TOPIC: EFL sophomores’ perceptions on the Application of computer-

assisted games in grammar classes

Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Grammar
The foregoing literature review defines grammar in different ways. Grammar is a system of
meaningful structures and patterns that are guided by specific pragmatic constraints
(Larsen-Freeman, 2001). Having the same mindset, Thornbury (1999) defined grammar as
a description of the rules for generating sentences, including an analysis of the meanings
that these forms communicate. Chomsky (1981) added another aspect to the definition of
grammar by using the term "universal grammar," which meant a set of principles shared by
both languages as well as a mechanism that only works with certain inputs while The
linguistic qualities inherent in the human mind are not specific rules or grammars. There
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are numerous circumstances in which the word "grammar" is appropriate. S. Greenbaum
(1982) explained that "grammar" might be a description of a language in general, a theory
for describing languages, or a description of a specific language in terms of a book or its
contents. Debata (2013) also claimed that grammar is the study of words and how they are
combined by anyone talking in a given language. If studying English is like building a
house, English grammar serves as the foundation and framework. The house will be built
tall and will be able to add to or extend many other design elements, and vice versa. Any
person, native or not, who wants to use the language well must master grammar.
Kohli used the illustration of two distinct drivers to further emphasize the significance of
grammar in a language. The first driver only had a basic understanding of how to drive and
had no knowledge of how an engine operated. Every time a piece of machinery fails, he
feels helpless. The second driver is competent behind the wheel and has mechanical
knowledge. A grammarian is comparable to this second conductor. Grammar expertise will
come to his rescue if he has any reservations about something being correct (Kohli, 2007).
Learners are unable to improve their language skills if they have a limited comprehension
of how language works. ― Similar to how there are conscientious and proficient drivers
who are unaware of how a car operates, there are also writers who, through practice and
astute observation, have developed into acceptable—even proficient—authors while having
no knowledge of how language functions. Therefore, grammar is significant because it
allows us to discourse about language, which is a necessary component of language.
O'Hare (1973) claimed that grammar refers to the various sorts of words and word groups
that comprise sentences in any language. Our capacity for expression is structurally
supported by grammar. Students are able to identify the sounds of English words, their
meanings, and the various ways that words can be combined to form coherent sentences.
Proper grammar is essential for avoiding misunderstandings and making it simpler for the
listener to understand the speaker because illegible language slows down communication
and discussions. M. Smith and George Hillocks, Jr. (1991) Each language will have its own
institutions and laws. The grammar of a language is a collection of specific values for
various parameters inside a large system of rules (Chomsky 1982). Furthermore, Jespersen
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(2013) stated that the grammar of each language constitutes its own system, with each of
its elements standing in a specific connection and depending on all of those aspects.
2.2. Grammar Learning And Teaching
2.2.1. Student’s perspectives in learning grammar
Ronald (2008) claimed that choosing, organizing, and evaluating sensory data is an
essential approach that affects how other people see the environment and act. Lindsay and
Norman (1973) defined perception as the process by which living things take in
information from their environment and alter it in order to create a cohesive,
experience-based reality. Additionally, Vygotsky's work in Sodik and Wijaya (2017)
suggests that perception is dynamic and keeps up with quick cognitive systems. Lindsay &
Norman (1973) added another definition of perception: the process through which
creatures interpret and alter stimuli to form a meaningful world experience; in other words,
perception is the way humans think about and appreciate something. This can be different
because people can have contradictory thoughts even when they are thinking the same
thing. Another way to define perception is the way humans observe or comprehend
something using one of their emotions. Perception, as defined by Al-Mekhlafi and
Nagaratman in Sani (2016), is the capacity to make decisions based on one's senses,
including smell, hearing, sight, and touch.
