio energy into space and collect radio energy from space.

A two-way antenna is nearly 100% efficient #antenna

THE EFFICIENCY OF AN ANTENNA

What is remarkable, though, is how efficiently this occurs. A two-way antenna is nearly 100
percent efficient. Of course, not quite all of the energy that is put in, is transmitted.

Factors affecting this include a coaxial line that doesn’t perfectly “match” the input to the
antenna, and power lost due to such things as “skin effect,” insulator dielectric, eddy currents,
etc. But, since we can typically claim that an omnidirectional antenna radiates better than 95
percent of the watts it receives from the coaxial line — provided it “matches” the line — an
antenna is an efficient device when compared to most other energy-emitting things we know.
Sector antennas are not quite as efficient but deliver benefits in other area.

How these parts are designed together impact the network coverage and capacity of wireless
networks.

To put antenna theory into practice, get certified at the CommScope Infrastructure academy with
the SP6910 and SP6920 online courses or browse our range of wireless training courses.
How to Calculate RF Path Loss and Link Budget?

What Is RF Path Loss, And How Does It Affect the Link Budget?

In order to determine factors such as the required antenna gain levels, radio power levels and
receiver sensitivity figures in a wireless system, system designers must first be able to devise the
link budget.

But, in order to establish that link budget for a proposed path, it’s important to understand how to
calculate RF path loss. This must account for all of the gains and losses from the transmitter,
through the medium (free space, cable, waveguide, fiber, etc.) to the receiver in an RF path.

This post explores 8 key steps in calculating RF path loss in order to devise the link budget.

8 Steps to Calculating RF Path Loss and Link Budget

RF path loss includes the attenuation of the transmitted signal as it propagates, as well as the
antenna gains, cable and connector losses. Where the losses may vary with time, such as
‘fading’, allowance is made within the link budget.

In order to devise a link budget, it is necessary to investigate all the areas where gains and losses
may occur between the transmitter and the receiver. Although guidelines and suggestions can be
made regarding the possible areas for losses and gains, each link should be analyzed on its own
merit.

The following are recommended steps:

1. Select a frequency – Certain system components are frequency sensitive such as cables,
duplexers / couplers, free space path loss, or building material losses. Other
components are not frequency sensitive, such as optical fiber, optical connectors and
lasers.
2. Determine the signal source’s output power – Will it be coupled directly from a base
station or will it be coupled from a repeater?
 3. Specify the uplink and downlink system gain.
4. Determine the passive losses in the path – Design for losses at the highest frequency.
Include any splitters, coaxial cable and connectors.
5. Select an Antenna – with the designed antenna gain.
6. Compute the free space path loss.
7. Add any additional losses that need to be accounted for – such as indoor walls and
partitions or terrain, buildings and vegetation outdoors.
8. Compute the Received Signal level expected. This is then compared to the receiver
sensitivity to establish a pass/fail criteria for the proposed link.

No real magic is required to make a reasonable prediction of the range of a given RF signal, it is
a summation of all the above factors. Most of the parameters are easily gleaned from
manufacturer’s data. That leaves only RF path loss and, in cases of heavy RF interference, RF
noise floor as the two parameters that you must establish for your particular installation.

Gain the RF Knowledge You Need

As RF infrastructure forms just one aspect of wider passive infrastructure, it’s important to have
an understanding of all components to ensure network success.

Our Passive Infrastructure Specialist courses cover every aspect you need to know; from RF
Wireless Infrastructure Fundamentals, to Fiber Optic Infrastructure, to Structured Cabling
Design and more. You can find out more with the full course listing here.

How Do Wireless Networks Transmit Data?

RF wireless infrastructure helps to shape the networks we know today; in fact, an integrated
approach to wireless infrastructure can boost-end user adoption, leverage existing infrastructure
and applications, enable enhanced working and reduced costs. Supported and complemented by
cabling infrastructure, wireless is a core part of effective networks.

But how do wireless networks actually work? What infrastructure is required and what must we
consider for successful performance?

How Are RF Signals Transmitted?

Just how is data sent and received across wireless networks?

Radio is the transmission of signals by the modulation of electromagnetic waves.

For example, if you were at a radio studio, sound or voice waves are picked up by a microphone
that has electrical current running through it.

These sound waves create vibrations in the current as they travel through wires to a control
room. In the control room technicians adjust the volume and they are transmitted out through an
aerial or antenna. These signals go out through the air as radio waves. Radio waves are not
directional and travel through space in all directions, like ripples on a pond. That is the
transmitting of data on RF signals in a nutshell!

