Chapter 11

Challenges of
Self-Sensing
Concrete
Chapter Outline
11.1 Introduction and Synopsis 362
11.2 Smart Concrete 362
11.2.1 Self-healing Concrete 363
11.2.2 Self-adjusting Concrete 364
11.2.3 Self-heating Concrete 365
11.3 Stress/Strain Sensing for Concrete 366
11.3.1 Concrete Integrated with Electric Resistance Strain Gauges 366
11.3.2 Concrete Integrated with Optic Fibers 366
11.3.3 Concrete Integrated with Piezoelectric Materials 367
11.3.4 Concrete Integrated with SMA 368
11.3.5 Concrete Integrated with Self-diagnosing Fiber-Reinforced Polymer
Composites 369
11.4 Challenges for Development and Deployment of Self-Sensing Concrete 370
11.4.1 Fabrication of Self-Sensing Concrete 370
11.4.2 Measurement of Sensing Signal of Self-Sensing Concrete 371
11.4.3 Sensing Property and Its Mechanism of Self-Sensing Concrete 371
361

Self-Sensing Concrete in Smart Structures. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800517-0.00011-3

Copyright Ó 2014 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
 362 Self-Sensing Concrete in Smart Structures

11.4.4 Function Expansion of Self-Sensing Concrete 371

11.4.5 Application of Self-Sensing Concrete 372
11.5 Summary and Conclusions 372
References 373

11.1 Introduction and Synopsis

Smart (or intelligent) material technology represents an emerging research field that
is finding many applications in civil infrastructures. These applications include
condition/health monitoring, damage assessment, structural control, structural repair
and maintenance, integrity assessment and more recently asset management, pres-
ervation, and operation of civil infrastructures. The potential benefits of this tech-
nology include improved infrastructures’ reliability and longevity, enhanced
structural performance and durability, improved safety against natural hazards and
vibrations, and a reduction in life-cycle costs in operating and managing civil
infrastructures.
Smart concrete represents the development direction of concrete from high
strength and high performance to multifunctionality and intelligence. Self-sensing
concrete is a kind of smart concrete that has attracted wide attention from
academia and industry. This chapter will briefly summarize the state-of-the-art of
smart concrete. It should be noted that the overall research and development in smart
concrete is so broad that it is worthy of a separated book. This book is focused on the
progress in self-sensing concrete. Based on this, challenges for development and
deployment of self-sensing concrete are discussed.

11.2 Smart Concrete

As a type of smart material, smart concrete is a new generation of concrete materials

that possess adaptive capabilities to external stimuli, such as loads or environment,
with inherent intelligence.
The concept of smart concrete was first proposed by Japanese researchers in the
late 1980s. Since then, Yanagida of the University of Tokyo developed ‘‘self-test
concrete’’ by including glass and carbon fibers in concrete in 1992. Dry of the
University of Illinois embedded calcium nitrite contained in polypropylene fibers in
concrete for anticorrosion of steel reinforcement bars in 1992 [1–3]. This kind of
‘‘smartness’’ is generally programmed by material composition, special processing,
introduction of other functional components, or by modification of the
microstructure. The ‘‘smartness’’ may be characterized by self-sensing, self-heating,
 Challenges of Self-Sensing Concrete 363

self-healing, self-cleaning, self-adjusting, etc. [2,3]. Self-sensing concrete has been

detailed discussed in previous chapters of this book. This section will briefly sum-
marize current research and development in other types of smart concretes.

