Physics Revision Notes

Unit 1: Measurements and units

L1: Numbers and units
Physical quantity: A physical property that can be measured
and described by a number is called a physical quantity
Fundamental quantities: The physical quantities which do
not depend on other physical quantities for their
measurements are known as fundamental quantities
Derived quantities: The physical quantities which depend
on one or more fundamental quantities for their
measurements are known as derived quantities

Fundamental quantity SI unit Symbol

Length metre m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Temperature kelvin K

Electric current ampere A

Luminous intensity candela cd

Amount of substance mole mol

Accuracy of measurement:
It refers to the closeness of a
measurement to the true
value of the physical quantity

Precision of a measurement: It
refers to the limit to which a
physical quantity is measured
 L2: Measuring Length
Random errors occur in all measurements. They arise when
observers estimate the last gure of an instrument reading.
They are unpredictable and can be contributed to by
distractions in the surrounding environment. The best way
to minimise such errors is to average a large number of
readings, while making sure to discard freak results.

Systematic errors are constant errors where the

experimenter consistently underestimates or overestimates
a reading. This could be due to the equipment being used
(for example, a ruler with zero error) or environmental
factors. They cannot be reduced by averaging, but can be
eliminated if the sources of error are known.

L3: Measuring time

• The oscillation of a pendulum is an example of a regularly
repeating motion
• The time for one complete oscillation is known as the
period of the oscillation
• To nd the period of a pendulum, T, you need to use the
formula:

• where l is de ned as the distance between the centre of

mass of the bob and the pivot point
• and g is acceleration due to gravity
• Plotting a graph of T^2 against l should produce a straight
line graph through the origin where the slope of the
graph is equal to 4π^2/g
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 L4: Volume and density
Volume: Length x width x height (the amount of something
there is)
Density: How closely matter is packed together in an object
1m^3=1000L 1dm^3=1L 1cm^3=1ml
Density= mass/volume

How to nd the volume of an irregular solid:

Additional information for this unit Important formulas:

Spec link: 1.1 and 1.4
Textbook link: 1.1-1.6 (pages 12-26)

Density= mass/volume
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Unit 2: Forces and Motion
L1: Speed, velocity and acceleration
Scalar quantities: Quantities with only magnitude
Vector quantities: Quantities with both magnitude and
direction
Distance: The length between any two points
Displacement: The difference between the initial and nal
position
Acceleration: The rate at which velocity changes

Speed= distance/time
Velocity= displacement/time
Acceleration= nal velocity-initial velocity/time

L2: Motion graphs

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L3: Free fall
Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8m/s^2 (for our spec, 10 m/
s^2)
L4: Forces in balance
A force is a push or a pull.
Some types of force:
• Gravitational: The attractive force exerted between
bodies because of their masses
• Friction: The force that opposes motion
• Air resistance/drag: The force that opposes the
movement of objects through air
• Upthrust: The force experienced by objects when placed
into a fluid
• Magnetic
• Electrostatic

L5: Force, mass and acceleration

Mass: The amount of matter in an object
Inertia: An object’s resistance to move

Force= mass x acceleration

L6: Friction
Friction: A force which opposes motion caused when two
objects rub against each other
Static friction: Starting friction- as a block is pulled, friction
stops it moving. Increase the force and the block starts to
slip.
Dynamic friction: When the block starts to move, friction
drops. This is less than static friction and heats the material
up.
Drag: Force which restricts movement

L7: Force, weight and gravity

Gravitational eld strength: The force experienced by a
mass due to gravitational attraction
Weight: The force of gravity upon an object

Weight= mass x gravitational eld strength

Mass Weight

How much matter an object contains Force exerted on a mass by gravity

Constant for a body and does not change with Weight is not constant- it changes from place to
mass place

Kg is a unit of mass Newton is a unit of weight

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L8-9: Momentum
Momentum= mass x velocity
Force (change in momentum)= ( nal momentum - initial
momentum)/time :
F=mv-mu/t

