ESPbasics

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR BASICS
A GE N E R A L I N T R O D U C T I O N T O
P R E C I P I T A T O R O P E R A T I O N,
THEORY AND MAINTENANCE
Second Edition
Table of Contents
Table Of Contents
I
Electrostatic Precipitator Basics
Preface ........................................................................................VIII
Suggested Further Reading ................................................................................VIII
Chapter 1
General Overview of Technology ................................................1-1
Development of Technology ........................................................................................1-2
Precipitators Versus Other Air Pollution Control Devices......................................1-3
Cyclones ..................................................................................................................1-3
Wet Process Collectors ..........................................................................................1-3
Cartridge Collectors ..............................................................................................1-4
Baghouses ................................................................................................................1-4
Advantages of Precipitators ........................................................................................1-5
Chapter 2
Precipitator Equipment and Components ..................................2-1
Types of Precipitators....................................................................................................2-2
Precipitator Components..............................................................................................2-4
Housing/Shell ........................................................................................................2-4
Penthouse/Insulator Compartments ..................................................................2-5
Hoppers....................................................................................................................2-5
Discharge Devices ..................................................................................................2-8
Treatment Zone ......................................................................................................2-8
Perforated Plates ....................................................................................................2-9
Discharge Electrodes ............................................................................................2-10
Collection Electrodes............................................................................................2-12
Other Important Components ..................................................................................2-13
Insulators ..............................................................................................................2-14
Purge Air Systems ................................................................................................2-14
Rappers and Vibrators ........................................................................................2-15
Tumbling Hammer/Anvil ............................................................................2-15
Electromagnetic Impulse ..............................................................................2-16
Vibrators ..........................................................................................................2-17
Acoustic Cleaning ..........................................................................................2-17
Rigid Frame Precipitators ..........................................................................................2-18
II
Table of Contents
Chapter 3
Precipitator Electrical Systems and Components ....................3-1
Power Supply Components ........................................................................................3-2
Main Disconnect Breaker ......................................................................................3-4
Magnetic Contactor ................................................................................................3-4
Silicon-Controlled Rectifier Stack ........................................................................3-4
Current Limiting Reactor ......................................................................................3-6
Transformer/Rectifier Set......................................................................................3-7
Automatic Voltage Controls..................................................................................3-8
Meters ......................................................................................................................3-9
Saturable Core Reactors ......................................................................................3-10
Electrical Efficiency and Power Transfer..................................................................3-11
Measuring Electrical Efficiency ..........................................................................3-12
Primary Form Factor......................................................................................3-13
Secondary Fractional Conduction................................................................3-15
Importance of Precipitator Wave Shapes ..........................................................3-16
Collection Efficiency ......................................................................................3-17
Saturable Core Reactors and Wave Forms........................................................3-18
Electrical Efficiency ..............................................................................................3-19
Chapter 4
Electrostatic Precipitation Theory and Operations ..................4-1
Section 1- The Precipitation Process ........................................................................4-2
Electrical Sectionalization......................................................................................4-2
Parallel Sectionalization ..................................................................................4-4
Charging Particles in the Precipitator ................................................................4-6
Corona Generation ..........................................................................................4-7
Field and Diffusion Charging ........................................................................4-9
Discharging Particles at the Collection Electrode......................................4-10
Rapping Particles into the Hopper ....................................................................4-10
Section 2 - Factors That Influence Precipitator Operation ..............................4-11
Determining Precipitator Efficiency ..................................................................4-11
Modified Deutsch-Anderson Equation ............................................................4-12
III
Understanding the Deutsch-Anderson Equations ..........................................4-13

Specific Collection Area ......................................................................................4-13
Migration Velocity ................................................................................................4-15
Precipitator Operation Without a Dust Load ..................................................4-16
Space Charge - High Dust Concentrations ......................................................4-18
Resistivity and Back Corona ........................................................................4-21
Back Corona ....................................................................................................4-22
Low Resistivity................................................................................................4-23
Effect of Resistivity ..............................................................................................4-24
Voltage-Current Curves ......................................................................................4-26
Aspect Ratio ..........................................................................................................4-27
Gas Flow Distribution..........................................................................................4-28
Chapter 5
Precipitator Maintenance and Troubleshooting ........................5-1
Typical Precipitator Problems......................................................................................5-2
Broken Discharge Electrodes ................................................................................5-2
Gas Distribution......................................................................................................5-3
Internal Mechanical Problems/Wires-Plate Alignment....................................5-4
Corrosion..................................................................................................................5-5
Broken Insulators....................................................................................................5-5
Electrical Supply Problems ..........................................................................................5-6
Rapping System Problems ..........................................................................................5-7
Resistivity and Sizing....................................................................................................5-7
Routine Maintenance ....................................................................................................5-8
Troubleshooting Chart ................................................................................................5-10
IV
Table of Contents
Chapter 6
Installation, Startup and Shutdown Guidelines ..........................6-1
Pre-Startup Checklist ....................................................................................................6-4
Safety Concerns..............................................................................................................6-5
Voltage-Current Readings With an On-Line ESP ....................................................6-7
Startup ............................................................................................................................6-8
Typical Startup Procedures ..................................................................................6-8
Shutdown ..............................................................................................................6-10
V
Wiring and Controls ........................................................................................6-9