11.2.1 SELF-HEALING CONCRETE

Self-healing concrete is mostly defined as the ability of concrete to repair its cracks
autogenously or autonomously. It is also called self-repairing concrete. Cracks in
concrete are a common phenomenon due to its relatively low tensile strength.
Durability of concrete is impaired by these cracks since they provide an easy path for
the transportation of liquids and gases that potentially contain harmful substances. If
microcracks grow and reach the reinforcement, not only the concrete itself may be
attacked, but also the reinforcement steel bars will be corroded. Therefore, it is
important to control the crack width and to heal the cracks as soon as possible. Self-
healing of cracks in concrete would contribute to a longer service life of concrete
structures and would make the material not only more durable but also more sus-
tainable [4–6].
Self-healing is actually an old and well-known phenomenon for concrete as it
possesses some natural autogenous healing properties. Due to ongoing hydration of
clinker minerals or carbonation of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), cracks may heal
after some time. However, autogenous healing is limited to small cracks and is only
effective when water is available, thus making it difficult to control. Nonetheless,
concrete may be modified to build in autonomous crack healing [4]. Dry started to
work on the autonomous self-healing concrete in 1994 [5]. In the following years,
several researchers started to investigate this topic. Many self-healing approaches are
proposed. They mainly include autogenous self-healing method, capsule-based self-
healing method, vascular self-healing method, electrodeposition self-healing
method, microbial self-healing method, and self-healing method through embed-
ding shape memory alloys (SMAs) [4–6]. For example, Edvardsen found that the
greatest potential for autogenous healing exists in early age concrete [7]. Mihashi
et al. used urea-formaldehyde microcapsules (diameter 20–70 mm) filled with epoxy
resin and gelatin microcapsules (diameter 125–297 mm) filled with acrylic resin to
achieve self-healing of concrete under compression and splitting [8]. Joseph et al.
made use of an air-curing healing agent, provided by glass tubes. One end of the
tubes was open to the atmosphere and curved to supply healing agent. When the
tubes become depleted after concrete cracking occurred, additional agent could be
added via the open end to allow healing of wider cracks [9]. Otsuki et al. proposed
the electrodeposition method as a means of repair for cracked concrete structures and
investigate the effects of this method on various concrete properties [10]. Jonkers
et al. investigated the potential of bacteria to act as self-healing agent in concrete,
i.e., their ability to repair occurring cracks. They proved that application of bacterial
 364 Self-Sensing Concrete in Smart Structures

spores as self-healing agent appears promising [11]. Kuang and Ou, and Li et al.,
found that the SMA wire as reinforcing bar can make cracks close and perform the
task of emergency damage repair in concrete structures. The cracks are closed due to
the super elastic behavior of embedded SMAs [12,13].

11.2.2 SELF-ADJUSTING CONCRETE

Self-adjusting property of concrete means the ability to perform proper responses to

loading or environmental change. It mainly includes self-damping, temperature self-
adjusting, and humidity self-adjusting performances. Self-adjusting concrete
mitigates hazards (whether due to accidental loading, wind, ocean waves, or earth-
quakes), increases the comfort of people who use the structures, and enhances the
reliability and performance of structures. It has a very wide range of applications in
civil engineering structures, especially for high-rise buildings, long span bridges,
high-speed railways, and nuclear power stations [14–16].
In the 1990s, researchers began to try to improve the damping property of con-
crete by adding macromolecular material. For example, Chung and her team con-
ducted a series of studies to improve the damping property and stiffness of concrete
by using admixtures such as silica fume and latex [17,18]. Cao et al. provided a
means of increasing the damping ratio of concrete by adding carboxylic styrene
butadiene latex [19]. Liu and Ou observed that the addition of polymer or silane-
treated silica fume can improve the loss factor of concrete, thus increasing self-
damping capability of concrete [20,21]. Yao et al. pointed out that the mechanical
performance and wearing resistance of concrete modified by carboxylic styrene
butadiene latex are much better [22]. Luo considered low interfacial shear strength
between the fibers and the matrix and high interfacial area will lead to increase in
damping capacity. He studied the self-damping capacity of concrete with different
concentrations of carbon nanotube (from 0.1 wt.% to 2 wt.%), and found that the
critical damping ratio of nanocomposites increases with concentrations of carbon
nanotube. The critical damping ratio of nanocomposites with 2% of carbon nanotube
is 1.6 times than that of plain concrete [23].
Phase change materials (PCMs) have the ability to absorb or release heat when
the material changes from solid to liquid and vice versa [24]. The combination of
conventional concrete material and latent heat storage PCMs thus can provide
temperature self-adjusting concrete, which can be used to increase thermal comfort
of buildings, store thermal energy, and lower the energy consumption of buildings
[24–26]. Cabeza et al. tested the performances of a small house-sized cubicle with
PCM concrete and one with standard concrete. Temperature differences up to 4  C
were observed between both cubicles, and peak temperatures in the PCM concrete
cubicle were shifted to later hours. The temperature self-adjusting concrete with
PCM can improve thermal inertia of the building and achieve better thermal comfort
 Challenges of Self-Sensing Concrete 365