Impulse: The product of a force and the time over which it

acts
Impulse= force x time= change in momentum

• Momentum is conserved in any collision

• Inelastic collision:
- Stick to each other and move with the same velocity
- Kinetic energy not conserved
- Formula: MAUA + MBUB = V(MA + MB)
• Elastic collision:
- After collision, they move apart with different velocities
- Kinetic energy is conserved
- Formula: MAUA + MBUB = MAVA + MBVB

Recoil momentum: MAVA = -MBVB

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L10: Vectors
Two ways to add vectors:
1) Parallelogram law

2) Heads and tails

Tail Head

Imagine you have two vectors, A and B. Place the tail of B on

the head of A. Draw a line connecting the tail of A and the
head of B; this is the resultant force.
L11: Moving in circles
Centripetal force: Force that produces centripetal
acceleration
Centripetal acceleration: Is produced when an object
performs a circular motion, points towards the centre of the
circle

Circular motion:
• Movement along a circular path/arc
• Uniform circular motion: circular motion with a constant
speed
• Non-uniform circular motion: circular motion with a
changing speed
• The object is accelerating as it is changing direction
• Without tension, the object moves in a straight line
• Centripetal acceleration= velocity^2/radius
• Centripetal force= mass x velocity^2/radius
Additional information for this unit
Important formulas:
Speed= distance/time
Velocity= displacement/time
Acceleration= nal velocity-initial velocity/time
Force= mass x acceleration
Weight= mass x gravitational eld strength
Momentum= mass x velocity
Force (change in momentum)= ( nal momentum - initial
momentum)/time
Impulse= force x time= change in momentum
Inelastic collision: MAUA + MBUB = V(MA + MB)
Elastic collision: MAUA + MBUB = MAVA + MBVB
Recoil momentum: MAVA = -MBVB
Centripetal acceleration= velocity^2/radius
Centripetal force= mass x velocity^2/radius
Spec link: 1.2, 1.3, 1.51, 1.6
Textbook link: 2.1-2.14 (pages 28-58)
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Unit 3: Forces and Pressure
L1: Moments
Moment: The turning effect of a force
Moment= force x perpendicular distance from pivot

Principle of moments:
If an object is in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise
moments about any point is equal to the sum of the
anticlockwise moments about that point.

L2: Center of gravity

Centre of gravity: The point from which an object will
balance
Stability: A measure of an object’s ability to maintain its
original position.

Two ways to increase and objects stability:

1) Lower the centre of gravity
2) Widen the base area

If the line of action lies outside the base of the body, the
body will topple over.
L3: Stretching and compression
Compression: The force when a material is squashed
Tension: The force when a material is stretched
Elastic material: A material which returns to its original
shape after the force acting on it has been released
Plastic material: A material which stays in its new shape
after the force acting on it has been released

Graph of load against extension:

Hooke’s law:
• Provided the elastic limit is not exceeded, load is directly
proportional to extension
• Load ∝ extension (F ∝ e)
• Therefore F= ke
• k is known as the spring constant
• Therefore load= spring constant x extension
• The higher the spring constant, the stiffer the material
 L4: Pressure
Pressure: A measure of how much a force spreads out
Pressure= Force/area
Pressure is measured in pascals (Pa). 1 pascal is 1 N/m^2.

L5: Pressure in liquids

• The weight of the liquid causes pressure in its container
• Pressure in a liquid acts in all directions
• Pressure in a liquid increases with depth
• Pressure in a liquid increases with density
• Pressure in a liquid does not depend upon the shape of
the container
• Pressure in a liquid= depth x density x gravitational
eld strength

L6: Pressure in air

• Air pressure in the atmosphere acts in all directions
• Air pressure gets less as you go higher as the atmosphere
is less dense
• At sea level, atmospheric pressure is about 100 kPa
• We can measure air pressure using a barometer (the unit
is mm Hg)
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 L7: Gas pressure and volume
Boyle’s law:
• Pressure and volume are inversely proportional
• At a constant mass and temperature
• P1V1= P2V2
• Where P1 is the initial pressure, V1 is the initial volume,
P2 is the nal pressure and V2 is the nal volume