The Wireless Network Infrastructure Required to Transmit Data

The process of sending and receiving radio signals through wireless networks involves two
devices, the transmitter and the receiver. The receiver picks up the waves with its antenna or
aerial and turns the electric signal back into sound where it can be heard.

To transmit sound by radio, the transmitter adds a high frequency carrier wave to the sound
signal. This makes the amplitude of the carrier wave change, but the frequency stays the same.
This is called Amplitude Modulation. This form of modulation produces frequencies which are
the ‘sum and the difference’ of the carrier and modulation frequencies. These frequencies are
sometimes called sidebands.

What is QAM?

QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) is a modulation scheme that enables digital

information to be transmitted between two points. Fundamentally, QAM enables an analog
signal to efficiently transmit digital information. It also provides the means by which a wireless
network operator transmits more bits in the same time period, which effectively increases the
bandwidth.

“Radio is the #transmission of signals by modulation of electromagnetic waves.” #telecoms…

QAM is a modulation scheme that transmits data by changing the amplitude, or power level, of
two signals: first in-phase with the incoming data and the second 90 degrees out of phase. QAM
relates to the number of bits of information encoded in each time period.

For example, eight bits defines the number of combinations that are possible for those two
signals (in phase and 90 degrees out of phase). If there are 256 combinations possible for those
eight bits, then it is referred to as 256 QAM.

Understanding Modulation and Its Impact On Radio Communications

Radio Engineers will often talk about their modulation schemes, Mentioning 4QAM, 16QAM,
256QAM and so on. While higher order modulation rates are able to offer much faster data rates
and higher levels of spectral efficiency for the radio communications system, this comes at a
price.

The higher order modulation schemes are considerably less resilient to noise and interference.
The key point here is that the higher the modulation signal, the more symbols are being
transmitted and the closer together those symbols are.
As a result of this, many radio communications systems now use dynamic adaptive modulation
techniques. They sense the channel conditions and adapt the modulation scheme to obtain the
highest data rate for the given conditions.

AVOIDING ERRORS IN DATA TRANSMISSION

As signal to noise ratios decrease, errors will increase along with re-sends of the data, thereby
slowing throughput. By reverting to a lower order modulation scheme the link can be made more
reliable with fewer data errors and re-sends.

This means for a RF signal, the more susceptible the antenna is to interference the more likely
the performance will degrade.

Understand the Passive Infrastructure That Underpins Your Network

Of course, RF Infrastructure is just one of multiple aspects of passive infrastructure.

Facilitating ever growing and expanding networks, passive infrastructure is set to increase as
demand for global telecommunications infrastructure advances. To stay ahead of demand, you
can read more in our eBook: Understand the Passive Infrastructure that Underpins Your
Network.

Understanding Antenna Systems Within RF

Communications

The antenna system is an important part of an RF communication system — without it, the
system wouldn’t work. Of course as the antenna system is common to both the transmitter and
the receiver; any change made in the antenna system affects both transmission and reception.
An antenna is formed of a few basic parts:

 The Basic radiating element – which radiates energy in the required manner. An array of
multiple elements is usually employed to increase directivity.

 The Feed network – which transports energy from the input connector and distributes it to
each radiating element with the correct amplitude and phase.

 The Reflector – on sector antennas – which shapes the azimuth plane power distribution so
that it radiates in only one spatial region. Also, this usually serves as a structural element.

The Housing or Radome – which provides protection of internal components from environmental
factors like wind vibration, rain, snow and salt.

The antenna is the portion of the radio system found at the top of the tower. It could be a simple
one-element antenna, or it could be a complex multi-element array. The antenna takes radio
energy from the transmission line and radiates it into space; it also receives radio energy from
space and feeds that received energy down the transmission line to the receiver. To oversimplify,
an antenna is designed to radiate radio energy into space and collect radio energy from space.

The Efficiency of an Antenna

What is remarkable, though, is how efficiently this occurs. A two-way antenna is nearly 100
percent efficient. Of course, not quite all of the energy that is put in, is transmitted.