Access ..............................................................................................................6-10
Fire/Explosion ................................................................................................6-10
GLOSSARY
APPENDICES
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Chapter 1
1.1 Cyclone collector ..................................................................................................1-3
1.2, 1.3 Wet process collectors....................................................................................1-4
1.4 Cartridge collector ................................................................................................1-4
1.5 Baghouse ................................................................................................................1-5
Chapter 2
2.1 Basic Operational Principal of an Electrostatic Precipitator..........................2-3
2.2 Typical American-designed Precipitator (with top housing) ........................2-5
2.3 Typical American-designed Precipitator (with insulator compartments) ..2-7
2.4 Sectionalization ....................................................................................................2-9
2.5 Typical Discharge Electrode ............................................................................2-10
2.6 Weighted Wire Discharge Electrode System ..................................................2-11
2.7 Wire Oscillation ..................................................................................................2-11
2.8 Wire Oscillation ..................................................................................................2-11
2.9 "Pipe and Pin" Discharge Electrode ................................................................2-12
2.10 Typical American Rigid Discharge Electrode ESP ........................................2-12
2.11 Unitized Plate Designs ......................................................................................2-13
2.12 Strip Plate Designs ............................................................................................2-13
2.13 Examples of Insulators ......................................................................................2-14
2.14 Falling Hammer Rappers ..................................................................................2-15
2.15 Magnetic Impulse Rapper ................................................................................2-16
2.16 Vibrator ................................................................................................................2-17
2.17 Acoustic Horn ....................................................................................................2-18
2.18 Typical European Rigid Wire Frame Assembly ............................................2-19
VI
Table of Contents
2.19 AAF-Elex ESP......................................................................................................2-20
Chapter 3
3.1 Typical Control Cabinet........................................................................................3-3
3.2 Typical Power Supply Circuit Schematic ..........................................................3-4
3.3 Sine Wave ..............................................................................................................3-5
3.4 Chopped Sine Wave (SCR effect)........................................................................3-5
3.5 Reshaped Sine Wave Form (CLR effect) ............................................................3-6
3.6 AVC Operation (ramp, spark, limit, setback)....................................................3-8
3.7 Collection Efficiency Vs. Input Power ............................................................3-17
3.8 Saturable Core Wave Form ................................................................................3-18
Chapter 4
4.1 Sectionalization......................................................................................................4-3
4.2 Dust Collection and Voltage Levels....................................................................4-5
4.3 Particle Charging ..................................................................................................4-7
4.4 Corona Generation-Free Electrons......................................................................4-7
4.5 Avalanche Multiplication ....................................................................................4-8
4.6 Field Charging ......................................................................................................4-9
4.7 Particle Discharge at Collection Electrode ....................................................4-10
VII
PREFACE
BHA Group International's Electrostatic Precipitator Basics was developed to help
novices and more experienced technicians alike better understand the basic process
of precipitation and the equipment involved. It is the goal of the editors to present
the information in a manner that is easily understood, yet does not miss any of the
important, highly technical aspects of the precipitator.
It is hoped that after reviewing the material in this book, the reader will have an
improved ability to evaluate the precipitator’s operation, troubleshoot and problem-
solve, improve maintenance and, ultimately, improve performance.
The material presented here is based on the combined knowledge of several precipi-
tator experts at BHA Group International, as well as other leading authorities in the
field of electrostatic precipitators. The procedures and/or practices discussed are
presented in good faith and should not be construed as a guarantee for improved
performance.
Suggested Further Reading

There are several comprehensive volumes available to the reader who wishes to
gain an even greater understanding of electrostatic precipitators and the precipita-
tion process. If these books are not readily available, contact your BHA Group
International representative and ask about obtaining copies.
1. The Art of Electrostatic Precipitation, Jacob Katz, P.E., distributed by

