Incubation Characteristics of Eggs from Older Small White Turkeys

with Emphasis on the Effects due to Egg Weight

B. S. REINHART and E. T. MORAN, JR.

Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelpb,
Guelph, Ontario, Canada NIG 2W1

(Received for publication August 28, 1978)

ABSTRACT Two commercial breeder flocks of Small White turkeys (Diamond White) that were
older than average (48 and 55 weeks of age), each provided 4000 eggs from one and the same day's
collection. All eggs were individually weighed and based on their frequency distribution separation
into 4 categories, respective of flock. A total of 6912 eggs were set in one incubator. Apparent fer-
tility, weight loss with incubation, germ deaths, poult weight, and sex distribution were monitored.
Absence of statistically significant interactions between source and weight of the egg permitted
orthogonal comparisons of the flocks apart from egg weight categories. Reduction in hatchability
of total eggs set with increasing breeder age could largely be attributed to infertility and/or very
early blastodisc death. Incidence of non-viable germs is greater with very large eggs which, in turn,
occupy progressively greater proportions of total eggs laid. No significant differences in hatching
success between weight categories occurred with viable eggs. Losses in weight with incubation were
largely influenced by the weight of the egg where heavier eggs lost proportionately less than smaller
ones. Males outnumbered females regardless of flock source or egg weight category with poult
weights of both sexes paralleling that of the egg. Overall evidence suggests that viable eggs are more
likely to hatch if they originate from fresh eggs having a high albumen height than if internal qual-
ity was low.
1979 Poultry Science 58:1599-1605

INTRODUCTION weight loss over a 21 day period with Broad

Average hatchabilities of Small White turkey
and broiler chicken eggs in Canada for 1977
were 64.2 and 78.9%, respectively (Agriculture
Canada, 1978). The lower egg production and
hatchability with the turkey, as opposed to the
chicken, leads to comparatively high poult
costs. Numerous investigations have been con-
ducted on the hatching performance of chicken
eggs and this information has been summarized
by Landauer (1967). However, studies with tur-
key eggs are few and additional information is
needed.
Using Small White turkeys, Byerly and Mars-
den (1938) observed that eggs averaging 73 to
84 g had higher hatchability than those having
weights outside of this range. Funk (1950)
found that small birds produced eggs which
hatched better than those from large hens
which tended to produce large eggs. Brunson
and Godfrey (1953) reported that average size
turkey eggs hatched better than extremely large
or small ones.
Nestor et al. (1972a) noted a 4.1 and 4.4%
loss in egg weight after 7 days incubation of 2
separate strains of large type turkeys. Brunson
and Godfrey (1953) observed that average egg
Breasted Bronze hens in their first year of lay
was 10.1% and for another group in their sec-
ond year 8.8%. Presumably, the lower loss for
eggs from the second year breeders is due to the
larger egg size.
Nestor et al. (1972a) examined the eggs
from large type turkey hens over 7 months of
lay and found that hatch of fertile eggs and
number of poults produced per hen consist-
ently declined with time. Greater shell porosity
and large egg size as the breeders became older
were considered to be influencing factors in
lowering reproductive efficiency.
With the turkey, distribution of embryonic
mortality during incubation largely involves the
periods prior to the 4th and after the 25th day
of incubation which corresponds with the
chicken when total incubation time is consid-
ered (Insko and Martin, 1935). In-shell deaths
between these two periods is generally low and
evenly distributed when uncomplicated by
nutrition inadequacies with the hen. Upon
examining commercial source Small White tur-
key breeders, Hodgetts and Sweet (1975) ob-
served that an embryonic mortality peak
occurred at 18 to 20 days of incubation with
the frequency of nutritional deficiency symp-