Factors affecting lost efficiency include a coaxial line that doesn’t perfectly “match” the input to
the antenna, and power lost due to such things as “skin effect,” insulator dielectric, eddy
currents, etc. But, since we can typically claim that an omnidirectional antenna radiates better
than 95 percent of the watts it receives from the coaxial line (provided it “matches” the line) an
antenna is an efficient device when compared to most other energy-emitting devices. Note that
sector antennas are not quite as efficient but deliver benefits in other areas.
Antenna Theory and Passive Infrastructure

How these parts are designed together impacts the network coverage and capacity of wireless
networks.

To put antenna theory into practice, get certified at the CommScope Infrastructure academy with
the SP6910 andSP6920 online courses or browse our eBook here to better understand the passive
infrastructure that underpins your network.

A Simple Guide to Cable Standards and

Specifications

Characteristics of Different Cable Standards and Specifications:

The characteristics of different cabling options are by their nature complicated to capture in a
simple manner. That is why there are pages and pages of specifications that cover them in
detail. However, in an attempt to provide a very simple guide, below are short descriptions of
the cable standards and specifications with their Categories and Classes.

The Three Main Standards for Cabling in Buildings:

There are three main cable standards and specifications for cabling in buildings:

 ANSI/TIA 568 is the U.S.-based standard. TIA-568-C is the current version, with the D
version expected soon.

 ISO/IEC IS11801 is the international cabling standard that incorporates all variants of
cabling types used around the world (Generic Cabling for Customer Premises).

 EN50173 is the European standard, which has been largely derived from IS11801.
All include performance specifications for twisted pair and fiber optic cables and connecting
hardware, but do differ in areas so some care is needed in selecting compliance with these
standards.

CATEGORIES OF TWISTED PAIR CABLING

When looking at cable standards and specifications for Twisted Pair Cabling the internationally
recognized categories are as follows:

Category 3 (Class C): This designation applies to twisted pair cables and associated connecting
hardware whose transmission characteristics are specified up to 16 MHz

Category 5E (Class D): This designation applies to twisted pair cables and associated
connecting hardware whose transmission characteristics are specified up to 100 MHz

Category 6 (Class E): This designation applies to twisted pair cables and associated connecting
hardware whose transmission characteristics are specified up to 250 MHz

Category 6A (Class EA): This designation applies to twisted pair cables and associated
connecting hardware whose transmission characteristics are specified up to 500 MHz

Category 7 (Class F): This designation applies to cables and associated connecting hardware
whose transmission characteristics are specified up to 600 MHz

Category 7A (Class FA): This designation applies to twisted pair cables and associated
connecting hardware whose transmission characteristics are specified up to 1000 MHz

Category 8 (Class I): This designation applies to twisted pair cables and associated connecting
hardware whose transmission characteristics are specified up to 2000 MHz

It should be noted that TIA (US Standards) uses the designation of category when describing
cable, cord, hardware and groups of components such as cabling links and channels.
ISO (International Standards) and EN (European Standards) on the other hand, like TIA uses
categories when describing cable, cord, hardware but when defining groups of components such
as links and channels it refers to them as a ‘Class’.

CATEGORIES FOR OPTICAL FIBER

When looking at cable standards and specifications for optical fiber, the fibers are categorized in
the international standards below:

OM1 – Multimode fiber with Over Filled Launch (OFL) bandwidth of 200/500 MHz.km at
850/1300 nm

OM2 – Multimode fiber with Over Filled Launch (OFL) bandwidth of 500/500 MHz.km at
850/1300 nm

OM3 – Multimode fiber with Over Filled Launch (OFL) bandwidth of 1500/500 MHz.km at
850/1300 nm, and Laser Bandwidth (Using DMD test method) of 2000 MHz.km at 850nm

OM4 – A Multimode fiber specification with Laser Bandwidth (Using DMD test method) of
4700 MHz.km at 850nm

WBMMF – A Multimode fiber specification with Laser Bandwidth (Using DMD test method)
of 4700 MHz.km at 850nm, and with controlled specification across the 850nm – 900nm band
for SWDM.

OS1 (ITU-T G652) – Standard generic Single mode fiber

OS2 (ITU-T G652.D) – ‘Low water peak’ Single mode fiber

ITU-T G657 – Reduced Bend Radius Single mode fiber

Note that as transmission rates increase and users migrate to higher performance cabling, it is
important that the mechanical properties and transmission categories of components used in the
same cabling system are properly matched.
This ensures a consistently high level of dependability and transmission performance. For more
detail on the parameters of cable standards and specifications, please refer to these previous posts
for copper cabling, fiber optic cabling and fiber optic performance.

