See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/358357108

Rare Earth Element Deposits and Their Prospects in the Democratic Republic
of Congo

Article in Mining Metallurgy & Exploration · February 2022

DOI: 10.1007/s42461-022-00551-x

CITATIONS READS

4 1,921

5 authors, including:

Georges M. Kasay Anthony Bolarinwa

Université Officielle de Ruwenzori University of Ibadan
9 PUBLICATIONS 18 CITATIONS 68 PUBLICATIONS 283 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Olawale Kayode Aromolaran Charles Nzolang

University of Ibadan State University of Bukavu, Bukavu - DR Congo
13 PUBLICATIONS 76 CITATIONS 25 PUBLICATIONS 359 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Georges M. Kasay on 08 February 2022.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration
https://doi.org/10.1007/s42461-022-00551-x

REVIEW

Rare Earth Element Deposits and Their Prospects in the Democratic

Republic of Congo
Georges M. Kasay1,2 · Anthony T. Bolarinwa1 · Olawale K. Aromolaran1 · Charles Nzolang3 · Alain S. Kivava2,4

Received: 16 November 2021 / Accepted: 11 January 2022

© Society for Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration Inc. 2022

Abstract
Rare earth elements (REEs) are a group of seventeen elements comprising fifteen lanthanides, scandium, and yttrium. They
are not necessarily rare, though their occurrences as economic deposits in host rocks are not very common. They are enriched
in carbonatites, alkaline, and peralkaline igneous rocks; mineralized pegmatites; and their respective placers and derived
laterites, while other sources include hydrothermal veins, bauxites, and ion adsorption clays. REEs are used in high-tech
and green technology devices, notably batteries, computer memories, permanent magnets, electric vehicles, smartphones,
solar panels, wind turbines, speakers, and air conditioners, among others. The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is
endowed with mineral resources. The occurrences of REE in carbonatite complexes around Lueshe, Bingo, and Kirumba
have been reported. Other regions with REE potential include the pegmatite dykes in several locations, including Numbi,
Manono-Kitotolo, Kampene, North Lugulu, and Kobokobo. Intensive weathering conditions, which facilitate lateritization
processes, may enable REE enrichments in the lateritic profiles and placers associated with these carbonatites, mineralized
pegmatites, and peralkaline igneous massifs. The alluvial placers of Kabengelwa, Mashabuto, and Obaye that are enriched
in monazite and rare earth minerals are typical examples of placer deposits. With more research and exploration, the DRC
could be a hub for future REE projects.

Keywords Rare earth elements · Bingo carbonatite · Lueshe carbonatite · Pegmatites · REE deposits · DR Congo

1 Introduction (Table 1). Rare earth elements have similar geochemical

and physical characteristics and are known to be soft,
Rare earth elements (REEs) are a group of seventeen silvery-white to grey with high density, high melting
chemical elements that include fifteen lanthanides point, and high thermal and electrical conductivity
together with scandium and yttrium (Table 1) [1]. These [2–4]. The most important characteristics, which make
fifteen lanthanides are grouped into light REEs (LREEs), REEs significant in several metallurgical and chemical
medium REEs (MREEs), and heavy REEs (HREEs) applications, are their optical and magnetic properties [5,
6]. Rare earth elements commonly occur in a trivalent
oxidation state (Table 1), to form oxides with the general
* Georges M. Kasay ­REE2O3 formula. They also form compounds with strong
geokasay@gmail.com; kasay.george@paulesi.org.ng electronegative elements, such as oxygen and fluorine
1
[2]. However, Eu and Ce are exceptions to this rule with
Department of Geoscience, Pan African University -
their divalent and tetravalent oxidation states, respectively
Life and Earth Sciences Institute (Including Health &
Agriculture), University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria (Table 1).
2 REEs and their alloys are used in communication
Département de Géologie, Université Officielle de
Ruwenzori, Butembo, Democratic Republic of Congo devices, batteries, computer memories, digital video disc
3 (DVDs), permanent magnets, smartphones, light emitting
Département de Géologie, Université Officielle de Bukavu,
Bukavu, Democratic Republic of Congo diodes (LED) screens for televisions, solar panels, wind
4 turbines, speakers, microphones, air conditioners, and many
Département de Géologie, Université de Kinshasa, Kinshasa,
Democratic Republic of Congo other applications including magnets, metal alloys, cata-
lysts, polishing, glass, phosphors, pigments, and ceramics

13
Vol.:(0123456789)
 Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration

Table 1  The rare earth elements, their chemical properties and classification [7]
Rare Earth Symbol Atomic Atomic Valence Chemical Metallurgical
Elements number weight classification classification
Scandium Sc 21 45 3
Lanthanum La 57 139 3

Elements (LREE)
Light Rare Earth

Light
Cerium Ce 58 140 3 and 4

REE
Praseodymium Pr 59 141 3
Neodymium Nd 60 144 3
Promethium Pm 61 145 3
Samarium Sm 62 150 2 and 3 Middle
Europium Eu 63 152 2 and 3 REE
Gadolinium Gd 64 157 3
Terbium Tb 65 159 3

Heavy Rare Earth

Heavy Rare Earth

Elements (HREE)

Elements (HREE)
Dysprosium Dy 66 162 3
Holmium Ho 67 164.9 3
Erbium Er 68 167 3
Thulium Tm 69 169 3
Ytterbium Yb 70 173 2 and 3
Lutetium Lu 71 175 3
Yttrium Y 39 88.9 3

(Fig. 1). They are also applied in many energy-efficient

tools, military hardware, and agriculture [2, 3].
Over 200 REE-bearing minerals occur in a variety of
mineral classes, including phosphates, fluorcarbonates,
oxides, silicates, and fluorides (Table 2) [3, 4, 8].
Monazite ((Ce,La,Nd,Th)PO 4 ), xenotime ((HREE,Y)
PO4), and bastnaesite ((Ce,La)(CO3)F) are the common
natural economic REE-minerals mined worldwide [2, 3,
9]. Bastnaesite is the most abundant among these three
minerals, while monazite and xenotime respectively rank
second and third [10]. Other minerals include loparite and
apatite [5, 11], eudialyte [12], and REE-bearing clays [8,
13]. Loparite is mined from agpaitic nepheline syenites in
Russia [12, 14], eudialyte is sourced from alkaline rocks
in Sweden and Russia [15, 16], and ion-adsorption clays
are exploited for HREEs in China [17]. At Songwe Hill
in Malawi, LREEs are hosted in synchisite, florencite,
and parasite, whereas HREEs occur in apatite [18].
Bastnaesite, monazite, loparite, and apatite are primarily
mined for their high concentrations of LREEs, while
xenotime and ion-absorption clays have high HREE Fig. 1  Rare earth elements consumption by major applications in
concentrations [4, 11, 19]. The LREEs are hosted in 2018 (after [12])
carbonates and phosphates, whereas HREEs are in oxides
and phosphates [8].
REEs are classified among critical and strategic met-
als [20, 21], due to their importance in recent technolo- green technology is pivotal towards ensuring that various
gies, their market dominance by China [22, 23], and their governments and industries meet emission standards and
direct interference with business and policy interventions combat the effects of climate change and global warming
of governments [24]. Due to the increasing demands for [21]. Rare earth elements demand is annually growing by
REEs, there are growing concerns amongst exploration- 5% since 2016 [26]; particularly the neodymium-iron-
ists, mining geologists, and high-technology industries boron (NdFeB) magnets, which are crucial in hybrid and
for their adequate and uninterrupted supply as well as electric vehicles, wind turbines, military, and defense
future sustainability [25]. The critical role of REEs in hardware [4, 21, 27].

13
Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration

Table 2  Rare earth elements-bearing minerals in REE deposits [9] placers lends credence to their potential for economic
Mineral Formula REE deposits. This paper, being the first of its kind in
DRC, critically reviews and compares REE resources
Allanite (Ce) (Ce,Ca,Y)2(Al,Fe2+,Fe3+)3(SiO4)3(OH) and reserves globally with possible targets and potential
Ancylite (Ce) SrCe(CO3)2OH·H2O in Africa and DRC.
Bastnäsite (Ce) (Ce,La)(CO3)F
Britholite (Ce) (Ce,Ca)5(SiO4,PO4)3(OH,F)
Brockite (Ca,Th,Ce)(PO4)·H2O 2 Rare Earth Element Deposits and Their
Burbankite (Na,Ca)3(Sr,Ba,Ca,REE)3(CO3)5 Global Distribution
Carbocernaite (Ca,Na)(Sr,REE)(CO3)2
Cerianite (Ce) (Ce4+,Th)O2 2.1 Main Types of REE Deposits
Cerite (Ce) Ce9Fe3+(SiO2)6[(SiO3)(OH)](OH)3
Cheralite (Ca,Ce,Th)(P,Si)O4 2.1.1 Carbonatite Deposits
Chevkinite (Ca,Ce,Th)4(Fe2+,Mg)2(Ti,Fe3+)3Si4O22
Churchite (Y) YPO4·H2O Carbonatites are igneous rocks with > 50% carbonate
Florencite (Ce) CeAl3(PO4)2(OH)6 minerals [30]. The types, petrogenesis, fluid inclusion
Florencite (La) (La,Ce)Al3(PO4)2(OH)6 characteristics, and rare earth mineral potential of
Fluocerite (Ce) (Ce,La)F3 carbonatites abound in literature [31–35]. Carbonatites
Fluorapatite (Ca,Ce)5(PO4)3F are key prospects for REE minerals, apatite, vermiculite,
Fluorite (Ca,REE)F Nb, Cu, and Th ores globally [4, 36–38]. They contain
Gorceixite (Ba,REE)Al3[(PO4)2(OH)5]·H2O high concentrations of LREEs, which are enriched in
Khanneshite (Na,Ca)3(Ba,Sr,Ce,Ca)3(CO3)5 minerals like bastnaesite, monazite, allanite ((Ce,Ca,Y
Loparite (Na0.5Ce0.5)TiO3 ) 2 (Al,Fe 2+ ,Fe 3+ ) 3 (SiO 4 ) 3 (OH)), and apatite (­ Ca 5 (PO 4 )
Monazite (Ce) (Ce,La,Nd,Th)PO4 (Cl, F,OH) 2 ) [37]. Some REE deposits occur within
Parisite (Ce) Ca(Ce,La)2(CO3)3F2 the primary carbonatite rocks, while others are derived
Perovskite (Ca,REE)TiO3 from weathering profiles. Examples include the largest
Pyrochlore (Ca,Na,REE)2Nb2O6(OH,F) mines in the world located in Bayan Obo, Dulucao, and
Rhabdophane (Ce) (Ce,La)PO4·H2O Maoniuping in China and Mountain Pass in the USA
Rhabdophane (La) (La,Ce)PO4·H2O [5, 9, 39] (Fig. 2 [40]). The Bayan Obo deposit has
Sahamalite (Mg,Fe)(Ce,La,Nd,Pr)2(CO3)4 been responsible for most of the world supply of REEs
Samarskite (REE,Fe2+,Fe3+,U,Th,Ca)(Nb,Ta,Ti)O4 produced from bastnaesite and monazite since the 1990s
Synchysite (Ce) Ca(Ce,La)(CO3)2F [22, 37, 41, 42].
Xenotime (Y) (HREE,Y)PO4
2.1.2 Alkaline and Per‑alkaline Igneous Rocks