inside the building [27]. Ling and Poon pointed out that concrete incorporating
PCMs can provide a more stable temperature, which ensures temperatures conducive
to human thermal comfort in a building’s internal space can be maintained [28]. Han
et al. found that a temperature difference up to 6.8  C was observed between interiors
of two same-size scaled-down building models (one made of plain concrete, the
other one made of concrete with PCMs). The melting of PCMs absorbs heat energy
and delays the rise of interior temperatures of the buildings, which can naturally cool
down building interiors from summer heat [29].
In addition, the Japanese researchers added zeolite powder to concrete to achieve
the self-adjusting of humidity in galleries or museums. The self-adjusting property of
concrete results from adsorption and release of porous zeolite powder to water
indoors during the process of environmental humidity change [16].

11.2.3 SELF-HEATING CONCRETE

Self-heating concrete refers to concrete material using electrical resistance heating

based on the Joule effect. It is also called electrothermal concrete. Conventional
concrete material is not electrically conductive. Its resistivity is too high to
be effectively heated. The resistivity of concrete can be reduced by adding electri-
cally conductive fillers such as carbon fibers, steel fibers, and graphite [30–36].
Self-heating concrete has excellent potential for domestic and outdoor environments,
especially for deicing and snow-melting of parking garages, sidewalks, driveways,
highway bridges, and airport runways. It would eliminate or dramatically reduce the
need for using salt, thus providing an effective and environmentally friendly alter-
native. Self-heating concrete itself is the heating element, and thus is able to generate
the heat more uniformly throughout the heated structure and has no damage to
infrastructure.
Much effort has been made to study the property and application of self-heating
concrete. For example, Xie et al. [31,32] first developed conductive concrete by
using conductive fibers and particles as fillers. This concrete presents good con-
ductivity and mechanical strength. When a voltage is applied to this conductive
concrete, thermal energy was radiated from this concrete in the same fashion as a
metallic wire conductor. Snow melting using this conductive concrete was demon-
strated both in the laboratory and in the field. Yehia and Tuan [30,33–35] studied
several typical concretes using steel fibers, steel shaving, and graphite as conductive
fillers. They found that the conductive concrete can raise the slab temperature from
1.1 to 15.6  C in 30 min with an average input power of approximately 520 W/m2.
Pye et al. [36] also used carbon black and coke as conductive fillers in fabricating
self-heating concrete. Chuang [37] compared the self-heating efficiency of several
conductive concretes. The conductive concrete with 8 mm-diameter steel fibers was
found to possess lower electrical resistivity and exceptionally high heating
 366 Self-Sensing Concrete in Smart Structures

effectiveness. The heating power per unit area attained by the steel fiber concrete was
750 W/m2, much higher than 340 W/m2 for a metal wire with the same resistance
(note: the heating power per unit area shows the heating capability of the self-heating
concrete). Zhang et al. observed that the concrete with nickel particles has a superior
self-heating performance. It can achieve a temperature increment of about 50  C
within 30 s when the input voltage is 20 V. At an input voltage of 15 V, the concrete
can deice 3 mm of ice in 478 s under an ambient temperature of 16.0  C and melt
2 cm of snow in 368 s under an ambient temperature of 5.3  C, respectively [38].
Beside these main types of smart concrete, researchers also fabricated some new
types of smart concrete such as self-cleaning photocatalytic concrete [39], light-
transmitting concrete [40], electromagnetic shielding/absorbing concrete [41], and
energy self-harvesting concrete [42].

11.3 Stress/Strain Sensing for Concrete

The previous chapters of this book have detailed discussed self-sensing concrete that
can detect its own structural health parameters. It should be noted that there is also
quite a bit of research on the sensing of concrete parameters using external sensors or
devices. This section will summarize those sensing technologies for concrete.