Scholium International, Inc., 99 Seaview Boulevard, Port Washington,
New York 11050-4610. ISBN 0-9603986-2-7
2. Electrostatic Precipitator Handbook, D.A. Lloyd, published by Adam

Hilger, 242 Cherry Street, Philadelphia, PA 19106. ISBN 0-85274-492-7
3. Industrial Electrostatic Precipitation, White, H.J., 1963. Addison-Wesley

Publishing Co.
VIII
Table of Contents
4. Mechanical and Electrical Aspects of Electrostatic Precipitator

Operation and Maintenance. Englebrecht, H. L. 1980. Edited by R. A.
Young and F. L. Cross. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science.
IX
Chapter 1 – Overview of Technology
CHAPTER 1
Overview of Technology
1-1
DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNOLOGY
The control of particulate emissions from industrial processes has become increas-
ingly important since the latter part of the 19th century. Electrostatic precipitator
technology was developed by Frederick Cottrell, and has been in use since the early
1900’s. The first successful installation collected sulfuric acid mist. The first precipi-
tators to utilize the wire/plate design collected cement/clinker dust. As pulverized
coal boilers became more common, precipitators continued to develop and they
took on an important role in the collection of fly ash thanks to their high collection
efficiencies. By the late 1920’s, the basic precipitator design we know today was
established.
During the 1960s, the new emphasis on the environment triggered improvement in
particulate control devices. Although the basic precipitator design had remained
virtually unchanged, numerous refinements in the power supply and material selec-
tion continued, helping precipitators achieve even higher collection efficiencies.
Increasingly stringent global emission limitations have mandated particulate

removal efficiencies to the order of 99.5 to 99.9 percent. In many countries, strict
environmental regulations have reduced the allowable SO2 emissions, necessitating
the switch from high to low sulfur fuels or the installation of SO2 removal equip-
ment. To meet these tougher regulations, precipitator design and size have changed,
and proper operation and maintenance have become imperative.
Today, refinements in operation, materials and new inventions abound for electro-
static precipitators including rigid discharge electrodes, wider plate spacing, inter-
mittent energization, microprocessor-based voltage controls and rapper controls,
variable inductance current limiting reactors, and computer software programs that
allow operators to view precipitator operations from remote locations, log data and
view other operating parameters such as voltage-current curves.
1-2
Precipitators Versus Other Air Pollution Control

Devices
Although precipitators are extremely efficient and widely used, there are sever-
al other devices that have their place in controlling and particulate emissions.
How one device is chosen over another is primarily determined by these fac-
tors:
• required outlet loading or concentration
• inlet moisture
• inlet temperature
• type of particulate (dust) being collected
• inlet dust concentration
• inlet volume
(Note: These same factors are also used to help determine the design and size
of a precipitator and will be discussed in Chapter 4.)
Cyclones
Cyclones (Figure 1.1) are centrifugal devices in which air enters tangentially,
causing material to be forced to the outside of the cone and discharged through
a hopper. The clean air exits from the top of the
cyclone. Many times, cyclones are installed as pre-
cleaners on applications such as stoker fired boil-
ers and wood waste fired boilers to reduce the
load to the precipitator. The Particle Impact
average efficiency of a cyclone is Dwell Zone

approximately 65% when filtering particulate at
Process Gas
40 microns in size. Inlet
Wet Process Collectors

These types of collectors use water to saturate the gas
stream and encapsulate the particulate in water, allow-
Figure 1.1 - Typical
ing it to be separated from the gas stream. Two types of
Cyclone Collector
wet process collectors are used today; the wet scrubber
(Figures 1.2 and 1.3), which saturates the dust and takes
1-3
it to a settling pond, and

wet precipitators which
charge mist particles
and collect the charged
droplets on pipes. The
collected liquid accumu-
lates then drains into
the bottom of the pre-
cipitator for discharge.
Wet process particulate
Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3
collectors create sludge, Low Energy Scrubber Spray Tower Scrubber
a secondary pollution problem that must also be addressed. Wet process collectors
are typically used on wood waste fired boilers and sulfuric acid mist applications.
Cartridge Collectors
Cartridge systems (Figure 1.4) operate using pleat-
®
ed filters approximately 2’ to 3’ long and are made

of either a paper or felt media. Cartridge collectors
are typically used on smaller industrial processes
handling exhaust flow rates of less than 25,000
cubic feet per minute.
Baghouses Figure 1.4 - Cartridge Collector
Baghouses (also called dry dust collectors or fabric