1599
1600 REINHART AND MO RAN, JR.
toms becoming more prevalent with increasing
flock age.
In the present study, two commercial flocks
of Small White Turkey breeders 1 were the source
of eggs for an extensive examination of incuba-
tion characteristics with older flocks. Perform-
ance of one flock (48 weeks of age) was consid-
erably poorer than occurred in other years on
that same farm, while the other flock (55 weeks
of age) at another farm was above average. De-
sign of the experiment permitted an examina-
tion of each flock and the influence that egg
weight itself imposed.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Eggs from each of two commercial flocks of
Diamond White small type turkey breeders (48
and 55 weeks of age) were saved for one and
the same day's collection (4000 from each). Al-
though both flocks had a similar environment,
each was on a separate farm with a different
manager. Feed offered to each flock contained
16% protein having ca. 2750 kcal ME/kg, how-
ever, the suppliers to each farm were different.
Transportation of the eggs from the farms to
the University involved several hundred kilom-
eters. Neither heating nor extensive chilling was
encountered in collection, transit, or subse-
quent handling because of moderate seasonal
temperatures (mid-November). All eggs were in-
dividually weighed to within .1 g on the second
day after lay. Four equal number categories
designated as high, medium high, medium low,
and low were formed for each individual flock
based on frequency distribution (Table 2).
Total average egg weights were 83.1 and 86.0 g
for eggs from the 48- and 55-week-old hens, re-
spectively. The total range and range within
each category were comparable between flocks
although their absolute weights differed (see
Moran and Reinhart, 1979, for exact values).
Eggs were washed in trays using a commercial
automatic machine and detergent supplied
(Kuhl, Flemington, NJ). Egg samples (480)
were removed for a separate study on fresh egg
composition (Moran and Reinhart, 1979).
Incubation was initiated on the fifth day
after laying. Eggs were placed in a Robbins
Model 13-1 turkey setter (6912 in total). The
setter was divided into 4 quadrants (upper
'Hybrid Turkeys Ltd., Kitchner, Ontario N2B
3E9.
right, upper left, lower right, and lower left).
Within each quadrant, 6 replicate plastic trays
containing 36 eggs each represented each flock
and egg weight category (i.e. 36 eggs x 6 repli-
cates X 4 egg weight categories X 2 flocks —
1728 eggs per quadrant). The plastic trays
within each quadrant were completely random-
ized and termed a complete block in the statis-
tical analysis.
Incubation in the setter was for 25 days at
37.5 C and 52 to 55% relative humidity. After
14 days, eggs were candled, non-viable sepa-
rated from viable, and each group weighed re-
spective of tray. All inactive eggs were broken
and classified as non-viable (true infertile or
very early dead blastodisc) or dead germ. Viable
eggs were again weighed, respective of tray, at
25 days upon transfer to two Robbins Model
H-5 hatchers.
Egg distribution in each hatcher involved 3
of the 6 replicate trays for each treatment and
were randomly distributed. Every tray of eggs
was placed in perforated metal baskets with 4
baskets being located in each hatching tray.
Both hatchers were maintained at 36.9 C and
55% relative humidity until pipping com-
menced, whereupon relative humidity was in-
creased to 75% until hatching was complete.
Removal of poults from the hatcher was
initiated 28 days from the time incubation
started. Pips were defined as those embryos
that broke the shell but failed in their attempt
to hatch. Culls were poults that successfully
emerged from the shell but were dead, inade-
quately healed, and/or "wet". All "successful"
poults were immediately vent-sexed and
weighed.
Malpositions were recorded by the same
person for all late dead and pipped embryos
and classified by number according to the stan-
dards of Romanoff and Romanoff (1972). In
addition, all detectable malformed embryos
after 14 days of incubation were determined.
All data were analyzed as a 2 (flock) X 4
(egg weight category) X 6 (replicate tray of 36
eggs) X 4 (incubator quadrants) factorial
arrangement based on a randomized complete
block design (Federer, 1955). Only the percent-
age data on malformed and malpositioned em-
bryos were transformed to their arcsin y %
values for statistical analysis. No significant
(P<.05) interactions arose between flock and
egg weight category data; thus, tables show
their orthogonal comparisons. Appropriate
standard error of the mean values are given with
 SMALL TURKEY EGG INCUBATION
comparisons should the reader wish to employ