The Importance of the Site Survey in Infrastructure

Design

Considering Infrastructure Design

Probably the first step in considering an infrastructure design is to review the building plans and
the RFQ (Request for Quotation) from the customer, consultant or building contractor. But the
next step is quite often the most important which is conduct a site walkthrough or survey
depending upon the nature of the project. This is the first opportunity for the project team to get a
look at the extent of the project.

SITE SURVEY PHASES

The site survey may be divided into several phases. These phases are:

o Gathering information

o Performing the survey

o Evaluating the findings

The information gathering phase includes obtaining a full and complete set of all documentation
for the infrastructure design project. The documents should contain the project drawings and
specifications, a set of installation drawings, a list of major materials, the scope of work – SOW
– for the installation, and an overall project schedule.
KEY ELEMENTS OF THE FACILITY
Drawings for new infrastructure design and construction are generally an accurate representation
of the facility. However, changes may occur, so it is important to verify the location of key
elements of the system including:

o Equipment rooms

o Telecommunications pathways

o Cabling outlets

o Electrical equipment and conduit

o AC equipment and ducting

o Grounding and bonding

o Firewalls

PLANNING FOR RETROFIT SITES

For retrofits, the drawings available may not reflect the site “as built” and should be carefully
checked for currency and accuracy.

The site survey is an important opportunity to match the information on the blueprints with the
real world. So, it should be a thorough evaluation of the job site, not just a walk through. During
the site survey, verify and evaluate the key factors in an installation.

Planning for sites that have history!

The planning for a retrofit site is, by its nature, more complex and demanding than for new
construction. During the retrofit, the existing system must usually remain operational while the
new one is installed. In many cases, some or all of the existing wire and cable will be re-used.

STEP BY STEP OF A SITE SURVEY

Unless the existing documentation is current, a full inventory of the location, type, size, and
condition of existing cabling will have to be completed during the site survey phase. At the same
time, you will need to record the location, type and condition of grounding, cable conveyances,
and other cabling infrastructure. Once the inventory is complete, all or part of the cabling may
have to be tested.

During the site survey, determine the location of equipment rooms – and verify that their size
corresponds with what’s shown on the infrastructure design drawings. Also check that
conduits, sleeves, slots and support infrastructure are as shown and verify the type of ceiling
construction. Make sure the cabinets/frames have sufficient capacity for the required new
equipment.

Using the survey results, identify problem areas, such as conduits in the wrong location and the
proximity of lifts and elevators. Equipment rooms may also be too small, or in the wrong
location, to accommodate the new system. Also look out for obstructed pathways and poor
access to the facilities. If any of these do not meet current code requirements, remedial action
may be needed. On completion of the survey, a determination must be made as to how much of
the existing design infrastructure may be re-used, and what will be considered abandoned.

If the client allows, take as many pictures as you can. It is easy to forget details when you leave
the site.

Updating the floor-plan during the site walk will require substantial time, so having it in advance
will be helpful. Request these drawings early since they normally take time to assemble or to get
proper access assigned.

SHARE YOUR SITE SURVEY EXPERIENCE AND ADVICE

Please feel free to contact us on either Twitter or LinkedIn to share any advice or experience you
have of the site survey process.
Cabling and Networking Technology – How Are
They Linked?

Cabling and networking improvements: Addressing the need to

transmit higher bit rates over cabling:

As higher speed network equipment is introduced, cabling systems that support that capacity are
introduced and deployed.

The typical sequence of events has been:

 R&D and planning start; industry study groups are formed.

 Cabling and Networking standards groups are formed and draft proposed standards.

 Cabling that anticipates the standards is introduced.

 Standards are ratified and standards-based network equipment is introduced. Standard

cabling is widely installed in new and re-cabled facilities.

 Network equipment is deployed, first in the backbone, then in the horizontal.

 Applications emerge that exploit the higher network speeds.

In simple terms, there are three ways of transmitting higher bit rates over cabling, one is to
improve the cabling performance, the second is to improve the technology in the electronics, and
thirdly and more commonly is a requirement for a mixture of both cabling and networking
improvements.

HOW CAN IMPROVEMENTS BE IMPLEMENTED?

Multi-level encoding/modulation schemes are routinely used in modern systems, with the trade-
off being complex and expensive electronics using existing cabling systems vs. simpler and less
expensive electronics using enhanced cabling systems.
The network speed improvements may be realized over existing cabling infrastructures albeit at
usually a shorter distance, which allow network manager to leverage existing investment.