Grammar is an essential component of learning English. Since beginning to learn English,
grammar has been introduced. Grammar has been a challenge for students since
elementary school and even in higher education. The learning of grammar is viewed
differently by different people. Some people perceive things favorably, while others view
them negatively. According to Al-Mekhlafi and Nagaratman (2016) in Sani, many students
believe that studying grammar entails mastering its rules. In fact, Schulz's (1996) study on
students' and teachers' perspectives on error-checking and the value of grammar instruction
in the setting of second languages discovered that some participants took a more motivated
approach to learning grammar than their instructors. Also, the youth think that mastering
grammar is essential to becoming fluent in a foreign language.
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Despite the fact that grammar is crucial, there are numerous challenges that students run
into while trying to understand the implications of grammar lessons in an ESL or EFL
setting. Through the study of Haudeck in Sani (2016), many students find it challenging to
internalize grammar principles. Many students are terrified of making mistakes in
grammar; therefore, they avoid it. Additionally, Nguyen (?) claimed that although English
grammar is challenging to memorize and apply consistently, discussions go too quickly to
give you time to plan out the right arrangement. She also explained that individuals believe
that mastering grammar is useless because the speaker will eventually start to ignore it.
Moreover, students can lose interest in faults because they strive for perfection.
In fact, Yunita (2013) noted that the majority of instruction is still given using the
traditional method, and students continue to consider English grammar instruction a
challenging topic. In fact, Schulz's (1996) study on students' and teachers' [20] perspectives
on error-checking and the value of grammar instruction in the setting of second languages
discovered that some participants took a more motivated approach to learning grammar
than their instructors. Also, the youth think that mastering grammar is essential to
becoming fluent in a foreign language. English grammar instruction is still viewed as a
difficult subject by students, and the majority of instruction is still carried out using the
conventional approach, according to Yunita (2013). In reality, research by Schulz (1996) on
the attitudes of students and educators about error checking and the usefulness of grammar
training in a second language context found that some participants took a more motivated
approach to learning grammar than their instructors. The teenagers also believe that
learning grammar is essential to becoming fluent in a foreign language.
2.2.2. Teaching grammar in the classroom
According to Al-Mekhlafi and Nagaratman in Sani (2016), language teaching should
concentrate on three specific perspectives: grammar as the standard, grammar as structure,
and grammar as a supply. Syllables, phrases, articles, subjects, verbs, and capitalization are
only a few examples of the various components that make up grammar. To achieve the goal
of grammar learning, teaching and learning English in various Asian nations, most notably
Vietnam, have always been guided by the primary purpose of teachers, which is to transfer
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knowledge to students instead of motivating them to master their subject matter
independently (Trinh, 2005). Universities use a range of methods and tactics for instruction
in order to better prepare students, especially those who have developed physically.
Following graduation, a whole profession is capable of facing reality through research and
development. Tam (2020) also emphasized that the typical approach to teaching and
learning foreign languages, in which the lecturer still speaks excessively, does not foster an
environment that enables students to discuss, practice communication skills, and boost
their self-reflection. Moreover, the Dictogloss method of teaching structures is mentioned
in the paper. The grammar structure in which students work in small groups to summarize
a target language text She also underlined that, due to its complexity and difficulty, it was
only utilized as a backup method of teaching foreign languages (Dunn, A., 1993).
2.3. Computer - Assisted Language Learning
2.3.1. What is Computer-Assisted Language Learning?
Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is the best way to understand the
importance of computers in English language teaching and learning. Chapelle (2001, pp.
27–43) categorizes CALL as one of six computer-related sub-disciplines, including
educational technology, computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL), artificial
intelligence, computational linguistics, corpus linguistics, and computer-assisted
assessment. The application of computer-aided learning principles to the context of
language learning is known as "computer-aided language learning." Huizhong (1985)
defined CALL as when a computer is utilized as a teaching tool to enhance learning by
assisting students in better comprehending the learning content. This means that CALL
lessons can be taught using tutorials, exercises, practice tools, and simulations.
Simply expressed, CALL is described as an approach to language teaching and learning in
which computer technology is employed to help with the presentation, reinforcement, and
assessment of material (Wikipedia, 2005). Learning takes place, and an important
interactive component is frequently included. CALL, as defined in this study, refers to the
use of multimedia CD-ROMs that incorporate text, image, audio, and video files to teach
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English as a second language. Noting that using computers compels traditional stakeholder
roles to be reevaluated students, teachers, and researchers have all had to adjust to the
requirements and opportunities presented by a variety of new technologies.