a multiple range test and determine individual
differences (egg weight category).
RESULTS
The percentage of non-viable germs of total
eggs set was higher with the 55-, as opposed to
the 48-week-old breeder flock (Table 1). This
observation is in concert with that normally oc-
curring, namely, as birds become older the pro-
portion of viable eggs is reduced. An examina-
tion of egg weight effects per se indicates that
as weight increased so also did the proportion of
non-viable germs, particularly those above the
average.
Hatching performance of the viable eggs was
substantially better with the 5 5-week-old flock
as compared to the 48-week-old hens. This ob-
servation is a reversal of that normally expected
but agrees with the history of each flock in this
specific instance. The higher embryonic mortal-
ity with eggs from the 48-week-old hens oc-
curred during the first 9 and last 3 days of incu-
bation but there was no difference from 10 to
25 days of incubation. This low mid-dead fre-
quency reduces the likelihood that nutrition of
the dams was a factor in any of the present
observations. The only statistically verifiable
alteration in hatchability of viable eggs which
could be attributed to egg weight per se was a
greater incidence of late dead germs with the
heavier, as opposed to lighter eggs.
Losses in egg weight during incubation were
comparable at 14 and 25 days between the two
flocks of breeders (Table 2). When examined as
a function of their egg weight alone, it was ap-
parent that these losses were larger in absolute
terms with heavier than lighter eggs, but when
expressed as a percentage of initial weight a
converse situation occurred. Accordingly,
heavier poults came from heavier eggs and oc-
cupied a greater proportion of the egg of origin
than if they were from light weight eggs which
agrees with the earlier findings of Romanoff
(1933) for the chick. However, poults repre-
sented a greater proportion of initial egg weight
if from light as opposed to heavy eggs, and simi-
larly from those eggs of 48-week-old breeders,
as opposed to 5 5-week-old hens.
Neither breeder flock age nor egg weight
category had any bearing on the quality of the
successfully hatched poults (Table 3). Although
no statistical analysis was performed on the
ratio of males to females, the former exceeded
1601
the latter under all circumstances with their
weights changing in parallel with the egg of
of origin.
Neither egg size nor flock of origin had any
statistically significant effect (P>.05) on the
incidence of malpositions. There was a greater
frequency of head malformations with dead
embryos from heavier, as opposed to lighter
eggs, which was not apparent in the comparison
between flocks (Table 4).
DISCUSSION
The general field observation of a reduced
poult yield of eggs set as hens aged has been
documented by Nestor et al. (1972a,b). This re-
duction would appear to result largely from
changes occurring prior to incubation and due
to fertility and/or early blastodisc death. Be-
cause this problem was more severe with the
largest of egg weights and increased frequency
of these eggs occurs with hen aging, a critical
absolute egg weight would appear to be in-
volved.
A higher embryonic mortality of viable eggs
as the hen ages also occurs (Nestor et al.,
1972a). In the present study, more of the viable
eggs from 55-week-old breeders successfully
hatched than those from the 48-week-old hens.
While this result is a converse of that reported
by Nestor et al. (1972a), it does conform to the
histories of these specific flocks. Cognizant of
these performance differences, Moran and Rein-
hart (1979) examined the physical and chemi-
cal characteristics of sample eggs and noted that
the only measurement which departed from es-
tablished trends with the chicken was a lower
albumen height occurring with the younger, as
opposed to older, flock. Hurnik et al. (1978) re-
ported chicken eggs possessing high Haugh unit
values usually hatch better than those with low
scores.
The present observation that egg weight loss
during incubation was equivalent between eggs
from each of the breeder flocks closely parallels
the findings of Nestor et al. (1972a) and Bran-
son and Godfrey (1953). All data indicate that
the daily rate of water loss to 25 days of incu-
bation was approximately the same. These re-
ductions, when expressed as a percentage of the
initial egg weight, were found to decrease as the
weight of the egg increased which agrees with
an earlier report by Marshall and Cruickshank
(1938) on chicken eggs. Losses were compara-
ble up to 14 days of incubation regardless of
 TABLE 1. Incubation performance of eggs from older small turkey breeders and
of egg weight (per 36 egg incubator tray)%