filter collectors) are nearly as efficient as precipitators and, like precipitators, are
found throughout the world on a wide variety of applications. Baghouses (Figure
1.5) are enclosed housings containing anywhere from several dozen to several thou-
sand fabric filter bags. The number of bags a unit has, as well as the material the
bag is made out of, depends on the application. The dust-laden air is pushed or
pulled through the filter bags causing a dust layer (dustcake) to form on the bag,
which separates the dust from the clean air. The bags are cleaned using either
mechanical shaking, a reverse air process, or pulsing with compressed air.
1-4
Advantages of Precipitators
Precipitators have several advantages over
Clean Air
these other devices. Foremost among these is Outlet
that precipitators are extremely efficient, espe-
cially compared to cyclones and wet process Fabric
collectors. Filter
Support
As mentioned, baghouses are also quite effi- Cage
cient. Although they collect dust in a vastly dif-
ferent manner than precipitators, the primary
Dirty Air
difference between them is that precipitators Inlet Hopper
have a constant pressure drop and variable
performance, while baghouses have a constant
performance and variable pressure drop Figure 1.5 - Baghouse (Pulse-Jet Style)
Other advantages of precipitators include:

1. Versatility - Effective performance on nearly all industrial processes.
2. Efficiency - Sustained high efficiency collection (often greater than

99.9%) on particles of all sizes, sub-micron included.
3. Power Consumption - 20 to 60 kW per 100,000 cubic feet of gas,

depending on type of unit, process, efficiency, etc.
4. Pressure Loss - Resistance negligible, rarely more than 0.4" water

column. Fan power costs are therefore low.
5. Adaptability - Tolerates considerable fluctuations in operating

conditions, such as temperature extremes.
6. Effect - Normally the dust is recovered dry in its original state.
1-5
7. Maintenance - Internal items: maintenance at normal plant shut-down

usually suffices. External items: regular but not frequent.
8. Durability - Construction ensures long life under arduous conditions;

abrasion effects are insignificant due to lower operating velocities.
The reader who has some experience with precipitators may well be asking at this
time that if precipitators are so good, why do they seem to cause so many prob-
lems?
Even though precipitators are relatively easy to understand, they quite often will
exhibit unusual operating characteristics or will not operate at their original design
efficiency.
The rest of this book will be devoted to helping you better understand how to keep
precipitators operating at their best.
1-6
Chapter 2 – Precipitator Equipment and Components
CHAPTER 2
Precipitator Equipment
and Components
2-1
PRECIPITATOR EQUIPMENT AND COMPONENTS

To understand the operation of a precipitator, it is important to understand the
design and function of the internal and external mechanical and electrical compo-
nents of the ESP, and how these components work together under dynamic condi-
tions. This chapter will review the basic precipitator mechanical equipment, as well
as review the variety of precipitator designs found in the field. The precipitator
electrical system and its components will be studied in detail in Chapter 3.
But first, we must first ask just what is an electrostatic precipitator? The electrostatic
precipitation process consists of three fundamental steps:
1. Charging of particulate
2. Collection of particulate
3. Removal of the collected material
The first two steps are functions of the electrical conditions within the precipitator
while the third depends more on mechanical forces.
Types of Precipitators
Precipitators are used in a variety of industries to collect various types of particulate
matter. In the pulp and paper industry, precipitators are used to recover the chemi-
cals used in the pulping process. In production plants, precipitators collect such
things as clinker and cement dust, rock dust, acid mists, oil fumes and insecticides.
They are also used by the steel industry, the oil industry and, of course, the utility
industry. There are basically two types of precipitators: wet and dry. This program
will only cover material relevant to the dry type.
There are several different basic styles of dry precipitators. As shown in Table 1.1,
they differ slightly in their internal components, cleaning style (rapping mecha-
nism) and design characteristics.
Table 1.1 – Styles of Dry Electrostatic Precipitators
Weighted Wire Rigid Frame Rigid Electrode

(American) (European) (American)
Plate Spacing: 9 - 10 in. (typical) 10 - 12 in. 11 - 16 in.
Plate Height: 20 - 36 ft. 20 - 50 ft. 20 - 50 ft.
Wire Diameter: .105 - .125 in. Various designs Various designs
of discharge electrodes of discharge electrodes
Rapping: Top or side impact Edge, w/flail hammer Top rapped
2-2
Figure 2.1 illustrates the basic principle. Put simply, it is an apparatus which cleans
process gases by using electrical forces to remove solid particles carried in the gas stream.
The dirty gases are passed through an intense electrical field set up between electrodes of
opposite polarity. The discharge electrodes – so called because of the corona discharge
which results from the application of high voltage – impart a negative charge to the parti-
cles. These particles are then attracted to the collector electrodes which are positive with
respect to the discharge electrodes and in practice are connected to ground through the
structure or through ground cables. .
The particles build up into a layer on the grounded collecting electrode until a rapping
Discharge Electrode at
Grounded Collecting Electrical Charged Particle Negative Polarity
Electrode at Positive Field
Polarity
Clean
Gas Gas
Flow Exit
High Voltage
Uncharged Supply From
Particles Particles Attracted to Collecting Transformer/Re
Electrode and Forming Dust ctifier
Layer
Figure 2.1 - Basic Operating Principal of An Electrostatic Precipitator
force is applied to the electrodes to dislodge and break up the layer into agglomerated
sheets which are heavy enough to fall into the hopper without being re-entrained.
The precipitation process and operations will be discussed in detail in Chapter 4.