Ore deposits associated with alkaline and per-alkaline

Exploration for new REE deposits in carbonatites
and other alkaline rocks have been intensified globally
to mitigate the exclusive market supply from a single
source [23]. Exploration activities in developing coun-
tries are geared towards unravelling REE resource poten-
tial in the rock units within the African Shield [7, 28,
29]. Geological information and quantification of REE
resources in China, Australia, and Brazil with their asso-
ciated rocks abound in literature, which is not the case
with Africa. It is, therefore, expedient to examine criti-
cally the geology of the Democratic Republic of Congo
(DRC), which showed prospects for REEs based on the
geological setting, rock types, and long mining his-
tory. The presence of carbonatites, peralkaline igneous
suites, pegmatites and their derived residual profiles and
igneous rocks are commonly hosted in nepheline
syenites, peralkaline granites, and pegmatites. The
main REE-bearing minerals in these rocks are loparite
((Na 0.5Ce 0.5)TiO 3)) and eudialyte, with low contents of
bastnaesite, monazite, zircon, gittinsite, and fergusonite
[43]. One of such deposits is in the Lovozero agpaitic
nepheline syenite massifs located in Russia, where rare
earth oxides are exploited from loparite as a by-product
of Nb ores [12, 16]. Several exploration projects
worldwide focused on REE deposits in alkaline and per-
alkaline rocks because of their affinity for HREEs and Y
rather than LREEs [6, 21]. Agpaitic nepheline syenites in
Kipawa and Red Wine (Canada), Norra Kärr (Sweden),
and Motzfeldt and Ilímaussaq (Greenland) are mostly
enriched in eudialyte and are hence being explored for

13

Fig. 2  REE deposits main classification and global distribution of known and explored repositories [40]
REEs [12, 43, 44]. These are large tonnage deposits with
low grade and high U and Th contents that may be of
environmental concern during their development [21].
Other REE prospects around the world are in peralka-
line granites affected by late-stage magmatic processes
and hydrothermal activities. They include those of the
Strange Lake (Canada), Khaldzan-Buregtey (Mongolia),
and Bokan Mountain (Alaska) [43]. Similar deposits are
emplaced in alkaline syenite complexes and felsic vol-
canic suites affected by late-stage hydrothermal activ-
ity in Thor Lake (Canada) and Diträu (Romania) [45].
REE-bearing minerals of these deposits are silicates and
phosphates, including allanite, zircon, monazite, and
xenotime. REE-carbonates and oxides may also be found
to a small extent in these deposits [21]. The presence of
diverse minerals in alkaline igneous rocks creates incon-
sistency in grades and tonnages, which results in ore min-
eral processing challenges [46].
13
Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration
2.1.3 Iron Oxide Copper–Gold deposits (IOCG)
The term Iron Oxide Copper–Gold deposits (IOCG) was
introduced after the discovery of the giant Olympic Dam
Deposit in Australia, which is mined for uranium, cop-
per, gold, and silver. IOCG deposits are potential sources
of iron-oxides and REE-minerals [5, 47] (Fig. 2). These
deposits are classified into five subclasses: the iron oxide
copper–gold deposits at Olympic Dam (Australia); the
apatite-magnetite deposit at Kiruna (Sweden); the iron-
oxide alkaline or carbonatite intrusion at Vergenoeg
(South Africa); the porphyry copper–gold deposits at Yer-
ington (USA); and the magnetite-replacement gold-copper
deposits at Tennant Creek (Australia) [47]. They occur
in batholitic granitoids emplaced from Late Archaean to
Recent [48]. They are economic sources of LREEs, and
their mineralogy depends on the host rock compositions.
The Kiruna apatite-magnetite deposit in Sweden contains
Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration
a range of 2000–7000 ppm total REEs with negative Eu
anomalies [49].
2.1.4 Veins and Skarn Deposits
Rare earth element mineralization is sometimes concentrated
in veins and skarns systems that are not associated with car-
bonatites or alkaline igneous rocks. Such epigenetic hydro-
thermal veins rich in bastnaesite and monazite are reported
in Bastnäs, Sweden [3, 50]; Steenkampskraal, South Africa
[7]; and Gakara, Burundi [51]. These are LREE-rich depos-
its of low tonnage and high REE grades [21]. Although such
high-grade vein and skarn deposits can easily be processed,
the monazite ore may present radioactive environmental
concerns due to its high Th concentrations.
2.1.5 REE‑Bearing Laterite Deposits
Secondary concentration of REEs is generally facilitated
by chemical weathering, under tropical to subtropical
climatic conditions, of primary REE-bearing carbonatites
and alkaline igneous rocks, which enabled REE enrichments
to a significant economic level [6, 52]. Such weathered
carbonatites in many tropical regions are covered by thick
lateritic soils enriched in Nb ores (Araxá in Brazil; Bingo
and Lueshe in DRC) [53, 54], phosphates (Dorowa in
Zimbabwe) [55], and REE minerals (Mount Weld, Australia)
[56]. Carbonatite-derived lateritic deposits were reported at
Mrima Hill (Kenya), Panda and Ngualla Hills (Tanzania),
and Araxá (Brazil) [7, 57] (Fig. 2). Intense chemical
weathering processes in the secondary environment
liberated, remobilized, and concentrated REE resources
from the primary rocks into the B-horizon of the lateritic
profiles as a residual or colluvial deposit [58]. Goodenough
et al. [21] noted that other high grade Nb-bearing laterites
deserved further investigation to determine their REE
resource potential.
2.1.6 Placer Deposits
Placer deposits result from mechanical disaggregation of
source rocks enriched in REEs. Monazite and xenotime are
the main REE-bearing minerals found in these deposits.
The refractory character and high density of these minerals
enabled their chemical preservation during transportation
from the eluvial sites, where there was mechanical
weathering of the parent rock materials, to their placer
(depositional) sites [59, 60]. The chemistry and morphology
of monazite grains in placers provide important fingerprints
for deciphering their source areas. Geochemical signatures
of carbonatites, acid, and intermediate or alkaline igneous
rocks have been discriminated in situ in monazite grains
[60]. Rare earth element placer deposits are found near
the river and ocean banks (Fig. 2) in Eneabba, Western
Australia [56, 61]; Orissa and Kerala, Southern India [62];
and at Richards Bay, South Africa [5]. Although REE placer
deposits are known for their ease of extraction and recovery
processes; they are, however, highly enriched in radioactive
elements, especially Th and U [21], which tend to reduce the
REE ore quality and raise environmental concerns during
ore processing. These facts tend to restrict their development
[63].
2.1.7 REE‑Enriched Bauxite Deposits
Rare earth elements could be concentrated in bauxitic resid-
ual profiles on bedrocks depending on the mineralogical and
chemical compositions of the parent rocks, favorable geo-
morphological settings, and the paleoclimatic conditions.
Apart from aluminum, low-grade REE minerals could be
extracted as a by-product from bauxite deposits during ore
processing [64, 65]. Bauxites concentrate REE-bearing min-
erals, such as crandallite ((CaAl3(PO4)2(OH)5), florencite
(CeAl(PO4)2(OH)6), and churchite [64].
2.1.8 Ion Adsorption Clay Deposits
Ion adsorption clay deposits are predominantly located in
Xinxiu, Heling, Jiangxi, Huashan, and Guposhan in South
China, where they are exploited for their exceptional valu-
able HREEs [6, 66, 67] (Fig. 2). The host rocks are mostly
granites and, to a small extent, lamprophyres. Weathering
of these granites, initially enriched in REEs, produces hal-
loysite and kaolinite, on which REE minerals are adsorbed
[13, 66]. The REE grade is generally related to the miner-
alogical composition of the parent rocks and the level of
ion adsorption. The REE minerals of these deposit types
are of low radioactivity, accumulate in clays from which
they are easily extracted, and processed with minor energy
consumption [68]. For these reasons, the ion-adsorption clay
deposits ranked high amongst economically extractable REE
deposits. REE-bearing ion-adsorption clay deposits occur
in China [4], Serra Verde (Brazil), Tantalus (Madagascar),
and Phuket (Thailand) [7, 13, 69, 70]. Further explorations
should focus on kaolinitic clay on REE-bearing granites in
other places of the world.
2.2 Global REE Resources
Carbonatite is the main source of REEs worldwide,
followed by alkaline igneous rocks, IOCG deposits,
placers, and ion adsorption clay deposits [43] (Fig. 2).
Global resources of REEs are estimated to be around 478
Mt of rare earth oxides (REO), with China holding 167 Mt.
13
 Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration

Other major producers include Brazil (53 Mt), Australia
(48 Mt) and Russia (48 Mt) (Fig. 3) [71, 72], Greenland
(43 Mt), Canada (33 Mt), the USA (14 Mt), and Vietnam
(14 Mt) (Fig. 3). The remaining 29 Mt of REE resources
are produced by other countries [41]. However, out of these
REE resources, only 120 Mt that have been thoroughly
explored and evaluated are classified as reserves, while the
global production in 2020 was 240,000 t [73] (Table 3). In
2020, China provided 140,000 t, which is about 58% of
the world production, while the USA and Burma delivered
38,000 t (15.8%) and 30,000 t (12.5%), respectively
(Table 3). The rest of the production came from Australia,
Madagascar, India, Russia, Thailand, Vietnam, Brazil,
Burundi, and others (Table 3).
2.3 Rare Earth Element Deposits in Africa

Several REE deposits in Africa have been identified

Fig. 3  Global REE resources distribution and the significant deposits
types (after [71])
(Table 4), while others are at different stages of explora-
tion and development. Only very few of these are produc-
ing at the moment (Fig. 4). Thus, it can be established that
Africa is relatively under-explored with respect to these
critical commodities. Many REE deposits in this continent
are located within alkaline igneous provinces and Archean
cratons [74]. This is why the Congo, Tanzania, and West
African cratons are promising areas for REE prospects [28].
Recent research indicated new deposits in Twihinat area,
South Morocco in North Africa [75]. It is expected that more
exploratory works would reveal hidden deposits in other
parts of the continent. A summary of the geological set-
tings, mineralization, and owners of selected REE deposits
in Africa is provided in Table 4.
African REE projects under exploitation include the
Gakara (Burundi) and Songwe Hill (Malawi) deposits
(Table 4). The ore minerals of the Gakara deposit are bast-
naesite and monazite [29], while REE-bearing minerals of
the Songwe Hill deposit are apatite and synchysite-Ce [18].
Other resources shown in Fig. 4 are either being explored
or developed.

Table 3  World distribution Country Mine production Reserves of REE in t World share in %
of REE reserves and mine in t
production in 2020 [73]
United States of America 38,000 1,500,000 1.25
Australia 17,000 4,100,000 3.41
Brazil 1000 21,000,0000 17.5
Burma 30,000 - -
Burundi 500 - -
Canada - 830,000 0.69
China 140,000 44,000,000 36.6
Greenland - 1,500,000 1.25
India 3000 6,900,000 5.75
Madagascar 8000 - -
Russia 2700 12,000,000 10
South Africa - 790,000 0.65
Tanzania - 890,000 0.74
Thailand 2000 - -
Vietnam 1000 22,000,000 18.33
Other countries 100 310,000 0.25
World total (rounded) 240,000 120,000,000 -

13
Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration

Table 4  REE deposits in Africa: their host rock, minerals, mineralization type, and ownership (locations shown in Fig. 4)
REE deposit Geographic location Host rock REE-bearing miner- Mineralization type Ownership References
Country als

Songwe Hill Long 33.26 Carbonatite and Apatite and synchy- Magmatic-hydro- Mkango Resources [18]
(Malawi) Lat -8.85 fenite site-Ce thermal Ltd
Kangankunde Long 34.91 Carbonatite Monazite with Magmatic-Hydro- Lynas Corporation [76, 77]
(Malawi) Lat -15.11 minor bastnaesite, thermal
synchysite and
florencite
Nkombwa Hill Long 32.85 Iron-rich Carbonatite Bastnaesite and Magmatic-Hydro- - [7, 78]
(Zambia) Lat 10.16 diqingshanite-Ce thermal
Wigu Hill Long 37.56 Carbonatite Bastnaesite Magmatic-Hydro- Montero Mining and [7]
(Tanzania) Lat -4.46 thermal Exploration
Ngualla Hill Long 32.83 Carbonatite Synchysite, bast- Epigenetic and sec- Peak Resources [7, 79]
(Tanzania) Lat -7.7 naesite and minor ondary laterites
monazite
Mrima Hill Long 39.25 Carbonatite - Epigenetic and sec- - [7, 80]
(Kenya) Lat -4.46 ondary laterites
Gakara Long 29.44 Carbonatite Bastnaesite and Hydrothermal veins Rainbow Rare [29, 51]
(Burundi) Lat -3.5 monazite Earths
Zandkopsdrift Long 17.95 Mica-carbonatite Late-stage and Epigenetic and resid- Frontier Rare Earths [7]
(South Africa) Lat -30.88 breccia supergene mona- ual soil deposit Ltd
zite and apatite-
derived minerals
Xiluvo Long 34.06 Carbonatite Monazite Epigenetic and Promac lda [7]
(Mozambique) Lat -19.25 residual deposit
Steenkampskraal Long 18.63 Granitoid gneiss Monazite Hydrothermal veins Steenkampskraal [7]
(South Africa) Lat -30.97 covered by shales Monazite Mine Ltd
and quartzites
Glenover Long 27.17 Carbonatite and Monazite and REE Epigenetic Karst- Glenover Pty Ltd [7]
(South Africa) Lat -23.86 pyroxenite carbonates solution breccias and Galileo
Resources plc
Ampasindava Long 48.13 Syenite and skarns Eudialyte, chev- Ion-adsorption clays Tantalus Rare Earths [6, 7]
(Mozambique) Lat -13.83 kinite, mona- AG
zite, zircon and
pyrochlore are in
granite, and bast-
naesite, synchysite
and parasite in
skarns
Lofdal (Namibia) Long 14.63 Carbonatite Xenotime, Hydrothermal veins Namibia Rare Earths [7, 19]
Lat -20.39 aeschynite, bast- Inc
naesite, parasite,
synchysite (Ce),
synchysite (Y) and
monazite (Ce)

3 Methods data were inputted into different software packages for

The methods used in this study were varied, and the data
was gathered through the reading of different publica-
tions that globally deal with rare earth elements. In addi-
tion, data concerning REE in the DRC were collected
from unpublished reports and dissertations as well as
from some scientific publications. After collection, these
the production of tables, charts, graphs, plots, and maps.
Among the software used, Arc GIS and Surfer 15 enabled
editing and preparation of geological maps, WinRock
permitted the plotting of the carbonatite classification
diagram, while Ms Excel helped in data tabulation and
normalisation as well as plotting of the rare earth ele-
ment graphs.

13

Fig. 4  Selected African rare earth exploration and development projects (after [7])
4 Geological Settings of the DRC
The geological framework of the DRC is based on the geo-
dynamic processes controlling the evolution of the Central
African plate [81]. The DRC landmass is dominated by the
Congo Basin, which occupies the largest portions of the
central and western parts of the country [82]. This basin
is surrounded by elevated Precambrian ridges. The inner
13
Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration
margins of the basin are encircled by Pan-African tabu-
lar volcano-sedimentary deposits [83]. The Pan-African
Lufilian Arc underlain the southeast of the country, while
Tertiary to Recent volcanoes and carbonatite massifs are
located at the border in the western branch of the East
African Rift System (EARS) [83, 84]. The geological map
of the DRC is presented in Fig. 5 [85].
Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration
Fig. 5  Simplified geological map of the DRC showing major lithostratigraphic subdivisions [85] and locations of major areas discussed in this
paper. Pegmatites Carbonatite complexes Placers
Archean formations occur both in the northern and south-
ern parts of DRC. In the northern part, they are represented
by the Archean Bomu amphibolite and gneiss complex, the
upper Congo granite-greenstone association, the Archean
West Nile gneissic complex in the northeast of the Moto
Belt and Kibali [86], and the Turkwa, Dula, Banda and the
Litima Archean inliers in the Equatorial Province. In the
southern parts of DRC, Archean terrains are located in the
Kasai-Lomami Supergroup, the Haute Luanyi gneisses, and
the Archean nuclei of northern Katanga [81].
The Paleoproterozoic (2500–1600 Ma) formations are
located mainly in the east of DRC along the Ruzizian Belt.
They are exposed in Kivu, Maniema, and former Katanga
provinces. They are found in locations, such as the Kisenge-
Kamata manganese deposit and the Bangweulu Block in for-
mer Katanga Province [87], the Paleoproterozoic domain of
13