Additional information for this unit

Key formulas:
Moment= force x perpendicular distance from pivot
Load= spring constant x extension
Pressure= Force/area
Pressure in a liquid= depth x density x gravitational eld
strength
P1V1= P2V2
Spec link: 1.52, 1.53, 1.8
Textbook link: 3.1-3.8 (pages 60-78)
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Unit 4: Forces and energy
L1: Work and energy
Energy: The ability to do work
Work: When energy is transferred from one form to another
Work= force x distance

Types of energy:
• Kinetic energy: Energy in a moving object
• Gravitational potential energy: Energy due to the height
of an object
• Elastic potential energy: Energy in a stretched or
compressed object
• Chemical energy: Energy contained in food or fuel
• Electrical energy: Energy in the flow of electrons
• Nuclear energy: Energy released when the nucleus of an
atom splits
• Light energy: Energy given out by any hot object
• Sound energy: Energy given out by vibrating objects
• Heat energy: Energy contained in any hot or warm object
 L2: Energy transfer

Law of conservation of energy: Energy cannot be created or

destroyed, just changed in form

When an object falls in a gravitational eld:

GPE at the top= KE just before the object hits the ground
Assuming no energy is lost by air resistance

L3: Calculating PE and KE

Potential energy= mass x gravitational eld strength x
height
Kinetic energy= 1/2 x mass x velocity^2
Mechanical energy= KE + PE

L4: Ef ciency and power

Ef ciency: A measure of how good a device is at changing
energy from one form to another
Ef ciency= Useful energy out/total energy in (x100 for a
percentage)
Ef ciency is a number between 0 and 1 or a percentage.

Power: The rate of energy transfer

Power= Energy transferred/time
Power= Work done/time taken
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 The ef ciency of power can also be measured.
Ef ciency= Power output/total power input

L5: Generating electricity

Steps for generating electricity from coal:
1) Powdered coal is blown into a furnace.
2) The coal burns, heating up water in the boiler.
3) The water in the boiler becomes high pressure steam.
4) The high pressure steam turns the turbine.
5) The turbine turns a shaft connected to a generator.
6) The generator turns and electricity is produced.

L6: Energy resources

Advantages of fossil fuels Disadvantages of fossil fuels

Established fuel supply Limited fuel left

Cheap running costs Large quantities needed

Easy to store and transport Release CO2 when burned

Reliable energy source Release SO2 when burned

Advantages of nuclear fuels Disadvantages of nuclear fuels

Little waste produced Waste can be used to make nuclear weapons

Established fuel supply Waste is carcinogenic

Reliable energy source Mining fuel is dangerous

Little fuel needed Fossil fuels are used in mining and transporting

No smoke/CO2 produced
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 Advantages of tidal power Disadvantages of tidal power

Long lifetime Tidal range varies

Low running costs Few suitable locations

High power output Destroys habitats

Predictable power source Expensive to build

Advantages of geothermal Disadvantages of geothermal

Long lifetime Expensive to build

24-hour production Construction can cause land instability

Reliable power source Few suitable locations

No fuel required

Advantages of hydroelectric Disadvantages of hydroelectric

Long lifetimes Destroys habitats

Quick start-up time Expensive to build

Low running costs Requires hilly areas

Very reliable

Additional information for this unit

Key formulas:
Work= force x distance
Potential energy= mass x gravitational eld strength x
height
Kinetic energy= 1/2 x mass x velocity^2
Ef ciency= Useful energy out/total energy in
Ef ciency= Power output/total power input
Power= Energy transferred/time
Power= Work done/time taken
Spec link: 1.7
Textbook link: 4.1-4.8 (pages 80-98)
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Unit 5: Thermal Effect
L1: Moving particles