It should be noted that precipitators cannot separate gases as such, only the particles
entrained in the gases.
2-3
Precipitator Components
All electrostatic precipitators, regardless of their particular design, contain the fol-
lowing essential components:
• Housing/Shell
Exterior sheet metal/stiffened casing, penthouse or insulator
compartments, support columns and beams, hoppers
• Treatment zone
Perforation plates, wires/discharge electrodes, collecting plates/electrodes
• Structural components
Lower discharge electrode frames, upper discharge electrode frames,
plate support system
• High voltage electrical supply system

Circuit breaker, magnetic contactor, meters, automatic voltage controls,
silicon controlled rectifiers, current limiting reactors, transformer/rectifier sets,
• Other important components

Rappers and/or vibrators, rapper controls, purge air systems, insulators
Figure 2.2 shows a typical American type weighted-wire precipitator.
Housing/Shell
The housing of the precipitator includes all of the steel plate, stiffened casing and
support beams used to enclose and support the electrodes and other precipitator
components in a rigid frame to maintain proper electrode alignment and configura-
tion. The support structure is especially critical because precipitator components
can expand and contract due to temperature differences. Excessive temperature
stresses can literally tear the shell and hopper joints and welds apart. The outer cas-
ing is usually made of low-carbon or mild-grade steel 0.5 to 0.6 cm (3/16 in. to 1/4
in.) thick.
2-4
Transformer/Rectifiers
Discharge Electrode
Vibrator
Collecting Electrode
Rapper
Railing
Hot Roof Access