11.3.1 CONCRETE INTEGRATED WITH ELECTRIC RESISTANCE STRAIN GAUGES

Electric resistance strain gauges (also called strain gauges) are sensors whose
electrical resistance varies with applied force or deformation. The strain can be
measured by detecting changes in electrical resistance. Commonly, electric resis-
tance strain gauges are attached on the concrete surface, are embedded within the
concrete, or are installed on reinforcement bars within the concrete structure for
strain monitoring [43]. The electric resistance strain gauges are the most mature and
widely used of the electrical measurement techniques for concrete structures because
they are easy to install and low cost and show excellent reproducibility of sensing
property. However, the conventional resistance strain gauges exhibit a low sensitivity
(i.e., gauge factor) ranging from 2 to 5, and are easily affected by electromagnetic
interference. In addition, the resistance strain gauges were prone to drift, making
them unsuitable for long-term monitoring [43,44].

11.3.2 CONCRETE INTEGRATED WITH OPTIC FIBERS

Optic fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature, pressure, and
other quantities by modifying a fiber so that the property to measure modulates the
intensity, phase, polarization, wavelength, or transit time of light in the fiber. Sensors
 Challenges of Self-Sensing Concrete 367

that vary the intensity of light are the simplest, since only a simple source and
detector are required. A particularly useful feature of such fiber optic sensors is that
they can provide distributed sensing over distances of up to 1 m [45].
Optic fibers can be incorporated into concrete to measure strain, displacement,
moisture, corrosion, crack, and temperature [46–48]. Lau et al. embedded optic fiber
Bragg grating (FBG) sensors into concrete structures. The use of the embedded FBG
sensor can measure strain accurately in different locations and provide information
to the operator that the structure is subjected to debond or microcrack failure [49].
Lee et al. used optic fiber sensors for the measurement of crack-tip opening dis-
placements of concrete structures [50]. Yeo et al. embedded optic fiber based
humidity sensors in concrete and used them for monitoring moisture changes in
concrete [51]. Fuhr and Huston presented optic fiber corrosion sensors that could be
embedded in roadway and bridge structures. The degradation of reinforced concrete
due to corrosion can be detected by these sensors [48]. Childs et al. embedded FBG
sensors in concrete cylinders to monitor cracking depth [52]. Zhou et al. embedded
optic fiber sensors in a concrete structure for sensing temperature change and con-
crete hydration process during the early age of hydration [53]. Glisic and Inaudi
embedded optic fiber sensors in fresh concrete to monitor early and very early age
deformation of concrete [54]. Kuang et al. employed plastic optic fibers to detect
initial cracks, monitor post-crack vertical deflection, and detect failure cracks in
concrete beams subjected to flexural loading [55]. Bernini et al. attached single-
mode optic fiber sensors to the concrete beam to detect both tensile and compres-
sive strains. The sensors are also able to detect the formation of a crack in the
midsection of the concrete beam [56]. Zhou et al. integrated optic fiber sensors in
fiber-reinforced polymer and embedded them in concrete pavement to monitor the
3D strain distribution of concrete [57].
Optic fibers exhibit several advantages such as high sensitivity, flexibility,
embeddability, multiplexity, and electrical or magnetic interference immunity.
However, optic fibers need to be carefully handled and protected to prevent damage
as they are incorporated into concrete structures. Their durability is not sufficient for
long-term monitoring due to optic fiber aging.

11.3.3 CONCRETE INTEGRATED WITH PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS

Piezoelectric materials can be classified in three categories: piezoelectric ceramics

