RESEARCH METHODS
Relevant to the needs of the people researchers
THE VARIABLE
Definition
 No two individuals are alike
 A quantity or a characteristic that has two or more
mutually exclusive values of properties
Types
1. Independent variable – the stimulus variable which is
chosen by the researcher to determine its
relationship to an observed phenomenon
2. Dependent variable – response variable that is
observed and measured to determine the effect of
the independent variable.
3. Moderate variable – a secondary or special type of
independent variable chosen by the researcher to
ascertain if it alters or modifies the relationships
between the independent and dependent variables
4. Control variable – variable controlled by the
researcher in which the effects can be neutralized by
eliminating or removing the variable.
5. Intervening variable – variable which interferes with
the independent and dependent variables, but its
effects can either strengthen o weaken the
independent and dependent variables
Research Process Component
1. Problem/objectives
2. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
3. Assumptions
4. Hypotheses
5. Review of Related Literature
6. Research Design
7. Data Collection
8. Data Processing and Statistical Treatment
9. Analysis and Interpretation
10. Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Quality of researchable problem
1. There is no known solution to the problem
2. The solution can be answered by using statistical
methods and techniques
3. There are probable solutions but they are not yet
tested The occurrence of phenomena require
scientific investigation to arrive at precise solution
Good research problem should be SMART
S – Specific – the problem should be specifically stated
M – Measurable – it is easy to measure by using research
instruments (i.e., questionnaire, tests, etc.) in collecting
data
A – Achievable – the data are achievable using correct
statistical techniques to arrive at precise results
R – Realistic – real results are not manipulated
T – Time-bound – time frame is required in every activity
because the shorter completion of the activity the better-
Whether historical, descriptive, experimental, or case
study
Criteria of a good research problem
1. Interesting – an interesting research problem
attracts the attention of the investigator to study the
problem further. It also makes him determined to
work on until its completion
2.
must keep in mind that they work not for themselves
but for the people
3. Innovative – a good research problem may not be
necessarily new. It may be reinstatement and a
restructuring of an old problem to make it new. In
this manner, results will be more relevant and useful
to a greater number of people
4. Cost effective – 4Ms – man, money, materials and
machinery are needed in conducting research. A
research problem should be economical and
effective in solving the problems of the society; it
should also augment social, economical and health
conditions of the people and many others.
5. Measurable and time-bound – a good research
problem is measurable by using research
instruments, like tests, questionnaires, rating scales,
observation schedules or interviews, and statistical
treatment to arrive at scientific and meaningful
results. A good research can be completed within a
time frame stated. The shorter completion of the
project, the better.
THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
 The statement of purpose for which the investigation
is to be conducted.
 Also have the same characteristics, SMART, with
research problem
 Stated specifically in simple language in order that
the researcher finds them easy to measure by using
research instruments in collecting data and these
data are achieved when correct statistical techniques
are used to arrive at real results, but every activity to
be done, time frame is required because the shorter
completion of the activity, the better
Statement of Research Problem/Objectives
 Problem and Objectives have the same
characteristics but they differ in form
 Problem – interrogative
 Objective - declarative
THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
They provide clear explanations regarding the
relationships of variables. “The fact that variables can be
shown to be associated but does not guarantee that the
relationship of variables has significance”. Theoretical
framework- legal basis to describe properly that process of
the study
Theoretical Framework – shapes the justification of the
research problem/research objectives in order to provide
the legal basis for defining its parameters. It is desirable for
an investigator to identify key concepts that are used in the
study for better understanding of the role of theory in
research- A symbolic construction which uses abstract
concepts, facts or laws, variables and their relations that
explains and predicts how an observed phenomenon exists
and operates. And investigator is required to formulate
existing theories which link his study because theories are
useful devise for interpreting, criticizing, and unifying
established scientific laws or facts that guide in discovering
new generalizations
Conceptual Framework – presents specific and well
defined concepts which are called constructs. Its function
is similar with theoretical framework because the
constructs used are derived from abstract concepts of the
theoretical framework.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
1. Should be presented comprehensively in order to
convince the screening committee of the importance
of the study
2. Presented in either inductive or deductive
perspective.
3. Inductive – the researcher moves from particular to
the general, and presents the importance of the
study from the target beneficiaries to the researcher
himself, to the people in the community, to the
people of the province, region and nation
4. Deductive – general to particular, discussion of the
importance of the study starts first from the national
level down to the researcher himself to the target
The researcher should prove that the study has important
contributions in relation to:
a. Solving the problem and need
b. Bridging a knowledge gap
c. Improving social, economic and health conditions
d. Enriching research instruments and methods
e. Supporting government thrusts beneficiaries.
SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY- Includes the
coverage of the study area, the subjects, the research
instruments, the research issues or concerns, the duration
of the study, and the constraints that have direct bearing
on the result of the study
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Last section of chapter 1 of thesis, dissertation and
research paper. Thesis and dissertations do not include this
section of the study if there are more than 15 terms
defined because this portion is for the glossary. In this