2.3.2.The application of CALL in language learning and teaching?
The significance of computers in English language teaching and learning is best understood
in Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL), a method that applies technology to the
study of languages (Januszewski & Molenda, 2008). The effect of CALL on language
learning has been the subject of numerous studies across the globe. The study by Ahmadi
demonstrates the features and advantages of technologies in a number of areas that
instructors should be conscious of when helping students improve their English
proficiency. It has been determined that learners' enjoyment of using computer games for
education is the major motivation for educators to employ this approach (Razak, Connolly,
Baxter, Hainey, and Wilson, 2012). This information has significant ramifications for
procedures and guidelines aimed at creating settings that are technologically advanced, fair,
interesting, and supportive of quality outcomes (Gosper, Malfroy, McKenzie, and Rankine,
2011). The favorable effects of CALL on learning and performance among students have
been shown through research findings (Almekhlafi, 2006; Ertmer, Ottenbreit-Leftwich, &
York, 2006; Benson & Mekolichick, 2007; Teo, 2009). In other words, CALL has garnered
a lot of interest from numerous sources, including writers and researchers.
However, Laurillard (2009) considered that technology was not created with educators' and
students' learning targets in mind. However, they can be successfully applied to enhance a
participant's learning environment. Additionally, McInnes et al. (1995) discovered that
employing CAL as a support did not enhance students' test scores but did not have a
negative impact when used in an alternate manner.
2.4. The application of CALL in language learning teaching grammar
With the introduction of networked computers and, in particular, the Internet, learners are
increasingly being asked to develop and perform their own computer-based activities.
Many instructors are switching from standalone workstations to increasingly networked
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PCs as a result of the expanding availability of Internet connectivity (e.g., Debski, 2000;
Warschauer & Kern, 2000). Despite Levy (1997), Chapelle contends that human-computer
interaction research has had little impact on CALL and that educational technology has had
a far greater impact. According to Laurillard (2009), ICTs were not created with the
educational goals of teachers and students in mind. Nonetheless, they can be used well to
enhance students' educational experiences. When students use CAL with the purpose of
learning, reflecting, and comprehending the subject matter, this is referred to as a "deep
learning method," whereas when the intention is simply to accomplish the task, this is
referred to as a "surface learning strategy" (Ellis et al., 2008; Prosser, 2000). As a
supporting role, it aids in learning but does not take the place of a lecturer or instructor;
rather, it provides a chance for practice, self-evaluation, and reinforcement of learning
objectives. McInnes et al. (1995) discovered that when used as a supplement, CAL had no
negative effects on student examination performance, but when used as a support, CAL had
no positive effects on student examination performance. In a separate comparison study,
students who used CAL significantly improved their exam results as well as the quality of
their coursework (Jensen & Sandlin, 1992). The use of computers in the presentation of the
subject, the caliber of the course materials, and their rapid accessibility for consultation and
revision were cited by the writers as contributing factors to the CAL group's outstanding
performance. Socio-collaborative approaches to teaching and learning are displacing
communicative approaches, with pedagogical debates now focusing on learner autonomy,
collaborative project design, and appropriate assessment practices. To address concerns
about changing technology, professional development, and improving student levels of
technical literacy, CALL instructors must also keep up with rapid innovation and change.
Also gaining importance and sparking discussion in the CALL community are issues of
power, access, and equity (Warschauer, 1998). Much of the current dispute among CALL
researchers is about creating a coherent research program. The absence of a defined
theoretical framework has long impeded CALL maturation (Levy, 1997), and researchers
are now attempting to "take stock" of what has been accomplished (Cameron, 1999a, p. 9)
in order to strengthen methodological approaches and set research goals (Chapelle, 1997;
Motteram, 1999; Salaberry, 1999). This chapter begins by seeking to identify the
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disciplinary influences on this newly created field of study in order to put the current
CALL difficulties into context.