You don’t have to pull out your existing cabling system in anticipation of applications appearing
tomorrow, but there will be a need to evaluate the infrastructure if network problems occur.

EXPANDING TO MEET THE NEEDS OF FUTURE BUSINESS

NETWORKS
Due to the hierarchical nature of the network and the “funneling” effects of network switching,
the “need for speed” clearly grows the further one gets out from the user device.

The natural evolution for the general business network over the next few years will involve a
migration to switched 1, 2.5, 5 or 10 Gbps at the user device, switched 10 and 40 Gbps capability
first at the server interface and then in the building backbone, and finally switched 10, 40 or 100
Gbps capability in the mainstream enterprise environment.

The infrastructure portion will experience a similar migration over the same time period, with
high performance twisted pair cabling and wireless strongly positioned as the horizontal media,
laser optimized multimode fiber gradually moving to single-mode fiber in the building
backbone, and single mode fiber in the campus and network core.

Several options exist for extending the capability of optical fiber. For example, standards have
yet to use multi-level coding on multimode fiber to increase transmission capacity using less
bandwidth, a technique very popular in copper-based LANs. Fiber networks can also take
advantage of wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), which provides additional channels over
the same fiber by using different colors (wavelengths) of light.

Cabling and Networking Technology – How Are They Linked? Find out more: #cabling
#deployment

Parallel transmission is another way of increasing link speeds, with multiple fibers used to
transmit data. Also, devices such as short wavelength lasers and vertical cavity surface emitting
lasers (VCSELs), are capable of providing cost-effective gigabit-rate data links over multimode
fiber.

CONTINUED DEVELOPMENT AND DEPLOYMENT

As cabling and networking technology continues to evolve ever higher, these new approaches
will continue to be developed and deployed.

5 Basic Tips for Wireless Networks

The Principles Behind Radio Communications – 5 Tips for Wireless

Networks:

Today vast amounts of information are communicated using radio communications systems.

Let’s explore 5 of the basic principles used in modern wireless networks:

1. MODULATION
One of the fundamental aspects of any radio communications transmission system is
modulation, or the way in which the information is superimposed on the radio carrier.

In order that a steady radio signal or “radio carrier” can carry information it must be changed or
modulated in one way so that the information can be conveyed from one place to another. There
are many ways in which a radio carrier can be modulated to carry a signal, each having its own
advantages and disadvantages. The choice of modulation has a great impact on the radio
communications system. Some forms are better suited to one kind of traffic whereas other forms
of modulation will be more applicable in other instances. Choosing the correct form of
modulation is a key decision in any radio communications system design.

In general, the higher order forms of modulation allow higher data rates to be carried within a
given bandwidth. However, the downside is that the higher data rates require a better signal to
noise ratio before the error rates start to rise and this counteracts any improvements in data rate
performance. In view of this balance many radio communications systems are able to
dynamically choose the form of modulation depending upon the prevailing conditions and
requirements.

2. SPECTRUM
Spectrum is the word that describes a range of frequencies. The full electromagnetic spectrum
spans frequencies ranging from sub-audible on the low end to gamma rays on the high end.
Until the advent of fiber optics, most traditional communications work had been done in the
Radio Frequency range of the spectrum, which the US Department of Commerce defines as 3
kilohertz to 300 Gigahertz, and the next higher frequency grouping called microwave.

To avoid conflicts and interference, frequencies within the RF spectrum are managed and
assigned by governmental agencies within each country. In every country there are radio
frequencies allocated to various uses. This changes country to country for Cellular systems.

Frequencies are owned by different parties based on local geography. For example, a carrier
(AT&T, Verizon, etc.) may own different frequencies in different states, cities or counties.
You may not repeat or retransmit a signal without the permission of the operator who owns the
spectrum.

3. FREQUENCY RE-USE
One method that is employed to increase capacity is to enable the frequencies to be re-used.
Any radio transmitter will only have a certain coverage area. Beyond this, the signal level will
fall to a limit below which it cannot be used and will not cause significant interference to users
associated with a different radio transmitter.

This means that it is possible to re-use a channel once outside the range of the radio transmitter.
The same is also true in the reverse direction for the receiver, where it will only be able to
receive signals over a given range. In this way it is possible to arrange or split up an area into
several smaller regions, each covered by a different transmitter / receiver station. These regions
are conveniently known as cells, and give rise to the name of a “cellular” technology used
today.