(PZT), piezoelectric polymers, and piezoelectric composites [58–60]. Piezoelectric
materials exhibit the sensing ability resulting from piezoelectric effect i.e., a surface
charge is generated in response to an applied mechanical stress (direct effect) and
conversely, a mechanical strain is produced in response to an applied electric field
(converse effect) [61]. The piezoelectric materials are very sensitive in detecting
stress, temperature, and cracks of concrete. Wen et al. successfully monitor the
 368 Self-Sensing Concrete in Smart Structures

temperature and stress of concrete under static or quasi-static states by embedding

piezoelectric materials into concrete [62]. Soh et al. surface-bonded PZT patches to
carry out the crack and damage detection during the destructive load testing of a
prototype reinforced concrete bridge [63]. Saafi and Sayyah attached an array of PZT
sensors at a concrete structure to detect and localize disbonds and delaminations of
reinforcement from the concrete structure [64]. Song et al. detected internal cracks of
a 6.1-m-long reinforced concrete bridge bent-cap by imbedding PZT inside one end
of the concrete [65,66]. Zhao et al. used several PZT built in the concrete beam to
monitor cracks [67]. Xu prepared 2–2 and 1–3 concrete-based PZT piezoelectric
composite sensors by cutting-casting method to monitor the temperature, stress, and
cracks of concrete structures adhered and embedded with these sensors [68].
Yokoyama and Harada used the piezoelectric polymer (PVDF) film to monitor the
initiation and propagation of cracks and detect damage of reinforced concrete beams
[69]. Wang and Yi used the PVDF-based stress gauge for stress measurement of
concrete under impact [70].
The piezoelectric materials possess advantages of high sensitivity, high reso-
nance frequency, high stability, etc. The piezoelectric materials can produce only
electrical response to the dynamic mechanics. One disadvantage of piezoelectric
materials is that they cannot be used for truly static measurements. In addition, the
piezoelectric materials also show disadvantages in the unfavorable compatibility and
poor durability with the concrete structures [71].

11.3.4 CONCRETE INTEGRATED WITH SMA

SMAs can work as sensors because their electrical resistance is dependent on their
strain (the electric resistance is increased with applied tension strain) [72]. SMA can
be used to monitor the strain (or deformation) of concrete and to estimate the crack
width in concrete [73,74]. For example, Song et al. conducted bending tests on
concrete beams reinforced with SMA cables. It was found that the electrical resis-
tance value of the SMA cable experienced large and repeatable changes with the
opening and closing of the crack, indicating that electrical resistance can be used to
monitor crack width [73]. Liu studied the sensing property of SMA wires. The tested
results show that the fracture in electric resistance changes almost linearly with the
strain, and the relationship between fracture of electric resistance and stress is similar
to the relationship between the stress and strain. He also investigated the sensing
behavior of concrete beams reinforced with SMA wires. The rate of change of SMA
resistance has a good linear relationship with the mid-span deflection of the beam.
The embedded SMA wire will monitor strain and deformation of concrete structures
[74]. The SMA presents good durability and corrosion resistance, while it has low
sensitivity (i.e., gauge factor) ranging from 3.8 to 6.2 and high cost [74].
 Challenges of Self-Sensing Concrete 369

11.3.5 CONCRETE INTEGRATED WITH SELF-DIAGNOSING FIBER-REINFORCED

POLYMER COMPOSITES

Self-diagnosing (or self-monitoring) fiber-reinforced composites contain an elec-