• When solids are heated, the particles gain energy and

vibrate more, so they expand. The strong forces holding
the particles together are overcome and molecules start
to move (melting)
• When liquids are heated, the particles gain energy and
move faster, so they expand. Fast moving molecules at
the surface will overcome forces of attraction and escape
(evaporation). When heated enough, the particles have
enough energy to break away in a big gas bubble and
escape (boiling).
• The total KE and PE of all atoms and molecules in a
material is called the internal energy
• The hotter a material, the faster the particles move and
the more internal energy it has
 L2: Temperature
• Kinetic theory: Particles are constantly moving and have
kinetic energy. The higher the temperature, the more
kinetic energy they contain and the faster they move.
• Temperature: A measure of how hot or cold an object is
• Heat: The transfer of energy from a hot object to a cold
one

• Two xed points on a thermometer:

- 0ºC, the freezing point of pure water
- 100ºC, the boiling point of pure water
• Features of liquid-in-glass thermometers:
- Sensitivity: Reacts quickly to temperature changes. The
narrower the tube, the more the liquid inside moves,
making the thermometer more sensitive to changes in
temperature.
- Range: A good thermometer should use a liquid with a
freezing point lower than 0ºC and a boiling point higher
than 100ºC
- Responsiveness: Thermometers with large bulbs or
thicker glass respond less quickly to temperature changes
- Linearity: Linear expansion when being heated between
0ºC and 100ºC

• Absolute 0: The lowest possible temperature (-273ºC, 0K)

• Kelvin temperature= Celsius temperature + 273
L3: Expanding solids and liquids
• When heated, solids, liquids and gases gain thermal
energy
• The particles start to move about more- their vibrations
take up more space, so there is expansion in all directions
• Applications of thermal expansion:
- Bridge gaps (designed for metals expanding on hot days)
- Suspended overhead cables (left slack for contraction that
could happen on cold days)
- Thermometer (as the temperature rises, the liquid in the
thermometer expands and moves up the tube)
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- Bimetallic strip (a low expansion metal is bonded to a high
expansion metal, so that when the strip is heated, the high
expansion metal expands more than the low expansion
metal and so the strip bends)

• As water freezes, it actually expands

• This is because, in liquid water, the water molecules are
very close together while in solid ice, the water
molecules link up in a very open structure that takes up
more space than the liquid

L4: Heating gases

• A gas consists of molecules moving about in random
motion
• Due to collisions, the speed and direction of each
molecule is continually changing in an unpredictable way
• Gas pressure:
- Gas molecules in constant random motion
- When molecules collide with a surface, they exert a force
on the surface as they change direction
- The pressure exerted by a gas is equal to the total force
exerted by the molecules divided by the area
• As temperature increases, the gas particles gain thermal
energy. This increases the kinetic energy of the particles
and causes them to move faster and collide with the walls
of the container more often and with more force. This
increases the pressure of the gas.
• Boyle’s law: Gas pressure is inversely proportional to
volume (P1V1= P2V2)
L5: Conduction
• Thermal energy only flows when there is a temperature
distance from a warmer to a cooler area
• When a rod is heated, the atoms gain more energy and
vibrate. These vibrations make the adjacent atoms vibrate
and so on. This is how heat energy travels along the rod.
• Metals have delocalized electrons which gain kinetic
energy when heated. They move faster and transfer
energy throughout the metal, making heat transfer in
metals very ef cient.

L6: Convection
• When a fluid is heated, the particles gain energy and
spread out more. This increases their volume, which as a
result decreases their density. The now less-dense
particles rise to the top of the liquid. They then cool down
and sink (as they are now denser) only to be heated again
once they reach the bottom. This is a convection current.
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 L7: Radiation
Infrared waves act like light waves:
• They can travel through a vacuum
• They travel at the same speed as light (3x10^8 m/s)
• They can be reflected and absorbed

• Matte black surfaces are the best emitters and absorbers

of radiation but the worst reflectors
• Shiny white and silver surfaces are the worst emitters and
absorbers of radiation but the best reflectors

L8: Speci c heat capacity

Speci c heat capacity: The amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1ºC

Energy= Mass x SHC x temperature change

L9: Latent heat

Speci c latent heat: The energy needed to change the state
of 1kg of a substance at a constant temperature

• When a substance changes from solid to liquid or liquid to

gas, it takes energy to change its state
• Heat is needed to break the bonds or separate the
molecules. The temperature remains the same.
• When a liquid changes back to a solid energy is released
as the bonds form again