Kasai-Katanga-NE Angola, and the Kimezian Supergroup of
the West Congo Belt in former Bas Congo [81, 87].
The Mesoproterozoic Kibaran orogenic belt is a tin-rich
province associated with tungsten, niobium-tantalum, lith-
ium, beryllium, and gold [88]. The belt is in the North and
South Kivu, Maniema, and Katanga Provinces in the DRC
[89] and extends to the neighboring countries of Burundi,
Rwanda, Western Tanzania, and Western Uganda, where in
some regions it is referred to as the Karagwe-Ankole Belt
[90–92]. The internal domain of the belt is affected by exten-
sive post-Kibaran Sn-Ta-Nb granite and pegmatite intrusions
[81].
Neoproterozoic alkaline plutonic rocks in Katanga and
along the western branch of the EARS, which extend over
a length of about 1700 km [93, 94]. This alignment has
twenty-three intrusive alkaline massifs and associated car-
bonatite complexes [84, 95]. In DRC, carbonatite intrusions
are located at Lueshe, Kirumba, Bingo (Figs. 5 and 6), and
Mombadio [54, 94].
Fig. 6  Carbonatite occurrences distribution in DRC and their localisation in the western branch of the EARS (after [54])
13
Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration
The Karoo deposits occur in parts of the sedimentary
pile, which is within the “Cuvette Centrale” and sediments
in the rift basins [82]. They are identified in the Luena and
Lukuga basins. The two basins have coal seams locally
exposed at the surface. The Karoo sediments have two
different origins: the Lower Karoo is composed of fluvial/
lacustrine sediments, while the Middle and Upper Karoo
are composed of fluvial sediments [81]. The Karoo depos-
its are of Upper Carboniferous, Permo-Triassic, and Lower
Jurassic age [81].
The geological terrains of Phanerozoic ages include the
Atlantic coastal basins with oil and gas [82]. These basins
extend from the Gulf of Guinea in the North to Namibia.
Oil fields are located in the western part. The western
branch of the EARS is characterized by the Upemba Gra-
ben, the Ruwenzori Horst, and an intense Cenozoic vol-
canic activity of Nyiragongo and Nyamulagira [81].
Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration
5 Potential REE Deposits in DRC
5.1 Monazite deposits
Monazite is one of the most common REE-bearing min-
erals of economic interest. It is concentrated in several
types of deposits where it is the main mineral with sub-
ordinate minerals. In DRC, several detrital deposits of
monazite were discovered in Kivu, Katanga, and Kasai
during exploration for Au and Sn placers. About 71 t of
monazite (Ce) were produced from Mashabuto alluvial
mines between 1951 and 1966 [96]. In 1968, feasibil-
ity studies revealed that tin tailings and alluvial ores of
Kabengelwa and Obaye in North Kivu Province (Fig. 5)
contained cerite and europium-rich monazite [96, 97]. The
cerite production was 178 t in 1969, which was subse-
quently increased to 225 t in 1972. The Kabengelwa ore
reserves contained up to 1100 Mt of monazite, while the
Mashabuto ore reserves are 45 Mt [97].
Monazite constitutes the REE-bearing mineral phase
in the Bingo carbonatite of North Kivu Province [96].
This carbonatite has a high content of ­Nb2O5 and phos-
phate minerals[98–101]. Monazite is also enriched in the
Sn-Nb–Ta pegmatites of Kampene and Kasese in Maniema
{R}. These deposits and their associated weathering
Fig. 7  Ternary classification
plot of carbonatite showing the
Bingo, Lueshe, Matongo and
average calciocarbonatites (after
[109])
profiles are promising prospects for rare metals. Hydro-
thermal veins of Sulia and Kailo in Maniema showed a
significant abundance of monazite in association with
cassiterite and wolframite. Monazite is also hosted in
Luputa metamorphic charnockite in Kasai Province. The
Sandoa gneisses of the same region are also endowed with
monazite.
5.2 Carbonatite REE Deposits
There are four documented carbonatite complexes in DRC.
These are located in the EARS in Lueshe, Bingo, Mom-
badio, and Kirumba (Fig. 6) [54]. The Bingo and Lueshe
complexes are classified as calciocarbonatites (Fig. 7) and
have been reported as prospective REE sources [21, 52,
102, 103].. Their REE potential should be further evaluated.
Informal mining activities and extraction by mining com-
panies indicated endowment of these carbonatites in N­ b 2O 5
and phosphate minerals [54, 104, 105]. However, detailed
geochemical and petrological studies would reveal other rare
metal potential, including REEs.
5.2.1 The Lueshe Carbonatite
This carbonatite complex is located in North Kivu Province
in the western branch of the EARS (Fig. 6) as an intrusion
13
 Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration

into the quartzites and schists of Precambrian age. Lueshe higher LREE concentrations, but lower HREE contents in
consists of different rock types, including carbonatites, the calciocarbonatite samples from Lueshe (Table 5). These
syenites, pyroxenites, mica schists, and quartzites. The geochemical trends are also indicated in the chondrite-nor-
REE-bearing minerals within the calciocarbonatite hydro- malized REE patterns, depicting higher LREEs but lower
thermal nodules in the area include synchysite (Ca(Ce,La) HREEs (Fig. 8) [110]. The Lueshe carbonatite chondrite-
(CO3)2F) and parasite (Ca(Ce,La)2(CO3)3F2) [52], while normalized REE patterns, on the other hand, showed lower
its calciocarbonatite hydrothermal veins are dominated by LREEs compared to the average calciocarbonatite [109] and
ancylite (SrCe(CO3)2OH·H2O) [106]. The lateritic profiles the Matongo calciocarbonatite, though the three have similar
derived from Lueshe carbonatite have minor amounts of HREE patterns except for Er (Fig. 8). The Oldoinyo Lengai
REEs hosted in the fluorcarbonates, monazite, parasite, natrocarbonatite REE patterns are steeper than others and
ancylite, and rhabdophane [52]. Geochemical data showed they show depletion in HREEs compared to LREEs (Fig. 8).
It is noticed that all these REE patterns do not show Eu
anomalies.
Table 5  Average geochemical values of major elements and REE
(ppm) of some selected carbonatites in DRC and the EARS
5.2.2 The Bingo Carbonatite
Elements Lueshe Bingo Oldoinyo Matongo Average
Lengai calcio-
carbon- The Bingo carbonatite is in North Kivu Province in the
atite northern part of the Lueshe Carbonatite Complex within
the EARS (Fig. 6). The calciocarbonatite (Fig. 7) intruded
Major (wt.-%)
into the orthogneisses of Precambrian age and is surrounded
­SiO2 1.41 3.08 0.22 2.44 2.72
by nepheline syenites, ijolites, and fenites [98]. Dolerite,
­TiO2 0.83 0.08 0.01 0.06 0.15
gabbro and quartzites constitute the country rocks [98]. The
­Al2O3 0.22 0.7 0.01 1.13 1.06
Bingo region falls within the tropical climate. The chemical
­FeOtot 2.41 4.21 0.45 1.53 3.26
weathering of carbonatite and other alkaline igneous rocks
MnO 0.54 0.2 0.46 0.35 0.52
produced thick lateritic profiles that are composed of iron
MgO 0.27 0.44 0.44 0.71 1.80
oxides, brookite, goethite, albite, chlorite, magnetite, and
CaO 52.12 48.36 15.60 51.97 49.1
ringwoodite [111]. The carbonatite, as well as the overlying
­Na2O 0.23 0.50 32.35 0.34 0.29
lateritic profiles, are enriched in La and Ce [54]. The REE
­K2O 0.06 0.07 7.63 0.12 0.26
patterns of the Bingo carbonatite indicated LREE composi-
­P2O5 1.43 0.47 0.89 1.04 2.10
tion similar to the average carbonatite, as given by Wool-
­H2O+ 0.27 0.67 0.14 - 0.76
ley and Kempe [109] (Fig. 8). Both REE-carbonates and
­CO2 40.84 37.82 32.24 32.35 36.6
fluorcarbonates are present in the Bingo calciocarbonatite
“Others” - 2.39 9.47 - 2.86
hydrothermal veins [99, 102]. Morgan et al. [97] and Gupta
Total 99.85 99.04 99.88 92.07 101.48
and Krishnamurthy [96] reported that monazite is one of the
Rare earth elements (ppm)
REE-bearing minerals in the Bingo carbonatite complex.
La 158.81 322.3 543 111.7 608
Geochemical data of the carbonatite revealed REE enrich-
Ce 374.72 637.3 659 192 687
ment (Table 5). The Bingo carbonatite is known for N ­ b2O 5
Pr 36.75 - 44 18.4 219
endowment and has been indicated in resource geological
Nd 131.96 220 105 69.6 883
maps as one of the REE potential targets [37, 54, 103]. Fur-
Sm 21.07 32.8 7.1 9.5 130
ther research is necessary to appraise this promising REE
Eu 6.19 9.3 1.8 2.5 39
prospect.
Gd 25.46 28.2 3.9 6.7 105
Tb 2.89 - 0.38 0.7 9
Dy 13.25 13 1.41 2.9 34 5.2.3 The Kirumba Carbonatite
Ho 2.48 - 0.13 0.52 6
Er 7.01 - 0.37 1.38 4 The Kirumba Carbonatite Complex is located in North
Tm 0.87 - 0.03 0 1 Kivu to the north of the Lueshe carbonatite (Fig. 6). This
Yb 5.61 1.5 0.2 1.2 5 complex has carbonatite and alkaline igneous intrusive
Lu 0.81 - 0.03 0.18 1 suites in quartzites, mica schists and banded iron forma-
∑REE 787.88 1264.4 1366.35 417.28 2731 tions [112–114]. The carbonatite has large concentrations
of iron oxides and ankerite (Ca(CO3)2) [54]. Denaeyer [113]
Average REE values of the Lueshe [52], Bingo [98], Matongo calcio-
carbonatites [107], and Oldoinyo Lengai natrocarbonatite [108] and reported that REE minerals in the Kirumba Alkaline Com-
average calciocarbonatite values [109] plex include allanite, chevkinite, and cerite, while Berger