Non-viable eggs EDGU- -9 days) b MDG ( 1 0 - 25 days) b LDG (26--28days

C
Variable No ./tray % Set No ./tray % VG No./tray % VG No./tray %V

Flock age, weeks

55 7.3 20.4 2.5 8.8 1.3 5.1 1.4 4.7
48 6.5 18.0 4.1 13.4 1.1 3.9 1.8 6.0
SEM .24 .67 .19 .66 .11 .38 .13 .43
Egg weight category
High 7.8 21.6 3.4 11.8 1.2 4.3 2.0 6.8
Medium high 7.1 19.8 3.1 10.4 1.1 3.7 1.6 5.3
Medium low 6.4 17.8 3.1 10.5 1.5 5.0 1.4 4.7
Low 6.3 17.6 3.7 11.5 1.1 5.0 1.4 4.5
SEM .34 .94 .27 .93 .16 .54 .18 .61
Statistical analysis
Age ** * ** • ** * *** NS d NS *** *
Egg weight ** ** NS NS NS NS * *

Values involve six replicate trays of 36 eggs for each of four quadrants within the incubator for each flock and w
presented as orthogonal comparisons of either flock age or egg weight category. There were no statistically significant i
EDG = early dead germs; MDG = mid dead germs; LDG = late dead germs; PDG = pipped dead germs.
Expressed as a percentage of the viable germs.
d
NS, P>.05.
*P<.05.
**P<.01.
***P<.001.
 TABLE 2. Weight losses during incubation of viable and non-viable eggs from older sm
and the proportion of poults at hatch from various weight eggs3,

Non-viable egg loss Viable egg loss

Initial
0 - -14 Days 0 - 1 4 Days 0
egg wt,
Variable gB Wt, g/egg % Egg c Wt, g/egg % Egg Wt, g/eg

Flock age, weeks

55 86.3 6.5 7.5 6.3 7.3 11.8
48 83.1 6.1 7.4 6.0 7.3 11.4
SEM .05 .09 .11 .03 .04 .05
Egg weight category
High 91.3 6.5 7.1 6.6 7.2 12.2
Medium high 86.4 6.3 7.3 6.3 7.3 11.8
Medium low 82.9 6.3 7.6 6.0 7.3 11.3
Low 78.2 6.1 7.8 5.9 7.5 11.0
SEM .07 .13 .15 .05 .05 .07
Statistical analysis
Age *** ** * NS d • ** NS ***
Egg weight * ** NS *#* *** *** * **
Values involve six replicate trays of 36 eggs in each of four quadrants within the incubator for each flock and weig
at each stage of incubation and those non-viable eggs for each tray are from Table 1. Data are expressed as orthogon
statistically significant interactions (P>.05). SEM had 152 df.
Average weight of total eggs set at the initiation of incubation.
Expressed as a percentage of the initial egg weight of those that successfully hatched.
d
NS, P>.05.
***P<.001.
1604 REINHART AND MORAN, JR.

TABLE 3. Quality and sex distribution of poults from eggs originating from older small
turkey breeders and the influence of egg weight*