Diagrammatically these cells are often shown as hexagonal shapes that conveniently fit together.
In reality this is not the case. They have irregular boundaries because of the terrain over which
they travel. Hills, buildings and other objects all cause the signal to be attenuated and diminish
differently in each direction.

4. INTERFERENCE
When devising the infrastructure technology of a cellular system, the interference between
adjacent channels is reduced by allocating different frequency bands or channels to adjacent cells
so that their coverage can overlap slightly without causing interference. In this way cells can be
grouped together in what is termed a cluster.

Often these clusters contain seven cells, but other configurations are also possible. Seven is a
convenient number, but there are a number of conflicting requirements that need to be balanced
when choosing the number of cells in a cluster for a cellular system. These include limiting
interference levels and the number of channels that can be allocated to each cell site.

It is necessary to limit the interference between cells having the same frequency. The topology
of the cell configuration has a large impact on this. The larger the number of cells in the cluster,
the greater the distance between cells sharing the same frequencies.

5. SMALL CELLS
Even though the number of cells in a cluster in a cellular system can help govern the number of
users that can be accommodated, by making all the cells smaller it is possible to increase the
overall capacity of the cellular system. Accordingly, in areas where there are more users, small
low power base stations are installed.

The different types of cells are given different names according to their size and function:
Macro cells are large cells that are usually used for remote or sparsely populated areas. These
may be 10 km or possibly more in diameter.

Micro cells or Metro cells are those that are normally found in densely populated areas which
may have a diameter of around 1 km.

Pico cells or Femtocells are generally used for covering very small areas such as particular areas
of buildings, or possibly tunnels where coverage from a larger cell in the cellular system is not
possible. Obviously for the small cells, the power levels used by the base stations are much lower
and the antennas are not positioned to cover wide areas. In this way the coverage is minimized
and the interference to adjacent cells is reduced.

Small cells are often now referred as a general category that encompasses femtocells which go
inside the house, enterprise cells which go inside generally a building or a small office, indoor
DAS systems and outdoor DAS systems and metro cells. So small cells refer to a large category
of products designed to build the capacity by subdividing the wireless network or sectorizing the
network.

WHERE CAN YOU LEARN MORE ABOUT WIRELESS NETWORKS?

To learn in more depth fundamentals about wireless networks see our RF Wireless
Infrastructure Fundamentals course – it will step you through a wide range of components
including; wireless design, cabling, antennas, modulation schemes, spectrum, data rates, radio
channels and microwave backhaul.
How Do Cellular Networks Work?

Understanding How Cellular Networks Function:

Need clarification on the terminology and processes behind how cellular networks function?

Then read on to find out.

Firstly, an electrical signal is generated by a Transmitter. The transmit Antenna will convert that
signal into Electromagnetic wave (aka RF wave) which will radiate.
An RF wave then propagates (moves through matter and/or space) and is picked up by the
Receive Antenna of the Receiver which converts the RF wave back into electrical signal.

UNDERSTANDING CELLULAR UNITS OF MEASURE

Electrical power is the rate at which electrical energy is converted to another form such as
motion, heat, or an electromagnetic field. Electrical Power is usually expressed in Watts (W).
Watts are often cumbersome in dealing with communications systems because of the large range
required. A transmitter might have 20 watts of power, while a receiver might see signals that
are 0.000,000,000,000,001 watts.

For this reason, the unit of measure in communication systems is the Decibel or dB. It is the
smallest difference that a human ear can detect between two different sounds. Since the ear’s
sensitivity follows a logarithmic rather than a linear scale, the decibel (dB) has become a unit of
measure of this change. The decibel has no actual numeric value, but is used to express a ratio
between two powers.

UNDERSTANDING UPLINK AND DOWNLINK

The uplink path is the path from the subscriber unit (mobile) to the base station and the downlink
path is the path from the base station to the mobile.
One of the key elements of any radio communications system is the way in which radio
communications are maintained in both of these directions. Terms including simplex, duplex,
frequency division duplex (FDD), and time division duplex (TDD), are all methods that can be
used.

The Progression of Cellular Network Technology

There is a constant evolution within the wireless industry in an attempt to increase transmission
rates. The methods used to achieve this include:

 increasing the amount of frequencies available

 improving the access scheme which increases the ability to re-use frequencies

 improving the modulation schemes used which increases the amount of information passed
for the amount of energy spent

 increasing the re-use of the spectrum

In any cellular network system or cellular technology, it is necessary to have a scheme that
enables several multiple users to gain access to it and use it simultaneously. As cellular
technology has progressed different multiple access schemes have been used. They form the very
core of the way in which the radio technology of the cellular system works.