13
Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration
Fig. 8  Chondrite-normalised
REE patterns of the Lueshe,
Bingo, Matongo, Oldoinyo
Lengai and average calciocar-
bonatites. Normalisation values
are taken from [110]
et al. [103] speculated that the carbonatite could be a poten-
tial source of REEs.
5.3 Placers
The hydrographic network of DRC is a source of many
heavy minerals. The refractory character and hardness of
minerals in these placers enabled resistance to chemical
weathering and easy fragmentation. Alluvial placers are
located along riverbanks and meanders and the common
minerals in these locations include monazite, zircon, gold,
tungsten, coltan, and diamond. REE minerals are monazite,
xenotime, cerite, zircon, and allanite. They are characterized
by a high concentration of radioactive elements, which are
deleterious to the REE minerals and affects ore grades and
hinder further development.
Alluvial placers and stream sediments in many areas
of the DRC are generally worked by using drags in rivers
at Haut-Uele, Bas-Uele, Ituri, Maniema, Katanga, South,
and North Kivu Provinces. Stream sediments in these areas
contain minerals such as xenotime, cassiterite, and ilmen-
ite, particularly near the North Lugulu pegmatites and in
the flat areas of Maniema. However, these pegmatites and
their placers are still largely underexplored, and there is no
record of any development in the available literature. This
is why studies related to the appraisal of REE minerals in
placers> and stream sediments are essential. Kabengelwa,
Mashabuto, and Obaye have important placers that provided
monazite in the 1960s and 1970s [96, 97]. They hold pros-
pects for REE explorations and development.
Beach placers are not common in DRC, but are located
in the western part of the country proximal to the Atlantic
Ocean coastline in the Central Kongo Province. This prov-
ince has the largest coastline and beach placer deposits in
DRC and could be considered for REE targets. Beach plac-
ers showed enrichment in heavy and resistant sand miner-
als. These minerals include zircon, ilmenite, monazite, and
garnet, while other refractory minerals can also be found in
low quantities. However, they need reserve quantification to
properly confirm their resource potential.
5.4 Pegmatites
Rare metal-bearing pegmatites are strongly enriched in
incompatible elements, including Li, Cs, Ta, Be, Sn, Nb,
and W [74, 115, 116]. Mineralized rare-element pegmatites
and their weathering profiles are among the sources of REE
[115]. Pegmatites occur in many parts of the eastern DRC,
particularly in Maniema, southern Kivu, northern Kivu, and
a part of the northern Katanga. These locations are situ-
ated along the Mesoproterozoic Kibaran belt which extends
along the east of the DRC into some countries like Burundi
and Rwanda [91]. These pegmatites are primary host of nio-
bium-, tantalite-, beryllium-, and uranium-bearing minerals
[92, 117]. Some of these pegmatites have been studied, and
their geological and geochemical characteristics are docu-
mented {R). However, their REE resource potential are still
largely scanty and deserved to be investigated. Notable
pegmatite occurrences in DRC, as shown in Fig. 5, include
those of Numbi, Kobokobo, Kampene, North Lugulu, and
Manono-Kitotolo [117–119]. The Sn-Ta-Nb pegmatite of
Numbi is affected by tropical weathering and a large part
of the lateritic profiles is enriched in these metals [119].
The Kobokobo pegmatite contains beryllium, columbite, and
13

cassiterite and fair concentrations of uranium–thorium and
phosphate mineralization; it also has some minor amounts of
REEs [74, 120, 121]. The Kampene pegmatites are enriched
in niobium- and tantalum-bearing minerals, while monazite,
zircon, and apatite occur as accessory minerals. However,
monazite is scarce at the North Lugulu deposits and only
yttric REEs are very common [122]. The Manono-Kitotolo
pegmatite is a world-class lithium-caesium-tantalum (LCT)
pegmatite deposit that hosts critical metals used in green
technology [117, 123]. It is endowed in lithium, tin, cae-
sium, niobium-tantalum, and other trace elements [92, 118].
While few LCT-pegmatites in DRC have been delineated
[117], possible occurrences of niobium-yttrium-fluorine
(NYF)-pegmatites (enriched in Y, Sc, REEs), with economic
concentrations of REEs would require further research.
Pegmatites and their derived lateritic profiles are host of
REE-minerals in some regions [123]; therefore pegmatite
occurrences in the DRC should be investigated to confirm
or rebut REE mineralization.
6 Discussion
The importance of REEs in many electronic devices and
high-tech industries cannot be overemphasized, particularly
in the recent milieu of ICT-driven economies. Therefore,
the increasing applications of REEs in small devices, which
power green technology and enable mitigation of global
warming, are equally envisaged in the immediate future [3,
4, 71]. The monopoly over the production and supply of
REEs and their restricted geoavailability in many continents
have adverse impacts on developed and developing econo-
mies of the world [23, 24, 116]. Therefore, there is a need
to look for additional deposits outside China. This is why
the available options of appraising geologically favorable
areas of the Archean Shields, carbonatites, and alkaline igne-
ous rocks and their lateritic profile and placer derivatives
have become highly imperative. In this context, the DRC,
endowed with favorable geological and geodynamic settings
and alkaline igneous suites, is expected to play a major role
in the future supply of REE commodities.
Considering its geological settings, DRC has carbon-
atites, rare-metal pegmatites, alkaline igneous rocks, and
their placer derivatives, which are essential targets for REE
exploration [54]. Although information related to the geol-
ogy, mineralogy, and geochemistry of these occurrences are
still largely scanty, it is obvious that extensive research on
mineral assessment would give positive results.
From the current state of knowledge, carbonatites have
high potential for providing feasible REE resources. This
is why Bingo and Lueshe carbonatites, which have REE-
enriched lateritic soils similar to the Mrima Hill (Kenya)
and Panda Hill Carbonatites (Tanzania) [79, 102, 105, 124,
13
Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration
125], showed potential for REEs in DRC [54]. The N ­ b2O 5
contents, which are 1.34% for Bingo and 2.86% for Lueshe,
in the derived lateritic profiles underpin this assertion [21].
Considering their chondrite-normalized REE patterns as
shown in Fig. 8, Lueshe and Bingo have higher contents of
LREEs than the Matongo calciocarbonatite and the Oldoinyo
Lengai natrocarbonatite. However, these LREE contents are
lower than those of the average calciocarbonatite (Fig. 8).
These REE patterns of the Lueshe and Bingo are presented
from old geochemical data which were published more than
two decades ago (Table 5) [52, 98]. This is why there is a
need for getting new chemical data using advanced analyti-
cal equipment to better present and constrain the REE poten-
tial of these carbonatite deposits. Sampling and analyzing
laterites from these REE-bearing rocks would also improve
our understanding of the distribution of REEs within the
weathering profiles [58, 126].
Besides, DRC is within the tropical terrains where alter-
nate wet and dry seasons facilitate weathering processes that
enabled REE remobilization in lateritic horizons. Therefore,
huge lateritic profiles are emanating from chemical weather-
ing of the REE-bearing primary rocks. Weathered profiles
over pegmatites are good targets for REE exploration. Many
pegmatite bodies, mantled by lateritic profiles due to tropi-
cal conditions, can provide valuable REE exploration and
geochemical data. The Manono-Kitotolo, Kampene, North
Lugulu, Kobokobo and Numbi pegmatites are suggested to
be considered for future exploration [74, 118, 119].
The hydrographic basins of the DRC are generally large
and offer suitable depositional sites for REE-bearing placers.
Kabengelwa, Mashabuto, and Obaye placers are enriched in
ilmenite, monazite, cerite, xenotime, and other refractory
minerals.
7 Conclusion
Rare earth elements play critical roles in modern green tech-
nologies, military, and other applications including magnets,
catalysts, metal alloys, polishing, phosphors, energy-efficient
storage devices, and superconductors, making them attrac-
tive to many developed economies. The demands for REEs
have led many countries into examining their geological
and geodynamic settings for possible REE endowment. To
redress the REE dependency of several developed countries
on China, a major producer and supplier of REEs, it is expe-
dient to explore and develop the REE mining sector in other
countries worldwide.
Globally, REEs are mined from carbonatites, alkaline
igneous rocks, pegmatites, iron oxide copper–gold deposits,
placers, ion adsorption clays, and laterites. In DRC, potential
LREE prospects are localized in carbonatite complexes in
Bingo, Lueshe, and Kirumba areas. Other potential sources
Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration
include rare-metal pegmatites and their laterite-derived pro-
files in Kampene, Kasese, Numbi, and Kobokobo. Placers
along major riverbanks in Kabengelwa, Mashabuto, and
Obaye in DRC are potential REE sources. However, all these
potential deposits should be thoroughly investigated to have
a clear understanding of their geological, mineralogical,
geochemical characteristics, and economic feasibility. Many
of the occurrences mentioned in this review have not been
investigated in detail to warrant a categorical statement on
their economic feasibility. It is expected that this treatise is
vital for future exploration and development works of rare
earth elements in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the African Union
for financial support through the Pan African University scholarship.
The first author is grateful for the Else-Kröener-Fresenius-Stiftung
and the BEBUC scholarship program. We are grateful to the anony-
mous reviewers, Prof. Harald Dill and the Section Editor, Dr Virginia
McLemore, for their comments which greatly improved the manuscript
of this paper. This work is part of the first author’s PhD thesis.
Funding The Pan African University scholarship and the Else
Kröner-Fresenius-Stiftung
Declarations
Conflict of Interest The authors declare no competing interests.
References
1. Connelly NG, Damhus T, Hartshorn RM et Hutton AT (2005)
Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry IUPAC Recommenda-
tions 2005, Royal Society of Chemistry Publishing/IUPAC
Cambridge, U.K
2. Voncken JHL (2016) The rare earth elements: an introduction.
Springer Briefs in Earth Sciences, Switzerland.https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1007/​978-3-​319-​26809-5
3. Balaram V (2019) Rare earth elements: A review of applications,
occurrence, exploration, analysis, recycling, and environmental
impact. Geosci Front 10:1285–1303. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
gsf.​2018.​12.​005
4. Dushyantha N, Batapola N, Ilankoon IMSK et al (2020) The story
of rare earth elements (REEs): Occurrences, global distribution,
genesis, geology, mineralogy and global production. Ore Geol Rev
122:103521. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​orege​orev.​2020.​103521
5. Wall F (2014) Rare Earth Elements. In: Gunn AG (ed) Critical
metals handbook. Wiley-Blackwell, London, pp 312–339
6. Hoshino M, Sanematsu K, Watanabe Y (2016) REE Mineral-
ogy and Resources, 1st ed. Elsevier B. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​
bs.​hpcre.​2016.​03.​006
7. Harmer RE, Nex PAM (2016) Rare earth deposits of Africa.
Episodes 39:381–406. https://​doi.​org/​10.​18814/​epiiu​gs/​2016/​
v39i2/​95784
8. Kanazawa Y, Kamitani M (2006) Rare earth minerals and
resources in the world. J Alloys Compd 408–412:1339–1343.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jallc​om.​2005.​04.​033
9. Verplanck PL, Mariano AN, Mariano A (2016) Rare earth ele-
ment ore geology of carbonatites. In: Verplanck P, Hitzman M
(eds) Rare earth and critical elements in ore deposits. Society of
Economic Geologists, Littleton, Colorado, pp 5–32
10. Achary SN, Bevara S, Tyagi AK (2017) Recent progress on syn-
thesis and structural aspects of rare-earth phosphates. Coord Chem
Rev 340:266–297. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ccr.​2017.​03.​006
11. Golev A, Scott M, Erskine PD et al (2014) Rare earths sup-
ply chains: Current status, constraints and opportunities. Resour
Policy 41:52–59. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.r​ esour​ pol.2​ 014.0​ 3.0​ 04
12. Charles N, Tuduri J, Lefebvre G, et al (2021) Ressources en terres
rares de l’Europe et du Groenland : un potentiel minier remar-
quable mais tabou ? In: Boulvais P, Decrée S (eds) Ressources
métalliques : cadre géodynamique et exemples remarquables.
ISTE Science Publishing Ltd-Wiley
13. Sanematsu K, Kon Y, Imai A et al (2013) Geochemical and min-
eralogical characteristics of ion-adsorption type REE mineraliza-
tion in Phuket, Thailand. Miner Depos 48:437–451. https://​doi.​
org/​10.​1007/​s00126-​011-​0380-5
14. Vereschagin YA, Kudrevatykh NV, Malygin MA, Emelina TN
(2006) Rare-Earth Magnets in Russia: Raw Materials, Process-
ing, Properties Control and Output Issues. J Iron Steel Res Int
13:23–32. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​S1006-​706X(08)​60157-0
15. Atanasova P, Krause J, Gutzmer J (2013) Mineralogical charac-
terization of REE mineralization in Norra Kärr alkaline complex,
Sweden. the 12th SGA Biannial Meeting 12–15 August, 2013.
Upsala, Sweden, pp 298–301
16. Kogarko LN (2020) Geochemistry of Rare Earth Metals in the
Ore Eudialyte Complex of the Lovozero Rare Earth Deposit.
Dokl Earth Sci 491:231–234. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1134/​S1028​
334X2​00400​8X
17. Yang XJ, Lin A, Li XL et al (2013) China’s ion-adsorption rare
earth resources, mining consequences and preservation. Environ
Dev 8:131–136. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​envdev.​2013.​03.​006
18. Broom-Fendley S, Brady AE, Wall F et al (2017) REE miner-
als at the Songwe Hill carbonatite, Malawi: HREE-enrichment
in late-stage apatite. Ore Geol Rev 81:23–41. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​orege​orev.​2016.​10.​019
19. Wall F, Niku-Paavola VN, Storey C et al (2008) Xenotime-
(Y) from carbonatite dykes at Lofdal, Namibia: Unusually low
LREE:HREE ratio in carbonatite, and the first dating of xenotime
overgrowths on zircon. Can Mineral 46:861–877. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/​
10.​3749/​canmin.​46.4.​861
20. Schulz K, Seal R, Bradley D, Deyoung J (2017) Critical mineral
resources of the United States—Economic and environmental
geology and prospects for future supply. Prof Pap. https://​doi.​
org/​10.​3133/​pp1802
21. Goodenough KM, Wall F, Merriman D (2018) The Rare Earth
Elements: Demand, Global Resources, and Challenges for
Resourcing Future Generations. Nat Resour Res 27:201–216.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s11053-​017-​9336-5
22. Xie Y, Hou Z, Goldfarb RJ et al (2016) Rare earth element depos-
its in China. In: Verplanck PL, Hitzman MW (eds) Reviews in
Economic Geology. Society of Economic Geologists, Littleton,
Colorado, pp 115–136
23. Shen Y, Moomy R, Eggert RG (2020) China’s public policies
toward rare earths, 1975–2018. Miner Econ 33:127–151. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s13563-​019-​00214-2
24. Mancheri NA, Sprecher B, Bailey G et al (2019) Effect of Chinese pol-
icies on rare earth supply chain resilience. Resour Conserv Recycl
142:101–112. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​resco​nrec.​2018.​11.​017
25. Habib K, Wenzel H (2014) Exploring rare earths supply con-
straints for the emerging clean energy technologies and the role
of recycling. J Clean Prod 84:348–359. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.​
jclep​ro.​2014.​04.​035
26. Dutta T, Kim KH, Uchimiya M et al (2016) Global demand for
rare earth resources and strategies for green mining. Environ Res
150:182–190
27. Smith MP, Campbell LS, Kynicky J (2015) A review of the
genesis of the world class Bayan Obo Fe-REE-Nb deposits,
13