Door
Top End
Frames
Top Housing
Hot Roof
High Voltage DE System Support

Conductor Insulators
Perforated
Side Frames
Distribution Plates
Horizontal
Bracing Strut
Access Door
Discharge
Electrodes
Bottom End
Frames
Hopper
Collecting Electrodes
Anti-sway insulator
Hopper Baffle
Figure 2.2 - Typical American Precipitator (With Top Housing)
2-5
Shells, hoppers and connecting flues should be covered with insulation to conserve
heat and prevent corrosion due to water vapor and acid condensation on internal
components. If the ESP is installed on a coal-fired boiler, the flue gas temperature
should be kept above 120° C (250° F) at all times to prevent any acid mists in the
flue gas from condensing. Insulation will also help minimize temperature differen-
tial stresses, especially on hot-side precipitators. Ash hoppers should be insulated
and heated because cold flyash has a tendency to cake and is extremely difficult to
remove. Insulation material is usually 10 to 15 cm (4 in. to 6 in.) thick.
Penthouse/Insulator Compartments
Figure 2.2 (on the previous page) and Figure 2.3 illustrate the difference between an
ESP with a penthouse and one with insulator compartments. There are basically no
operating differences between the two.
Penthouse designs include a plenum area under the roof which contains the high
voltage conductors and support insulators. Insulator compartment designs do not
have the plenum and instead have enclosures on the roof that protect the high volt-
age conductors and support insulators.
Some precipitators have weather enclosures over the entire roof and should not be
confused with a penthouse design.
Hoppers
Hoppers are used to temporarily store the collected dust before it is disposed. They
are usually designed with a 60° slope to allow dust to flow freely from the tip of the
hopper to the bottom discharge opening. Some manufacturers add devices to the
hopper to promote easy and quick discharge. Hopper designs usually include
access doors or ports which provide for easier cleaning, inspection and hopper
maintenance.
Collected dust in the hopper can create some special problems if not removed
quickly or continuously. For example, as the dust cools and moisture is present, the
dust can harden and become difficult to remove. Another problem is overfilling.
When overfilled, the dust level can touch the discharge electrodes and short out an
entire electrical field. Problems such as bridging, ratholing and packing can also
2-6
Figure 2.3 - Typical Weighted-wire American Precipitator from ‘60s or early ‘70s.
2-7
occur which require some type of force to remove. These include strike plates, poke
holes, vibrators, rappers and acoustic horns. Also, it is important to know that at
high temperatures the dust can become fluidized. Extreme care should always be
taken when opening a hopper door or when trying to dislodge the material.
Discharge Devices
Often considered as part of the hopper system, a discharge device is necessary for
emptying the hopper and can be manual or automatic. Automatic continuous dis-
charge devices are often installed on ESPs, and may include rotary airlock valves,
flap gate valves, screw conveyors and pneumatic conveyors.
Rotary airlock valves are the most commonly used discharge devices. The valve is
designed with a paddle wheel which is shaft mounted and driven by a motor. The
rotary valve is similar to a revolving door: the paddles or blades form an airtight
seal with the housing, and the motor slowly moves the blades to allow the dust to
discharge from the hopper.
Dust and ash conveying devices include screw and pneumatic conveyors. In large
fly ash ESPs, dust is usually removed from the hoppers by using a pneumatically
controlled airlock into a pneumatic conveyor to move dust for final disposal.
Treatment Zone
The treatment zone is that area inside the precipitator where the gas stream is dis-
tributed and the dust is charged and collected. Internal mechanical components
include distribution devices, discharge electrodes and collecting electrodes.
The treatment zone is typically divided into chambers, fields and cells (bus sec-
tions). This is called sectionalization as illustrated in Figure 2.4. The divisions are
important as they relate to areas that are energized by the transformer/rectifier sets.
The cell or bus section is the smallest treatment zone that can be electrically isolat-
ed. How much sectionalization is necessary for a particular ESP depends on its size
and gas volume. The importance of sectionalization is discussed in Chapter 4.
2-8
cross-sectional area of the ESP. Other devices, like zig-zag baffles, turning vanes and
channel baffles are also used in certain designs. Like other internal components,
perforated plates also require cleaning to keep dust buildup to a minimum.
Bus Sections
(8 in this example)
Chambers
(2 in this example)
Insulator Fields
Compartment
(2 in this
Bus Duct
Transformer/ example)
High Voltage System
Rectifier
Support Insulator
Discharge Electrode Rapper
Roof Collecting Surface Rapper
Side
Access Doors
Gas
Distribution
Device
Collecting
Plates
Discharge Figure 2.4 - Sectionalization
Electrode
Hopper
Perforated Plates, Gas Distribution Media

These are installed at the inlet duct, just prior to the treatment area. Perforated
plates are commonly used to help distribute the incoming gas stream across the
cross-sectional area of the ESP. Other devices, like zig-zag baffles, turning vanes and
channel baffles are also used in certain designs. Like other internal components,
perforated plates also require cleaning to keep dust buildup to a minimum.
2-9
Discharge Electrodes
The discharge electrode is the component that generates the corona discharge
in the precipitator. Discharge electrodes in some precipitator designs are thin,
round wires varying from 0.13 to 0.38 cm (0.05 in. to 0.15 in.) in diameter,
although they are available in a variety of styles (rigid mast and rigid frame
styles will be discussed later). The size and shape of the electrodes are gov-
erned by the mechanical requirements of the system, the precipitator OEM
and the type of system process. Most American designs have traditionally
used thin, round wires for corona generation as seen in Figure 2.5, but many
designers have also used twisted wire, barbed wire, square wire or other con-
figurations. Each wire style has its own corona generation characteristics.
Typically, wires are approximately 0.25 cm (0.1 in.) in diameter.
The discharge electrode system (Figure 2.6) consists of wires hanging vertical-
ly, shrouded at the top and held taut and plumb by a weight at the bottom.
The wires are usually made from high-carbon steel, but have also been con-
Figure 2.5
structed of stainless steel, titanium alloy and aluminum. The weights are Discharge
Electrode
made of cast iron and are generally between 7 and 11.4 kg (15 - 25 lbs).
Wires are usually shrouded at both ends, with the shroud forming the attachment at
the top to the wire support frame with the weight at the bottom. Shrouds should be
solid to prevent internal arcing and premature wire failure.
Because of the dynamic conditions inside a precipitator, wires will deflect or oscil-
late under the influence of aerodynamic and electrical forces. The weights must be
of sufficient mass to prevent this. Movement of the weights is limited by the lower
electrode guide frame, which in turn is held in position by an anti-sway insulator.
Proper stabilization of the lower frame is critical to successful operation. If proper
stabilization is not achieved, frame sway, as shown in Figures 2.7 and 2.8, will occur.
Frame sway decreases the electrical clearances from the discharge electrodes to the
collecting plates.
2-10
Support Insulator
Housing
High Voltage Bus Duct
Bus Conductor
High Voltage Switch