There are four main multiple access schemes that are used in cellular network systems ranging
from the very first analogue cellular technologies to those cellular technologies that are being
developed for use in the future. The multiple access schemes are known as FDMA, TDMA,
CDMA and OFDMA.

FDMA – Frequency Division Multiple Access.

TDMA – Time Division Multiple Access

CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access

OFDMA – Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access

Want to learn more about these and other cellular infrastructure fundamentals? See our RF
Wireless Infrastructure Fundamentals Course.

The Evolving Cellular Communication Challenges

of RF Infrastructure

The Limitations of Cellular Communications:

The first RF systems featured a base radio using an Omni-directional antenna to communicate
with one or more mobile users. Then, as now, the effective coverage radius of that base radio
was limited by certain characteristics, such as RF power, antenna height, and the sensitivity of
mobile receivers that were vulnerable to thermal noise and other interference sources.

These systems were also limited by the fact that certain frequencies could only be used once in a
particular geographical area. Once a mobile user left that area, no communication was possible.

ADVANCING BEYOND THE LIMITATIONS

The engineers of AT&T Bell Laboratories envisioned a future that would require much higher
RF capacities to service thousands or millions of users at once. To deliver this future, they
developed the cellular communication concept: a wireless network that uses lower antenna
heights and transmission power levels to create limited-radius coverage areas that used and re-
used the same frequencies within its coverage area.

Voice and data calls could be seamlessly handed off to neighboring cells as the user moved from
one coverage area – or cell – to the next. The close-proximity re-use of radio channels is the
fundamental concept of cellular telephones, and this is how today’s wireless networks carry
enormous traffic loads in spite of limited spectrum.
The data riding these RF frequencies could be voice, data, or a combination of both; by
intelligently managing and re-using the limited available bandwidth, the amount of available
service increased by many orders of magnitude.

LAYING THE FOUNDATIONS FOR SEAMLESS CELLULAR

COMMUNICATION
Successful wireless network optimization requires a solid foundation of physical components
across the RF path. The tuning and optimization of parameters can never be maximized without a
high-performance RF path implemented with top-quality RF components. Conversely, wireless
systems with weak RF paths perform poorly, resulting in expensive problems on both the
operational and customer service fronts.

Once a network is active, taking down a part of a cellular communication network for
maintenance is a costly and disruptive interruption; and, in most cases, one that could have been
prevented by a better understanding of the site’s requirements and the component choices
available.

Building a new cell site raises some of the same questions as building a new house, such as
deciding what materials to use, who to entrust with the construction, and how to get the best
results for your money.

The evolving cellular communication challenges of RF infrastructure #cellular #wireless

Of course, these problems are magnified when applied to cell site construction because there are
so many different people, companies, municipalities and regulatory agencies involved. It takes a
lot of experience to plan for every obstacle.

Efficient cell site operation relies on the precise pairing of components. Certain cable types are
designed to work with certain antennas. Those cables must interface with their systems via
connectors built for certain frequencies and power levels. An out-of-specification component or
an improper installation of the correct component can cripple an entire system. For this reason,
it’s wise to contract with skilled engineers for RF design and installation.
WHERE CAN YOU FIND MORE INFORMATION?

For more information on the design and installation process behind RF wireless
infrastructure see our SP6500 Course.

The A-Z of RF Path Analysis

What Is RF Path Analysis?

A RF (Radio Frequency) path analysis is an important process in the design of a radio

communications channel or wireless system.

The RF path analysis helps a designer understand the losses and gains in the path and allows
them to determine many contributing elements, such as the transmitter power and antenna
designs, including their gain, height and general location.

When Is RF Path Analysis Used?

The RF path loss affects other elements such as the required receiver sensitivity, the form of
transmission used and several other factors. As a result, it is necessary to understand RF
path analysis, and to determine the levels of the signal loss for a given radio path.

Analysis is undertaken when preparing coverage or system design, and relies on knowledge of
the signal propagation properties. RF path loss calculations often use wireless survey tools for
determining signal strength at various locations. Because the investment in a macro cell base
station is so high, these coverage surveys are particularly important for wireless network
providers.

A fundamental goal of a RF path analysis is to establish the loss in a RF path.