Inner Mongolia, China: Multistage processes and outstanding
questions. Ore Geol Rev 64:459–476. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
orege​orev.​2014.​03.​007
28. Goodenough KM, Wall F, Estrade G (2016) Potential rare earth
element metallogenetic belts in Africa. Abstr 35th Int Geol
Congr 2–4
29. Buyse F, Dewaele S, Decrée S, Mees F (2020) Mineralogical
and geochemical study of the rare earth element mineralization
at Gakara (Burundi). Ore Geol Rev 124:103659. https://​doi.​
org/​10.​1016/j.​orege​orev.​2020.​103659
30. Le Maitre RW (2002) Igneous Rocks: a classification and glos-
sary of terms: recommendations of the International Union of
Geological Sciences. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks
31. Simandl GJ, Paradis S (2018) Carbonatites: related ore depos-
its, resources, footprint, and exploration methods. Appl Earth
Sci Trans Inst Min Metall 127:123–152. https://​d oi.​o rg/​1 0.​
1080/​25726​838.​2018.​15169​35
32. Walter BF, Steele-MacInnis M, Giebel RJ et al (2020) Complex
carbonate-sulfate brines in fluid inclusions from carbonatites:
Estimating compositions in the system H2O-Na-K-CO3-SO4-
Cl. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 277:224–242. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1016/j.​gca.​2020.​03.​030
33. Walter BF, Giebel RJ, Steele-MacInnis M et al (2021) Fluids
associated with carbonatitic magmatism: A critical review and
implications for carbonatite magma ascent. Earth-Science Rev
215:103509. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​earsc​irev.​2021.​103509
34. Vladykin NV, Pirajno F (2021) Types of carbonatites:
geochemistry, genesis and mantle sources. Lithos 386–
387:105982. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​lithos.​2021.​105982
35. Banks GJ, Walter BF, Marks MAW, Siegfried PR (2019) A
workflow to define, map and name A carbonatite-or alkaline
igneous-associated REE-HFSE mineral system: A case study
from SW germany Minerals 9. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​min90​
20097
36. Anenburg M, Mavrogenes JA, Frigo C, Wall F (2020) Rare
earth element mobility in and around carbonatites controlled
by sodium, potassium, and silica. Sci Adv 6. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1126/​sciadv.​abb65​70
37. Wang ZY, Fan HR, Zhou L et al (2020) Carbonatite-related
REE deposits: An overview Minerals 10:1–26. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​3390/​min10​110965
38. González-Álvarez I, Stoppa F, Yang XY, Porwal A (2021)
Introduction to the special Issue, insights on carbonatites
and their mineral exploration approach: A challenge towards
resourcing critical metals. Ore Geol Rev 133:104073. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​orege​orev.​2021.​104073
39. Yang Z, Woolley A (2006) Carbonatites in China: A review. J
Asian Earth Sci 27:559–575. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jseaes.​
2005.​06.​009
40. Deady EA (2021) Global rare earth element (REE) mines ,
deposits and occurrences (May 2021). Br. Geol. Surv. 1
41. Batapola NM, Dushyantha NP, Premasiri HMR et al (2020) A
comparison of global rare earth element (REE) resources and
their mineralogy with REE prospects in Sri Lanka. J Asian
Earth Sci 200:104475. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jseaes.​2020.​
104475
42. Smith MP, Moore K, Kavecsánszki D et al (2016) From mantle
to critical zone: A review of large and giant sized deposits of the
rare earth elements. Geosci Front 7:315–334. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​gsf.​2015.​12.​006
43. Dostal J (2017) Rare earth element deposits of alkaline igneous
rocks. Resources 6. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​resou​rces6​030034
44. Borst AM, Friis H, Andersen T et al (2016) Zirconosilicates in
the kakortokites of the Ilímaussaq complex, South Greenland:
Implications for fluid evolution and high-field-strength and
13
Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration
rare-earth element mineralization in agpaitic systems. Mineral
Mag 80:5–30. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1180/​minmag.​2016.​080.​046
45. Goodenough KM, Schilling J, Jonsson E et al (2016) Europe’s
rare earth element resource potential: An overview of REE metal-
logenetic provinces and their geodynamic setting. Ore Geol Rev
72:838–856. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​orege​orev.​2015.​09.​019
46. Jowitt SM, Medlin CC, Cas RAF (2017) The rare earth element (REE)
mineralisation potential of highly fractionated rhyolites: A potential
low-grade, bulk tonnage source of critical metals. Ore Geol Rev
86:548–562. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​orege​orev.​2017.​02.​027
47. Groves DI, Bierlein FP, Meinert LD, Hitzman MW (2010) Iron
oxide copper-gold (IOCG) deposits through earth histoiy: Impli-
cations for origin, lithospheric setting, and distinction from other
epigenetic iron oxide deposits. Econ Geol 105:641–654. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​2113/​gseco​ngeo.​105.3.​641
48. Williams P, Barton M, Johnson D et al (2005) Iron oxide cop-
per-gold deposits: geology, space-time distribution, and possible
modes of origin. In: Hedenquist JW, Thompson JFH, Goldfarb
RJ, Richards JP (eds) Economic Geology. Society of Economic
Geologists, Littelton, Colorado, USA, pp 371–405
49. Frietsch R, Perdahl JA (1995) Rare earth elements in apatite and
magnetite in Kiruna-type iron ores and some other iron ore types.
Ore Geol Rev 9:489–510. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/0​ 169-1​ 368(94)​
00015-G
50. Holtstam D, Andersson UB, Broman C, Mansfeld J (2014) Origin
of REE mineralization in the Bastnäs-type Fe-REE-(Cu-Mo-Bi-
Au) deposits, Bergslagen, Sweden. Miner Depos 49:933–966.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s00126-​014-​0553-0
51. Decrée S, Boulvais P, Cobert C et al (2015) Structurally-con-
trolled hydrothermal alteration in the syntectonic Neoproterozoic
Upper Ruvubu Alkaline Plutonic Complex (Burundi): Implica-
tions for REE and HFSE mobilities. Precambrian Res 269:281–
295. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​preca​mres.​2015.​08.​016
52. Nasraoui M, Toulkeridis T, Clauer N, Bilal E (2000) Differenti-
ated hydrothermal and meteoric alterations of the Lueshe car-
bonatite complex (Democratic Republic of Congo) identified by
a REE study combined with a sequential acid-leaching experi-
ment. Chem Geol 165:109–132. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​S0009-​
2541(99)​00165-5
53. Wall F, Williams CT, Woolley AR, Nasraoui M (1996) Pyro-
chlore from Weathered Carbonatite at Lueshe, Zaire. Mineral Mag
60:731–750. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1180/​minmag.​1996.​060.​402.​03
54. Kasay GM, Bolarinwa AT, Aromolaran OK et al (2021) A review
of the geological settings, ages and economic potentials of car-
bonatites in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Appl Earth Sci
Trans Inst Min Metall 130:143–160. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​
25726​838.​2021.​19115​85
55. Barber B (1991) Phosphate resources of carbonatites in Zimba-
bwe. Fertil Res 30:247–278. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​BF010​48661
56. Jaireth S, Hoatson DM, Miezitis Y (2014) Geological setting and
resources of the major rare-earth-element deposits in Australia.
Ore Geol Rev 62:72–128. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​orege​orev.​
2014.​02.​008
57. Takehara L, Silveira F, Santos R (2015) Potentiality of rare earth
elements in Brazil. In: De Lima IB, Filho WL (eds) Rare Earths
Industry: Technological, Economic, and Environmental Implica-
tions, 1st ed. Elsevier Inc., pp 57–72. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​
B978-0-​12-​802328-​0.​00004-8
58. Berger A, Janots E, Gnos E et al (2014) Rare earth element min-
eralogy and geochemistry in a laterite profile from Madagascar.
Appl Geochemistry 41:218–228. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​apgeo​
chem.​2013.​12.​013
59. Sengupta D, Van GBS (2016) Placer-Type Rare Earth Element
Deposits. In: Verplanck P, Hitzman M (eds) Rare Earth and Criti-
cal Elements in Ore Deposits. Society of Economic Geologists,
Littleton, Colorado, pp 81–100. https://​doi.​org/​10.​5382/​Rev.​18.​04
Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration
60. Dill HG, Weber B, Klosa D (2012) Morphology and mineral
chemistry of monazite-zircon-bearing stream sediments of con-
tinental placer deposits (SE Germany): Ore guide and prov-
enance marker. J Geochemical Explor 112:322–346. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​gexplo.​2011.​10.​006
61. Hoatson DM, Jaireth S, Miezitis Y (2011) The Major Rare-
earth-element Deposits of Australia: Geological Setting,
Exploration, and Resources. Geoscience Australia
62. Singh Y (2020) Rare Earth Element Resources: Indian Contex.
Springer, Cham. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​978-3-​030-​41353-8
63. Weng ZH, Jowitt SM, Mudd GM, Haque N (2014) Assessing rare
earth element mineral deposit types and links to environmental
impacts. Trans Institutions Min Metall Sect B Appl Earth Sci
122:83–96. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1179/​17432​75813Y.​00000​00036
64. Wang Q, Deng J, Liu X et al (2010) Discovery of the REE miner-
als and its geological significance in the Quyang bauxite deposit,
West Guangxi, China. J Asian Earth Sci 39:701–712. https://​doi.​
org/​10.​1016/j.​jseaes.​2010.​05.​005
65. Deady ÉA, Mouchos E, Goodenough K et al (2016) A review of
the potential for rare-earth element resources from European red
muds: examples from Seydişehir, Turkey and Parnassus-Giona,
Greece. Mineral Mag 80:43–61. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 180/m ​ inmag.​
2016.​080.​052
66. Bao Z, Zhao Z (2008) Geochemistry of mineralization with
exchangeable REY in the weathering crusts of granitic rocks
in South China. Ore Geol Rev 33:519–535. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​orege​orev.​2007.​03.​005
67. Xu C, Kynický J, Smith MP et al (2017) Origin of heavy rare
earth mineralization in South China. Nat Commun 8:1–7. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1038/​ncomm​s14598
68. Sanematsu K, Watanabe Y (2016) Characteristics and Genesis of
Ion Adsorption-Type Rare Earth Element Deposits. In: Verplanck
P, Hitzman M (eds) Reviews in Economic Geology. Society of
Economic Geologists, Littleton, Colorado, pp 55–79
69. Estrade G, Marquis E, Smith M et al (2019) REE concentration
processes in ion adsorption deposits: Evidence from the Ambo-
himirahavavy alkaline complex in Madagascar. Ore Geol Rev
112:103027. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​orege​orev.​2019.​103027
70. Borst AM, Smith MP, Finch AA et al (2020) Adsorption of rare
earth elements in regolith-hosted clay deposits. Nat Commun
11:1–15. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1038/​s41467-​020-​17801-5
71. Zhou B, Li Z, Chen C (2017) Global potential of rare earth
resources and rare earth demand from clean technologies. Min-
erals 7:203. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​min71​10203
72. Spandler C, Slezak P, Nazari-Dehkordi T (2020) Tectonic signifi-
cance of Australian rare earth element deposits. Earth-Science
Rev 207:103219. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.e​ arsci​ rev.2​ 020.1​ 03219
73. United States Geological Survey (USGS) (2021) Mineral Commod-
ity Summaries 2020 - Rare earths. Gov. Print. Off. Washington, DC
74. Dill HG (2015) Pegmatites and aplites: Their genetic and applied
ore geology. Ore Geol Rev 69:417–561. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.​
orege​orev.​2015.​02.​022
75. Benaouda R, Kraemer D, Sitnikova M et al (2020) Discovery of
high-grade REE-Nb-Fe mineralization associated with calciocar-
bonatite in south Morocco. Ore Geol Rev 124:103631. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​orege​orev.​2020.​103631
76. Wall F, Mariano AN (1996) Rare earth minerals in carbonatites: a dis-
cussion centred on the Kangankunde Carbonatite, Malawi. In: Jones
AP, Wall F, Williams CT (eds) Rare Earth Minerals: Chemistry,
Origin and Ore Deposits. Chapman and Hall, London, pp 193–225
77. Dill HG (2007) A review of mineral resources in Malawi: With
special reference to aluminium variation in mineral deposits. J
African Earth Sci 47:153–173. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jafre​
arsci.​2006.​12.​006
78. Appleton JD, Bland DJ, Nancarrow PH et al (1992) The occur-
rence of daqingshanite-(Ce) in the Nkombwa Hill carbonatite,
Zambia. Mineral Mag 56:419–422. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1180/​min-
mag.​1992.​056.​384.​16
79. Witt WK, Hammond DP, Hughes M (2018) Geology of the
Ngualla carbonatite complex, Tanzania, and origin of the
Weathered Bastnaesite Zone REE ore. Ore Geol Rev 105:28–54.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​orege​orev.​2018.​12.​002
80. Patel JP, Mangala MJ (1994) Elemental analysis of carbonatite
samples from Mrima Hill, Kenya, by energy dispersive x-ray
fluorescence (EDXRF). Nucl Geophys 8:389–393
81. Deblond A (2004) Updated Geological Framework of Central
Africa. GEONET Scientific case study n°7
82. Kadima E, Delvaux D, Sebagenzi SN et al (2011) Structure and
geological history of the Congo Basin: An integrated interpreta-
tion of gravity, magnetic and reflection seismic data. Basin Res
23:499–527. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1111/j.​1365-​2117.​2011.​00500.x
83. Schlüter T (2006) Geological Atlas of Africa With Notes on
Stratigraphy, Tectonics, Economic Geology, Geohazards and
Geosites of Each Country. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg,
Berlin Heidelberg
84. Tack L, De Paepe P, Deutsch S, Liégeois J-P (1984) The alkaline
plutonic complex of the Upper Ruvubu (Burundi): geology, age,
isotopic gechemistry and implications for the regional geology of
the Western Rift. In: Klerkx J, Michot J (eds) African Geology.
pp 91–114
85. MRAC (2005) Carte Geologique de la Republque Democratique
du Congo, Echelle : 1:2500000. MUSÉE R. L’AFRIQUE Cent. 1
86. Allibone A, Vargas C, Mwandale E, et al (2021) Chapter 9: Oro-
genic Gold Deposits of the Kibali District, Neoarchean Moto
Belt, Northeastern Democratic Republic of Congo. In: Sillitoe
RH, Goldfarb RJ, Robert F, Simmons SF (eds) Geology of the
World’s Major Gold Deposits and Provinces. Society of Eco-
nomic Geologists, pp 185–201. https://​doi.​org/​10.​5382/​SP.​23.​09
87. De Putter T, Liégeois JP, Dewaele S et al (2018) Paleoprotero-
zoic manganese and base metals deposits at Kisenge-Kamata
(Katanga, D.R. Congo). Ore Geol Rev 96:181–200. https://​doi.​
org/​10.​1016/j.​orege​orev.​2018.​04.​015
88. Dewaele S, De Clercq F, Muchez P et al (2010) Geology of the
cassiterite mineralisation in the Rutongo area, Rwanda (Central
Africa): Current state of knowledge. Geol Belgica 13:91–112
89. Kokonyangi JW, Kampunzu AB, Armstrong R et al (2006) The
Mesoproterozoic Kibaride belt (Katanga, SE D.R. Congo). J
African Earth Sci 46:1–35. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jafre​arsci.​
2006.​01.​017
90. Kokonyangi J, Kampunzu AB, Poujol M et al (2005) Petrol-
ogy and geochronology of Mesoproterozoic mafic-intermediate
plutonic rocks from Mitwaba (D. R. Congo): Implications for
the evolution of the Kibaran belt in central Africa. Geol Mag
142:109–130. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1017/​S0016​75680​40099​51
91. Dewaele S, Henjes-Kunst F, Melcher F et al (2011) Late Neo-
proterozoic overprinting of the cassiterite and columbite-tanta-
lite bearing pegmatites of the Gatumba area, Rwanda (Central
Africa). J African Earth Sci 61:10–26. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
jafre​arsci.​2011.​04.​004
92. Melcher F, Graupner T, Oberthur T, Schutte P (2017) Tantalum-
(niobium-tin) mineralisation in pegmatites. South African J Geol
120:77–100. https://​doi.​org/​10.​25131/​gssajg.​120.1.​77
93. Lubala RT, Kampunzu AB, Makutu MN (1985) Un inventaire
des complexes anorogeniques du Burundi, du Ruanda et du Zaire.
J African Earth Sci 3:169–174
94. Kampunzu AB, Makutu MN, Rocci G et al (1997) Neoprotero-
zoic Alkaline and Carbonatite Magmatism Along the Western
Rift in Central-Eastern Africa: Break-up of Rodinia Supercon-
tinent and Reconstruction of Gondwana. Gondwana Res 1:155–
156. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​s1342-​937x(05)​70020-4
95. Decrée S, Demaiffe D, Tack L et al (2019) The Neoproterozoic
Upper Ruvubu alkaline plutonic complex (Burundi) revisited:
13