section, the key terms are clearly defined
2 ways to define key terms:
1. Conceptual definition – the definition of terms are
based on concepts or hypothetic ones which are
usually taken from the dictionary
2. Operational definition – the definitions are based on
observable characteristics and how it is used in the
study.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
 To determine the similarities and differences of
the findings between the past and present studies.
 Aim to gain insight into the aspects of the problem
that are critical and controversial,
 Provides the investigator a background regarding
the aspects which have been studied and not yet
studied.
 Assists him/her to do on the components of the
research process.
 Gives ideas to proceed with his study until its
completion
 The investigator is required to read all literature
and studies partially and closely related to his
study
Three parts of literature
1. Related readings – these are laws and department
directives such as circulars, orders, memoranda,
and others which are related to the present study.
These will serve as legal bases for the paradigm of
the study. It also presents the study as having
direct or indirect implications to the government
thrusts.
2. Related literature – written works collectively,
especially, those of enduring importance,
exhibiting creative imagination and artistic skill
which are written in a particular period, language,
and subject. These are written materials such as
book, journal, magazine, novel, poetry, etc.. Its
presentation is in chronological order either from
the past to present or vice versa
3. Related studies – published and unpublished
research studies are the sources. It has direct
bearing to the present study and are segregated
into foreign and local studies. Similar to related
readings and related literature, arranged in
chronological order
Justification of the Present Study – the researcher should
identify the bearing of the related studies upon the
present study.
The investigator should also justify the differences
of the present study with the past studies
RESEARCH DESIGN
Four kinds of Research Designs
1. Historical Design – study focused in the past
- from HISTORY – branch of knowledge concerned
with past events, especially those involving human
affairs; search for knowledge and the truth; any
integrated narrative or descriptive past events or
facts written in a spirit of critical inquiry for the whole
truth.
 A systematic and critical inquiry of the whole truth of
past events using critical method in the
understanding and the interpretation of facts which
are applicable to current issues and problems
 Research in history is both science and art.
 Historical design is scientific and the narration
thereof is an art. History differs from the natural
sciences because it is based upon the reports of
observations which cannot be repeated, although
similar events may occur unlike in natural sciences
where it is based upon experimentation
Uses of Historical Research
a. Historical research is useful in searching through
the past solutions to the contemporary problems
and needs
b. It is to throw light in the present
c. It gives people a sense of continuity of the past to
the present
d. It enables communities to grasp their relationship
with the past to the current issues
e. By chronicling events of enduring worth which
confers upon the individual consciousness of unity
and a feeling of the importance of human
achievement
Major steps in Historical Research
 a. Collection of data with consideration of documents
and remains or relics of primary and secondary
sources, of bibliographical procedure, and
organization of materials
b. Criticism of the data collected, including the
processes of external criticism and internal
criticism
c. Presentation of the facts in readable form
involving problems of organization, composition,
exposition, and interpretation.
Experimental Design – a problem-solving approach that
the study is described in the future on “what will be” when
certain variables are carefully controlled or manipulated.
Types of Experimental Designs
1. Single-group design
2. Two-group design
3. Two-pair group design
4. Parallel-group design
5. Pretest-group design
6. Counter balanced or Latin square design
7. Complete randomized design
8. Randomized complete block design
9. Correlational Design
SAMPLING DESIGN
Sampling is necessary especially fi the
population is to large where the 4 M’s resources of
the investigator are limited.
Sampling – may be defined as the method
of getting a representative portion of the population.
Population – the aggregate or total of
objects, persons, families, species, etc.
Statistic – a value calculated from a sample distribution
Parameter – corresponding value from a
population distribution
Sampling statistics – the body of statistical
methods concerned with the making of
statements about population parameters for
sample statistics
Advantages of Sampling
1. It saves time, money and effort
2. It is more effective.
3. It is faster and cheaper
4. It is more accurate
5. It gives more comprehensive information
Limitation of Sampling
1. Sample data involve more care in preparing
detailed sub-classifications because of a small
number of subjects
2. If the sampling plan is not correctly designed and
followed, the results may be misleading
3. Sampling requires an expert to conduct the study
in an area. If this is lacking, the results could be
erroneous
4. The characteristics to be observed may occur
rarely in a population
5. Complicated sampling plans are laborious to
prepare
Determination of Sample Size
- researcher’s decision
Slovens Formula
n = N / 1 + N (e)^2 n = sample size
N = Number of population e = margin of error
Example 300 tourist arrival per day
95% = level of confidence / 5% margin of error n =
300/[1+N(e)^2 = 171 respondents
90 = interested
75 = not interested
6 = undecided
Percentage of interested tourist = 90/171 = 52.6% 9000
tourist per month x 52.6% = 4,734 tourist
10 hotels that offer accommodation x 20 rooms = 200
S = NV + [Se^2 (1-p)] / NSe + [V^2 x p(1-p)]
S = Sample size
N = Total number of population
V= standard value (2.58) of 1% level of probability with
0.99 reliability
Se = Sampling error (0.01)
p = the largest possible proportion (0.50)
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Data collection - a methodical process of
gathering and analyzing specific information to
proffer solutions to relevant questions and
evaluate the results. It focuses on finding out all
there is to a particular subject matter. Data is
collected to be further subjected to hypothesis testing
which seeks to explain a phenomenon.
Two Categories
1. Primary Data Collection Methods – the gathering of
raw data collected at the source. It is a process of
collecting the original data collected by a researcher