Culls Males Females

Variable No./tray % VG° No./tray %VG Wt,g No./tray %VG Wt,g

Flock, age, weeks

52 .7 2.6 11.6 40.5 54.2 10.4 36.4 54.2
48 .9 3.1 10.6 35.7 53.3 9.3 31.6 53.0
SEM .10 .33 .27 .89 .17 .26 .85 .17
Egg weight category
High 0.9 3.2 10.3 36.4 58.5 9.1 32.3 58.0
Medium high 0.8 2.8 10.8 37.4 54.8 10.0 35.9 54.7
Medium low 1.0 3.3 11.3 38.3 52.5 10.3 33.8 52.6
Low .6 2.1 11.9 40.2 49.0 10.5 33.9 49.0
SEM .14 .46 .38 1.26 .23 .37 1.20 .24
Statistical analysis
Age NS C NS *** ** * ** * *** * ** *«*
Egg weight NS NS ** NS *** * NS ***
Values involve six replicate trays of 36 eggs in each of four quadrants within the incubator for each flock
and weight category. The numbers of viable eggs and chicks/tray represented with each variable are obtainable
from Table 1. Data are expressed as orthogonal comparisons o f the main variables. There were no statistically sig-
nificant interactions (P>.05). SEM had 152 df.
Expressed as a percentage of viable germs.
C
NS, P>.05.
*P<.05.
**P<.01.
***P<.001.

TABLE 4. Proportion of malformed and malpositioned embryos from hatching eggs

of older small turkey breeders and the influence of egg weight*

% of Mid, late, and pipped dead germs

Malformations Malpositions 0
c d
Variable Limbs Head #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6
Flock age, weeks
55 7.4 6.5 8.9 1.0 18.3 25.4 5.3 3.9
48 11.6 5.6 10.3 3.2 22.4 26.0 4.1 5.0
Egg weight category
High 8.8 10.9 10.8 1.5 22.1 28.1 5.3 4.5
Medium high 8.2 6.5 10.6 .5 21.5 24.7 4.1 6.3
Medium low 7.8 3.5 9.2 4.7 20.2 23.0 7.8 3.2
Low 9.9 3.3 7.8 1.7 17.5 27.1 2.4 3.7
Statistical analysis
Egg weight NS * NS NS NS NS NS NS

Values involve six replicate trays of 36 eggs in each of four quadrants within the incubator for each flock
and weight category. The numbers of mid and pipped dead germs associated with each variable are obtainable
from Table 1. Data are expressed as orthogonal comparisons of the main variables. There were no statistically sig-
nificant interactions (P>.05). No SEM because analysis employed arcsin -J% transformation. All data are actual
percentage values. In many cases an embryo exhibited more than one malformation and/or malposition.
# 1 , normal except that beak lies above instead of under the right wing; #2, head turned to the left instead
of under the right wing; # 3 , head normal, but embryo rotated so that the beak is turned away from the air cell;
#4, leg over the head; # 5 , head at the small end; #6, head between the thighs (Romanoff and Romanoff, 1972).
Limb malformations comprise a composite of malformed toes, crooked toes, malformed legs, crooked legs,
malformed feet.
Head malformations comprise a composite of naked neck, edematous neck, neck tumor, head tumor,
edematous eye, edematous head.
 SMALL TURKEY EGG INCUBATION
whether the eggs were viable or not and concurs
with the findings of Boone and Barmore (1965)
that water loss is the same for fertile and infer-
tile chicken eggs.
Although poult weight is primarily influ-
enced by the size of the egg from which it is
hatched, there is also some lesser but measur-
able influence that can be attributed to the age
of the breeder. A cursory examination of the
changes in primary components of samples
from the same eggs as used in the present study
(Moran and Reinhart, 1979) suggest that there
is a negative correlation with the yolk. The
greater the proportion of yolk to egg the lower
the percentage of hatched poult to initial
weight. The significance of this apparent rela-
tionship has yet to be examined.
In all egg measurements performed by
Moran and Reinhart (1979) there were no
statistically significant interactions between the
primary variables of breeder flock age and egg
weight category nor with the added comparison
of storage time. Similarly, no interactions be-
tween the primary variables occurred with any
parameters measured in the present study on
incubation. This lack of effect was very promi-
nant; however, its meaning at our present state
of knowledge is elusive.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research was supported by a University
of Guelph Research Advisory Board Grant (Cat.
IH-1978), National Research Council of Canada
Operating Grant (A-4945) and Contract #A-04-
837, Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food.
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