trical conductive phase such as carbon fiber (short carbon fiber or continuous carbon
fiber) and conductive powder (e.g., graphite powder, carbon black) in the polymer
matrix. The external force can lead to regular change in electrical resistivity of self-
diagnosing fiber-reinforced composites, so they have the abilities to monitor strain
(or deformation), crack, and damage of concrete by measuring electrical resistance
[75–78]. The polymer composites are then embedded in concrete structures as
sensing elements. The sensing mechanism of these polymer composites is similar to
the self-sensing concrete discussed in this book. However, the polymer matrix based
composite still works as embedded sensors while the self-sensing concrete itself
works as the sensor. For example, Hiroshi et al. fabricated self-diagnosing fiber-
reinforced composites with the ability to memorize damage history, and bonded
composite film sensors on the concrete surface to detect cracks and measure crack
width of the reinforced concrete bridge pier columns under quasistatic cyclic lateral
loading. They successfully detected damage to concrete structures through confir-
mation of the relationship between the extent of damage and the variation of elec-
trical conductivity of self-diagnosis materials [75]. Sugita et al. embedded carbon
fiber and glass fiber reinforced polymer materials in concrete structures as rein-
forcement and sensing materials. They observed that the electrical resistance
characteristics of reinforced concrete change along with changing loads. A perma-
nent residual electrical resistance could be observed after the removal of load, and its
change was dependent on the maximum load applied. Monitoring changes in elec-
trical resistance during and after loading is thus a promising method for anticipating
the fracture of the reinforced concrete [76]. Muto et al. stated that the self-diagnosis
carbon fiber and glass fiber reinforced polymer materials can be used to give early
warnings of catastrophic failure of concrete structures, and monitor high values of
strain. They also embedded self-diagnosis polymer material grid in the 20th floor
slab of a skyscraper to detect the occurrence of cracks in concrete [77]. Yang et al.
fabricated self-diagnosis hybrid carbon fiber reinforced polymer sensors. These
sensors can monitor the whole loading procedure of concrete structures with high
sensitivity, including the elastic deformation, the yielding of reinforcing steel bars,
and the initiation and propagation of cracks in concrete [78].
The most obvious advantage of self-diagnosing fiber reinforced composites is
that they work as both structural materials and sensing materials. However, the
sensing repeatability and stability of these composites are heavily affected by aging
of polymer matrix. In addition, the self-diagnosing fiber-reinforced composites
exhibit a relatively low sensitivity ranging from 30 to 40 [79].
 370 Self-Sensing Concrete in Smart Structures

To sum up, the external sensors or sensing materials have such drawbacks as poor
durability, low sensitivity, high cost, low survival rate, unfavorable compatibility
with concrete, and the need for expensive peripheral equipment, such as electronics
and lasers. These mainly lead to insufficient service life and weakening of
mechanical property and durability of concrete structures.
The intrinsic self-sensing concrete that has been discussed in previous chapters
of this book has both structural and sensing functions since it is made of concrete
material, so it replaces the need for embedded or attached external sensors or
sensing materials. The intrinsic self-sensing concrete possesses many advantages,
including high sensitivity, good mechanical property, long survival time, and easy
installation and maintenance compared to external sensors or sensing materials for
concrete.

11.4 Challenges for Development and Deployment

of Self-Sensing Concrete

Although the intrinsic self-sensing concrete emerged nearly two decades ago, the
research on it still continues. Many efforts are needed to promote the development
and deployment of self-sensing concrete. The following challenges are believed to be
critical in the future development and deployment of this kind of materials.

11.4.1 FABRICATION OF SELF-SENSING CONCRETE

Considering the cost of functional fillers, the amount of functional fillers used in the
self-sensing concrete should be as low as possible to decrease the product cost.
Therefore, some useful, but not complicated technologies should be developed to
fabricate the intrinsic self-sensing concrete with low concentration of functional
fillers. A key solution to this issue is to find some simple, repeatable, large-scale, and
low-energy consumption methods for distributing functional fillers in concrete
without altering the normal manufacturing process of concrete materials. The con-
crete with aggregates is much more useful in real applications than that without
aggregate (i.e., cement paste). But aggregates, especially coarse aggregates, will
make it more difficult and complex to enhance the sensing properties of the com-
posites by using a low concentration of functional fillers. For this challenge, the
hybrid filler multi-scale composite technology and use of conductive aggregates may
be the potential solutions. In addition, it is necessary to develop some simple and
convenient evaluation methods for dispersion quality of functional fillers in concrete
matrix. In general, it is suggested that the subsequent researches should be aimed at
establishing a uniform method, guidance, and specification for design, optimization,
and fabrication of the self-sensing concrete.
 Challenges of Self-Sensing Concrete 371

11.4.2 MEASUREMENT OF SENSING SIGNAL OF SELF-SENSING CONCRETE

Sensing signals contain the information reflecting conditions of the self-sensing

concrete. However, measurement noise and environment uncertainty might drown
effective sensing signals if no suitable sensing signal measurement and processing
method is used. Therefore, it is necessary to develop some new electrode design
methods, measurement circuit design methods, signal acquisition, and processing
methods for wholly, deeply, and accurately mining the effective information
reflecting structural conditions of the self-sensing concrete. The ultimate objective is
to develop standard measurement methods and measurement equipment for the self-
sensing concrete.