for a specific research purpose.
2. Secondary Data Collection Methods -referred to as
the gathering of second-hand data collected by an
individual who is not the original user. It is the
process of collecting data that is already existing, be
it already published books, journals, and/or online
portals. In terms of ease, it is much less expensive
and easier to collect.
Primary Data Collection Methods Two Categories
1. Quantitative Methods - dealing with something
that can be counted, they area presented in
numbers and require a mathematical calculation
to deduce. - questionnaires, surveys, and
documents and records. These methods of
primary data collection are generally used to make
long-term forecasts.
2. Qualitative Methods - consider factors other than
numerical values, it is based on the non-
quantifiable elements like the feeling or emotion
of the researcher. useful in situations when
historical data is not available. These techniques
are based on experience, judgment, intuition,
conjecture, emotion, etc.
Quantitative Data Collection Tools
 Online
  Mail
 Face-to-face Phone
Four different primary quantitative research designs:
1. Descriptive
2. Correlational
3. Experimental
4. Quasi-experimental
Descriptive research explains the current status of a
variable using observational data collection. Often, the
researcher begins without a hypothesis and lets the data
steer the direction of the study.
Correlational research seeks to collect data that shows
relationships between different occurrences. A positive
correlation is one in which two variables either increase or
decrease at the same time. A negative correlation is when
an increase in one variable means a decrease in another.
There is also a zero correlation result, in which the
relationship between two variables is insignificant.
Correlation helps make predictions based on historical
relationships and in determining the validity and reliability
of a study.
Experimental research, also known as “true
experimentation,” uses the scientific method to determine
the cause-and-effect relationship between variables. This
method uses controls for all of the crucial factors that could
potentially affect the phenomena of interest. Using the
experimental method, researchers randomly assign
participants in an experiment to either the control or
treatment groups.
Quasi-experimental research, also known as “causal-
comparative,” is similar to experimental research. Since it’s
often impossible or impractical to control for all factors
involved, quasi- experimental methods don’t control for
some factors but otherwise follow the scientific method to
establish a cause-and-effect relationship.
Qualitative Methods:
Surveys are used to collect data from the target audience
and gather insights into their preferences, opinions,
choices, and feedback related to their products and
services. Most survey software often a wide range of
question types to select.
Polls comprise of one single or multiple choice question.
When it is required to have a quick pulse of the audience’s
sentiments, you can go for polls. Because they are short in
length, it is easier to get responses from the people.
Interviews the interviewer asks questions either face-to-
face or through telephone to the respondents. In face-to-
face interviews, the interviewer asks a series of questions
to the interviewee in person and notes down responses. In
case it is not feasible to meet the person, the interviewer
can go for a telephonic interview. This form of data
collection is suitable when there are only a few
respondents. It is too time-consuming and tedious to
repeat the same process if there are many participants.
Structured Interviews - Simply put, it is a verbally
administered questionnaire. In terms of
depth, it is surface level and is usually completed within a
short period. For speed and efficiency, it is highly
recommendable, but it lacks depth.
Semi-structured Interviews - In this method, there subsist
several key questions which cover the scope of the areas to
be explored. It allows a little more leeway for the
researcher to explore the subject matter.
Unstructured Interviews - It is an in-depth interview that
allows the researcher to collect a wide range of information
with a purpose. An advantage of this method is the freedom
it gives a researcher to combine structure with flexibility
even though it is more time-consuming.
Pros In-depth information, Freedom of flexibility, Accurate
data.
Cons Time-consuming, Expensive to collect.
Tools you can use to easily collect data.
Audio Recorder - used for recording sound on disc, tape, or
film. Audio information can meet the needs of a wide range
of people, as well as provide alternatives to print data
collection tools.
Digital Camera - can be used for transmitting those images
to a monitor screen when the need arises.
Camcorder - used for collecting data through interviews. It
provides a combination of both an audio recorder and a
video camera. The data provided is qualitative in nature
and allows the respondents to answer questions asked
exhaustively. If you need to collect sensitive information
during an interview, a camcorder might not work for you as
you would need to maintain your subject’s privacy.
Delphi Technique - market experts are provided with the
estimates and assumptions of forecasts made by other
experts in the industry. Experts may reconsider and revise
their estimates and assumptions based on the information
provided by other experts. The consensus of all experts on
demand forecasts constitutes the final demand forecast.
Focus Groups - a small group of people, around 8-10
members, discuss the common areas of the problem. Each
individual provides his insights on the issue concerned. A
moderator regulates the discussion among the group
members. At the end of the discussion, the group reaches
a consensus.
Questionnaire is a printed set of questions, either open-
ended or closed-ended. The respondents are required to
answer based on their knowledge and experience with the
issue concerned. The questionnaire is a part of the survey,
whereas the questionnaire’s end-goal may or may not be a
survey.
Three commonly used qualitative data collection methods:
1. Ethnographic - comes from anthropology, the study
of human societies and cultures.
2. Grounded Theory - arose when sociological
researchers sought to provide a level of legitimacy
to qualitative research — to ground it in reality
rather than assumptions
 3. Phenomenological - escribes how people  Useful in analysis and interpretation because they
experience certain events or unique encounters. give a clear picture of the results of the study.
This method measures reactions to occurrences
that are outside of the norm, so it’s essential to
understand the whole picture, not just facts and STATISTICAL TREATMENT
figures.