Access Door
Vibration Isolators
DE frame anvil beam Transformer/Rectifier
Discharge Electrode
Support Frame
Discharge Electrode
Tensioning
Weight Weight Guide Frame
Figure 2.6
Weighted Wire
Discharge Electrode System
Upper Wire
Frames
Figures 2.7 (Left) and 2.8
Plates Discharge Electrode System
Without Proper Stabilization
Lower
Stabilizing
Frames
Lateral movement of upper or lower Longitudinal movement of upper or lower

wire frame (end elevation view) wire frame (side elevation view)
2-11
Developments in electrode design have resulted in the rigid

electrode, which is typically made of a tube with pins or
prongs welded at interval along the vertical length. Figure 2.9
illustrates a V-Pin style rigid discharge electrode. There are
Figure 2.9 many other designs in the market. Figure 2.10 shows a typical
"V- Pin" Rigid
Discharge American-designed rigid electrode precipitator.
Electrode
Collection Electrodes
Most ESPs use collection electrodes (plates) because this
method is more cost-efficient than other style collection
surfaces for collecting dust from large gas volumes. Plates
are generally made of roll-formed mild carbon steel,
designed to handle a thermal expansion (and contraction)
of + or – 1/4” during operation. For special flue gas con-
ditions, plates are occasionally made of stainless steel or
an alloy steel.
Figure 2.10 There are two basic styles of plates, and within these, sev-
Typical American
Rigid Electrode eral different methods of design and construction.
Design Unitized plates (Figure 2.11) are a solid sheet of steel, usu-
ally with structural stiffeners attached to reinforce the
plate. In some cases, the stiffeners acts as baffles to help reduce re-entrainment
direct the gas stream. Unitized construction helps allow rapping forces to be distrib-
uted evenly, and also helps reduce warping.
Strip plates (Figure 2.12) are another style of construction where individual roll-
formed “strips” of steel are hung together to make up the full width of the plate.
This style of plate design is usually rapped from the bottom and more commonly
found in European-style precipitators.
In general, plates range from 0.12 to 0.15 cm (0.048 in. to 0.060 in., or 18 to 16 gauge)
thick, and are spaced from 22 to 40 cm (9 in. to 16 in.) apart. This is considered nor-
mal for high efficiency ESPs. Plates are usually between 6 and 12 m (20 ft. to 40 ft.)
high.
2-12
Plates are subject to numerous prob-

lems, the most common of which is
bowing or warping. This is caused by
temperature stratification in the ESP, in-
leakage of moisture (or ambient air),
getting too hot or too cold too fast, and
too little room allowed for thermal
Figure 2.11- Unitized Plate Designs expansion. Bows and warps create addi-
(Top View)
tional problems as well, such as close
electrical clearances and reduced collec-
tion efficiency. Plates are also subject to
forces from rapping which, if the plate
is not properly designed, can contribute
to warpage as well as reduced structur-
al integrity where the plate is attached.
Corrosion is another problem frequently
Figure 2.12 - Strip Plate Designs found on plates.
(Top View)
To assure a longer service life of plates, it is important to inspect them, as a mini-

mum, on a yearly basis. Assure plates have room for thermal expansion, that rap-
ping and shock bars are properly aligned and that the operating temperature is
above dewpoint. Depending on application, plates can last as long as 20 years.
Plates used in an ESP off a paper mill recovery boiler might last only 10 years;
cement applications average 12 years.
Other Important Components

There are several other components that are integral to the operation of a precipita-
tor, not the least of which is the high voltage electrical system (discussed completely
in the next chapter). Other components and systems include, insulators, purge air
systems, rappers/vibrators and rapper controls.
2-13
Insulators
High-voltage bus lines that carry the electricity from the transformer/rectifier into
the ESP are isolated from ground by electrical insulators, either post-type or feed-
through insulators. Insulators are made of non-conducting fiberglass or ceramic
material (usually ceramic),
Stand-Off
and serve many functions Insulator
including supporting high
voltage frames, rapper insu- Support
lators and stand-off and sta- Insulator
bilizer types of insulators.