11.4.3 SENSING PROPERTY AND ITS MECHANISM OF SELF-SENSING CONCRETE

Previous research efforts mainly concentrate on the sensing property of the self-
sensing concrete under uniaxial compressive loading. In real structures, the self-
sensing concrete would be subject to different styles of loading and complex
stress conditions. Therefore, the overall sensing property of the self-sensing concrete
should be determined for structural applications. In future work, the ‘‘finger char-
acteristics’’ and sensing performance parameters (e.g., input/output range, linearity,
repeatability, hysteresis, signal to noise ratio, and zero shifts) on the one-, two-, and
three-axis direction of the self-sensing concrete under complex stress condition
should be obtained. Moreover, the long-term evolution law of sensing property of the
self-sensing concrete should be explored. Although researchers have given much
reasonable explanation on sensing property of the self-sensing concrete through
combinations of experiments and theories, some explanation is still unclear or needs
to be further verified because the actual mechanism is quite complex in nature. The
use of some advanced analyzing and testing instruments is helpful for investigating
the mechanism of sensing property under different temporal and spatial conditions.
In addition, in previous research, the pressure-sensitive characteristic models are
built only for the self-sensing concrete under uniaxial compression or tension. In
future work, much effort should be invested into developing universal models for
describing and forecasting the sensing properties of the self-sensing concrete in
different temporal and spatial conditions based on experiments and numerical
simulation.

11.4.4 FUNCTION EXPANSION OF SELF-SENSING CONCRETE

The existing self-sensing concrete can detect/monitor some mechanical property

of concrete, including strain, stress, crack, and damage. The self-sensing concrete
should have the ability of detecting/monitoring other properties of concrete, such
 372 Self-Sensing Concrete in Smart Structures

as hydration processes, temperature, humidity, and durability. In addition, as a kind

of smart materials, it is desirable that intrinsic self-sensing concrete has other
intelligent or functional features, such as self-healing, self-adjusting, electro-
magnetic shielding/absorbing, and energy self-harvesting. This endows self-
sensing concrete with high level of intelligence and multifunctionality. For this
goal, new composite technology, nanotechnology, and bionic technology may
provide the potential solutions.

11.4.5 APPLICATION OF SELF-SENSING CONCRETE

The self-sensing concrete not only can be used in traffic detection, but also has
potential in structural health monitoring of civil infrastructures such as high-rise
buildings, large-span bridges, tunnel, high-speed railways, offshore structures,
dams, and nuclear power plants. Moreover, it also can be used for border or
military security. There should be some profound investigations on application of
the self-sensing concrete in the above-mentioned fields. Some novel retrofits of
the intrinsic self-sensing concrete in structural application should be developed.
In general, it is suggested that the subsequent studies on application of the
intrinsic self-sensing concrete should be aimed at establishing a uniform method,
guidance, and specification for design and construction of self-sensing concrete
structures.

11.5 Summary and Conclusions

Smart concrete is a very broad category of material that includes self-sensing con-
crete, self-adjusting concrete, self-healing concrete, etc. Self-sensing concrete is a
branch of smart concrete, which was the earliest proposed and has been systemati-
cally and deeply investigated. self-sensing concrete mainly has excellent mechanical
property and durability, long service life, and easy installation and maintenance.
Self-sensing concrete has a wide application in civil infrastructures such as high-rise
buildings, highway, bridges, runways for airport, continuous slab-type sleepers for
high-speed trains, dams, and nuclear power plants, and especially has great potential
in the field of structural health monitoring, traffic detection, and border/military
security. This would be helpful for ensuring structural integrity and safety, extending
the life span of structures, improving the traffic safety and efficiency, guiding the
structural and traffic design, decreasing the resource and energy consumption, etc.
Self-sensing concrete is a ‘‘smart’’ choice for maintaining sustainable development
in concrete materials and structures. It will bring a deep revolution to the field of
conventional concrete materials, which should have a beneficial impact on eco-
nomics, society, and environment.
 Challenges of Self-Sensing Concrete 373

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