Secondary data is the data that has been used in the past.
The researcher can obtain data from the sources both
internal and external, to the organization.
- can involve both quantitative and qualitative
techniques. Secondary data is easily available and
hence, less time-consuming and expensive as DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
compared to the primary data. However, with the
secondary data collection methods, the authenticity of Data Analysis – an examination of data or facts in terms of
the data gathered cannot be verified. quantity, quality, attribute, trait, pattern, trend,
relationship among others so as to answer research
Internal sources of secondary data: questions which involve statistical techniques and
 Organization’s health and safety records procedures.
 Mission and vision statements The basis in analyzing research data are specific
 Financial Statements problems/objectives,
 Magazines Sales Report CRM Software
 Executive summaries hypotheses, measuring instruments and statistical tools.
 External sources of secondary data:
 Government reports
 Press releases
 Business journals
 Libraries
 Internet

DATA PROCESSING AND TABULATION

Data Processing – converting information either manually
or by machine into quantitative and qualitative forms for
use in research analysis

3 Basic steps of Data Processing

1. Categorization of Data – refers to the grouping of
subjects under study according to the objectives
and purposes of the study.
2. Coding of Data – information from questionnaires,
interview schedules, rating scale, etc., must be
transformed into coded items to facilitate
tabulation of data. The codes may be either
numerical or alphabetical. The former is commonly
used because of sufficient number coverage and its
fitted for computer processing. – option to used
own codes, provided, however, that the number of
digits to be used in codes is ascertained by the
number of categories and total number of cases
3. Tabulation of Data – tallying and counting the raw
data to arrive at a frequency distribution and to
facilitate in organizing them in a systematic order
in a table or several tables. It can be done either
manual or by machine, such as electric computer
or a mechanical counter-sorter.

Manual tabulation – data are manually tallied by

hand This is applicable if the total number of cases
is small.
Data Matrix – presentation of data is usually in
tabular form. The data processing output is either
quantitative or qualitative