Large-scale syntectonic emplacement, magmatic differentiation
and late-stage circulations of fluids. Precambrian Res 325:150–
171. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​preca​mres.​2019.​02.​023
96. Gupta CK, Krishnamurthy N (1992) Extractive metallurgy of
rare earth. Int Mater Rev 37:197–248. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1179/​
imr.​1992.​37.1.​197
97. Morgan GA, Connor K, Kornhauser BA (1985) Zaire. U.S.
Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines
98. Woolley AR, Williams CT, Wall F et al (1995) The Bingo
carbonatite-ijolite-nepheline syenite complex, Zaire: geology,
petrography, mineralogy and petrochemistry. J African Earth
Sci 21:329–348. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​0899-​5362(95)​00093-9
99. Williams CT, Wall F, Woolley AR, Phillipo S (1997) Composi-
tional variation in pyrochlore from the Bingo carbonatite, Zaire.
J African Earth Sci 25:137–145. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​S0899-​
5362(97)​00066-3
100. Carlotta B, Chernoff, Orris GJ (2002) Data Set of World Phos-
phate Mines, Deposits, and Occurrences — Part A. Geologic
Data. Usgs 1–352
101. Kasay GM (2018) Geology, Geochemistry and Economic poten-
tial of the Bingo carbonatite and its associated laterites in Beni,
North Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). University
of Nairobi
102. Van Wambeke L (1971) Pandaïte, baddeleyite and associated
minerals from the Bingo niobium deposit, Kivu, Democratic
Republic of Congo. Miner Depos 6:153–155. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1007/​BF002​06627
103. Berger VI, Singer DA, Orris GJ (2009) Carbonatites of the World,
Explored Deposits of Nb and REE-Database and Grade and Ton-
nage Models. US Geol Surv Open File Rep 2009–1139:76–92
104. Maravic HV, Morteani G (1980) Petrology and geochemistry
of the carbonatite and syenite complex of Lueshe (N.E. Zaire).
Lithos 13:159–170. https://​d oi.​o rg/​1 0.​1 016/​0 024-​4 937(80)​
90017-1
105. Maravic HV, Morteani G, Roethe G (1989) The cancrinite-syen-
ite/carbonatite complex of Lueshe, Kivu/NE-Zaire: petrographic
and geochemical studies and its economic significance. J Afri-
can Earth Sci 9:341–345. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/0​ 899-5​ 362(89)​
90077-8
106. Nasraoui M, Bilal E (2000) Pyrochlores from the Lueshe carbon-
atite complex (Democratic Republic of Congo): A geochemical
record of different alteration stages. J Asian Earth Sci 18:237–
251. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​S1367-​9120(99)​00056-5
107. Midende G, Boulvais P, Tack L et al (2014) Petrography, geo-
chemistry and U-Pb zircon age of the Matongo carbonatite Mas-
sif (Burundi): Implication for the Neoproterozoic geodynamic
evolution of Central Africa. J African Earth Sci 100:656–674.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jafre​arsci.​2014.​08.​010
108. Keller J, Zaitsev AN (2012) Geochemistry and petrogenetic
significance of natrocarbonatites at Oldoinyo Lengai, Tanzania:
Composition of lavas from 1988 to 2007. Lithos 148:45–53.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​lithos.​2012.​05.​022
109. Woolley AR, Kempe D (1989) Carbonatites: nomenclature, aver-
age chemical compositions, and element distribution. In: Bell K
(ed) Carbonatites: genesis and evolution. Unwin Hyman, Lon-
don, pp 1–13
110. McDonough WF, Sun S (1995) The composition of the Earth.
Chem Geol 120:223–253. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/0​ 009-2​ 541(94)​
00140-4
111. Philippo S (1995) Evaluation minéralogique par diffraction des
rayons-X qualitative et quantitative des gisements latéritiques de
niobium de la Lueshe et de Bingo dans le cadre de l’optimisation
de la récupération du pyrochlore. Université Catholique de
Louvain
13
View publication stats
Mining, Metallurgy & Exploration
112. Denaeyer ME (1958) Les syénites feldspathoïdiques du Kivu et
leur rôle dans la genèse des laves des Virunga. Bull la Société
Belge Géologie Paléontologie d’Hydrologie 67:59–87
113. Denaeyer ME (1966) Sur la présence d’une carbonatite ankéri-
tique (rauhaugite) en bordure du complexe alcalin de Kirumba
(Kivu). Comptes Rendus Hebd des Séances l’Académie des Sci
Série D Sci Nat 263:9–12
114. Makutu MN (1990) Les complexes alcalins sous – saturés et
carbonatitiques d’âge Prot6rozoique supérieur dans la région des
Grands Lacs Africains : structure, géochimie, pétrologie, aspect
métallogénique et implications géodynamiques. Université de
Lubumbashi
115. Černý P (1992) Geochemical and petrogenetic features of miner-
alization in rare-element granitic pegmatites in the light of cur-
rent research. Appl Geochemistry 7:393–416. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/​0883-​2927(92)​90002-K
116. Mackay D, Simandl GJ (2014) Geology, market and supply chain
of niobium and tantalum—a review. Miner Depos 49:1025–1047.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s00126-​014-​0551-2
117. Melcher F, Graupner T, Gäbler HE et al (2015) Tantalum-
(niobium-tin) mineralisation in African pegmatites and rare
metal granites: Constraints from Ta-Nb oxide mineralogy, geo-
chemistry and U-Pb geochronology. Ore Geol Rev 64:667–719.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​orege​orev.​2013.​09.​003
118. Dewaele S, Hulsbosch N, Cryns Y et al (2016) Geological setting
and timing of the world-class Sn, Nb-Ta and Li mineralization
of Manono-Kitotolo (Katanga, Democratic Republic of Congo).
Ore Geol Rev 72:373–390. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​orege​orev.​
2015.​07.​004
119. Oyediran IA, Nzolang C, Mupenge MP, Idakwo SO (2020) Struc-
tural control and Sn-Ta-Nb mineralization potential of pegma-
titic bodies in Numbi, South Kivu Eastern D.R Congo. Lithos
368–369:105601. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​lithos.​2020.​105601
120. Safiannikoff A, Van Wambeke L (1967) La pegmatite radioac-
tive à béryl de Kobokobo et les autres venues pegmatitiques et
filoniennes de la région de Kamituga - Kivu - Rép. du Congo.
Miner Depos 2:119–130. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​BF002​06584
121. Van Wambeke L (1987) La minéralogie de la pegmatite de Kob-
okobo, Kivu, Zaïre. Bull - Soc Belge Geol 96:137–142
122. De Kun N (1960) Les gisements de cassitérite et de columbo-
tantalite du Nord Lugulu, Kivu, Congo belge. Ann la Société
géologique Belgique 81–189
123. Dill HG (2017) An overview of the pegmatitic landscape from
the pole to the equator – Applied geomorphology and ore guides.
Ore Geol Rev 91:795–823. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​orege​orev.​
2017.​08.​020
124. Jäger E, Niggli E, Van der Veen AH (1959) A hydrated barium-
strontium pyrochlore in a biotite rock from Panda Hill, Tang-
anyika. Mineral Mag J Mineral Soc 32:10–25. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1180/​minmag.​1959.​032.​244.​03
125. Harris PM (1965) Pandaite from the Mrima Hill niobium deposit
(Kenya). Mineral Mag J Mineral Soc 35:277–290. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/​
10.​1180/​minmag.​1965.​035.​270.​03
126. Abedini A, Khosravi M, Dill HG (2020) Rare earth element geo-
chemical characteristics of the late Permian Badamlu karst baux-
ite deposit. NW Iran J African Earth Sci 172:103974. https://d​ oi.​
org/​10.​1016/j.​jafre​arsci.​2020.​103974
Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.