Energy= Mass x speci c latent heat

Speci c latent heat of fusion (melting) of ice= 330,000 J/kg

Speci c latent heat of vaporisation (boiling) of water=
2,260,000 J/kg
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L10: Liquids and Vapour
• In liquids heat makes molecules move faster as they gain
energy
• Fast moving molecules at the surface will overcome
forces of attraction and escape (evaporation)

Factors that affect the rate of evaporation:

• Temperature: The higher the temperature the more
energy the molecules have to escape
• Surface area: The higher the surface area, the more
molecules are close to the surface of the liquid
• Humidity: Higher humidity means there is more water
vapour in the air, which will cause molecules which
evaporate to bump into water molecules in the air and fall
back down, reducing the rate of evaporation
• Wind: Wind blows away water molecules and makes the
air less humid, increasing the rate of evaporation

Differences between evaporation and boiling:

• Evaporation can happen at any temperature while boiling
happens at a speci c temperature
• Boiling happens throughout the liquid while evaporation
happens at the surface of the liquid
• Evaporation causes a cooling affect because as faster
particles are escaping, the ones left behind are slower
and have less energy, therefore cooling the liquid

Additional information for this unit

Key formulas:
Kelvin temperature= Celsius temperature + 273
Energy= Mass x SHC x temperature change
Energy= Mass x speci c latent heat
Spec link: 2.1-2.3
Textbook link: 5.1-5.10 (pages 100-123)
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 Unit 6: Waves and Sound
L1: Types of waves
Waves transfer energy from one place to another without
carrying any matter with them.
Transverse waves:

Moves at right angles to the direction the energy moves

Mean 0
position

-
Trough Wavelength
Wavelength: Distance between two consecutive points on a
wave
Amplitude: Half-height of a wave, the bigger the amplitude
of the wave, the more energy it has
Frequency: The number of waves passing any point per
second (Hz/Hertz)
Period: The time for one oscillation (T=1/F)
Speed: Measured in m/s
Speed= Frequency x wavelength

Longitudinal waves:

Waves move in the same direction as the direction the

energy is moving in
L2: Wave effects
Reflection:

Angle of incidence= Angle of reflection

Refraction:

• When passing through a different medium, waves are

refracted
• The wavelength and velocity change
Diffraction:

• If the gap in the barrier is smaller than the wavelength of

the waves, the waves will be reflected
• If the gap is similar to the width of the wavelength, the
waves will be diffracted instead
• If the gap is larger than the wavelength of the waves, the
waves will pass through unchanged except for slight
diffraction at the edges

Additional information for this unit (incomplete)

Key formulas:
Speed= Frequency x wavelength
Spec link: 3.1
Textbook link: 6.1-6.2 (pages 124-127)
 Formula list

Density= mass/volume
Speed= distance/time
Velocity= displacement/time
Acceleration= nal velocity-initial velocity/time
Force= mass x acceleration
Weight= mass x gravitational eld strength
Momentum= mass x velocity
Force (change in momentum)= ( nal momentum - initial
momentum)/time
Impulse= force x time= change in momentum
Inelastic collision: MAUA + MBUB = V(MA + MB)
Elastic collision: MAUA + MBUB = MAVA + MBVB
Recoil momentum: MAVA = -MBVB
Centripetal acceleration= velocity^2/radius
Centripetal force= mass x velocity^2/radius
Moment= force x perpendicular distance from pivot
Load= spring constant x extension
Pressure= Force/area
Pressure in a liquid= depth x density x gravitational eld
strength
P1V1= P2V2
Work= force x distance
Potential energy= mass x gravitational eld strength x
height
Kinetic energy= 1/2 x mass x velocity^2
Ef ciency= Useful energy out/total energy in
Ef ciency= Power output/total power input
Power= Energy transferred/time
Power= Work done/time taken
Kelvin temperature= Celsius temperature + 273
Energy= Mass x SHC x temperature change
Energy= Mass x speci c latent heat
Speed= Frequency x wavelength
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