There are many reasons for RF path loss.

They include:

Absorption losses

which occur when radio signals pass through a medium which is not totally transparent to RF
signals.

Atmospheric losses

which affect RF signals by reflecting or refracting signals back to Earth.

Buildings and other obstacles

that reflect radio signals, and will also absorb them. RF communications are often significantly
impaired within buildings. Trees and foliage can attenuate radio signals, particularly when wet.

Diffraction losses

which occur when an signal diffracts around an object in the path. The loss is higher the more
rounded the object. Radio signals tend to diffract better around sharp edges.

Free space loss

which occurs as the signal travels through space without any other effects attenuating the signal.
This can be thought of as the RF signal spreading out as an ever increasing sphere like ripples on
a pond.

Multipath losses

which occur as signals are reflected and reach the receiver via a number of different paths. These
signals may add or subtract from each other depending upon the relative phases of the signals.
Terrain losses

which occur as the signal travels over different terrains. Hill and mountains which obstruct the
path will considerably attenuate the signal, often making reception impossible.

These reasons represent some of the major elements of path loss that need to be established and
evaluated in a RF path analysis.

If your interested in looking at how radio transmission works and the technical considerations
involved; why not consider the CommScope Training [SP6500] RF Wireless Infrastructure
Fundamentals Course?

The Beginner’s Guide to Optical Fiber Infrastructure

What, how and why you need to know about Optical Fiber:

In the world of IP convergence, the need to support more applications, coverage and capacity
will continue to put demands on your infrastructure selection.

One technology in particular is common in catering for these trends, that of optical fiber. As the
network requirements in both the wired and wireless world fuel the need for high reliability, low
delay, high bandwidth and extended distances, fiber optic solutions reach deeper and deeper into
the network.

WHAT IS OPTICAL FIBER?

For those that only know ‘fiber’ possibly as a marketing term to sell you the latest broadband
service, an optical fiber is a solid strand of glass as thin as a human hair. It is designed to carry
information, using pulses of light emitted by a light source (LED or Laser). There are
increasingly compelling reasons to use optical fiber.
WHY DO I NEED TO KNOW ABOUT OPTICAL FIBER
INFRASTRUCTURE?
Increased bandwidth allows fiber to deliver data rates spanning across the full range from
kilobits to megabits to multiple gigabits per second. No other media provides the same cable
plant longevity. Installing fiber today will support your network infrastructure needs far into the
future.

HOW IS OPTICAL FIBER USED?

Optical fiber provides broad applications coverage. Fiber is a media to support virtually all
applications, from Enterprise LAN to Service Provider WAN, from Data Centers to Head Ends,
from Broadband FTTx to Cellular Wireless networks. Products are available for a large variety
of environments.

Historically, fiber technology had the image of being difficult to deploy and install but advances
in fiber components now provide easy installation. Advances in connector and fiber coating
technologies have dramatically reduced fiber termination time.

Fiber Connectivity Solutions are available that are optimized for the computer room or data
center; an aerial or underground run between building; a run through high temperature; or a run
through a rodent infested or corrosive environments. Usually a few key issues guide the choice
including the intended applications, distance, data (baud) rate, and the difficulty and expense of
retrofitting at a later time.

WHAT ARE THE ENTERPRISE NETWORK PREFERENCES?

Multimode fiber has the capability to meet both the distance and data rate demands of most LAN
networks today. Generally, multimode systems cost less than single mode systems, since the
optoelectronics that can be used with multimode fiber are less costly than those used with single
mode fiber.
WHAT ARE THE BROADBAND AND WIRELESS NETWORK
PREFERENCES?
In contrast to enterprise networks, single mode fiber is virtually the only fiber used by wireless
and cable television companies. These industries require the long distance capability and high
information carrying capacity of single mode fiber. The advent of RFoG (Radio Frequency over
Glass) technologies means fiber optic infrastructures are becoming common place for feeds to
base station antenna, deployments of active DAS (Distributed Antenna Systems) and FTTx
deployments.

FIBER AND THE FUTURE

It is certainly a really exciting time for fiber optic solutions. I certainly look forward to fiber
optic infrastructure solutions addressing all aspects of technology from service providers to
enterprises, from data centers to Fiber-to-the-location (FTTx).

In recognition of increasing importance of fiber optics, the CommScope Infrastructure Academy

introduced a new online certification training resource – the SP4420 Fiber Optic Infrastructure
Specialist course.