Figure 2.13 shows a few
typical insulator designs. Stand-Off Through-Put
Insulator Insulator
Support insulators physically Figure 2.13

support and electrically iso- Typical Insulators
late the discharge electrode

system from ground. Rapper insulators mechanically transmit the forces necessary
to create vibration or shock in the high voltage system but are electrically isolated
from the electrode rappers. Anti-sway stabilizers stop the sway of the lower grid
frame, and stand-off insulators hold a high voltage bus away from the grounded
shell of the ESP.
Insulators can suffer greatly from extreme environmental conditions – especially

moisture – and are prone to cracking and breaking if not well-maintained. For
example, if insulators are not kept dust-free and moisture is present, this can cause
what is called “tracking.” This, in essence, allows the high voltages to “leak” to
ground, weakening the insulator. Insulators should be kept as clean as possible and
always operated above the dewpoint to prevent this.
Purge Air Systems

Purge air systems are often used to supply heated air to the penthouse or insulator
compartments, at pressure levels higher than in the precipitator, to help reduce the
amount of dust and moisture in the compartments. This helps prolong the life of the
high voltage insulators by reducing tracking and sparking across the insulators.
2-14
Rappers and Vibrators

Dust that has accumulated on collecting plates and wires is removed by rapping.
Rappers or vibrators are the components used to create the mechanical impulses or
vibrations that actually clean the precipitator’s internal parts. Rappers and vibrators
are usually operated according to specified rapper program that determines the fir-
ing frequency and intensity needed to keep the internal components clean.
Rappers are typically the only components of a precipitator that are classified as
“moving parts”, and therefore must be checked often to assure proper operation.
Some modern microprocessor controls will automatically check voltage and current
draw each time a rapper is fired. Rapper seals and rapping transmission assemblies
must also be inspected regularly to ensure that there are no leaking seals or loose
connections.
Like the high voltage electrical system, rappers can now benefit from advanced con-
trol systems that allow the user to easily program rapping sequences, adjust rapper
intensity and other functions that improve the overall efficiency of the precipitator
as well as extending rapper life. In addition, some rapper controls can interface with
voltage controls or the remote control software for even more efficient cleaning with
reduced dust re-entrainment. Some rapper control systems still utilize some type of
programmable logic controller (PLC).
Figure 2.14
Tumbling Hammer/Anvil (Internally-mounted) Tumbling Hammer
Rapping System
One common style of rapper system uses hammers
mounted on a rotating shaft as shown in Figure 2.14.
As the shaft rotates, the hammers drop (by gravity)
and strike anvils that are attached to the collecting
plates or high voltage frame. Hammers can be
mounted on the top or the bottom corners of the
collection plates. European precipitators typically use
hammer and anvil rappers for removing particles
from collection plates and discharge electrodes.
2-15
In tumbling hammer systems, rapping intensity is controlled by the weight of the

hammers and the length of the hammer mounting arm. The frequency of rapping
can be changed by adjusting the speed of the rotating shafts and the dwell period
between shaft operation. Thus, rapping intensity and frequency can be adjusted for
the varying conditions.
The adjustment for intensity, however, is not easily done as it requires changing the
hammers. This rapping system is subject to abrasive wear as the rotating mecha-
nism is in a very hostile environment. The rapping mechanism and the rapper
impact points are the highest maintenance areas on most precipitators with this
style of rapping.
Electromagnetic/Gravity
Another rapping system, used in most American
designs, uses electromagnetic/gravity rappers.
This style of rapper (Figure 2.15) has a steel
plunger that is raised by a DC current pulse in a
coil. The rapper is energized momentarily and the
raised plunger then drops back down (due to
gravity), striking a rod connected to a number of
plates within the precipitator. Rapper frequency
Figure 2.15
Electromagnetic/Gravity
and intensity are easily regulated by an electrical
Rapper control system. The frequency may be one rap
every few minutes to one rap per hour, with a
wide range of intensity. Other rapping schemes
can include multiple raps, with each strike being
more intense than the last.
Electromagnetic rappers operate more frequently,

but with less intensity, than tumbling hammer and anvil rappers and are more easi-
ly adjusted and maintained, since the rappers are normally mounted on the roof of
the precipitator and are not in the gas stream. They can be repaired while the ESP is
still on-line.
2-16
Many older precipitators with electromagnetic rappers can achieve performance

improvements by adding rappers and creating smaller anvil sections. The fewer
plates that are rapped at once, the less dust reentrained.
Vibrators
Discharge electrodes must also be cleaned to prevent excessive dust buildup that
will interfere with corona generation. This is usually accomplished by
the use of air or electric vibrators (Figure 2.16) (on weighted wire
designs). Vibrators are usually mounted externally on a precipitator
roof and are connected by rods to the high-tension frames that support
the discharge electrodes. An insulator, located above the rod, electrical-
ly insulates the rapper while mechanically transmitting the rapping
force. For rigid discharge style electrodes, magnetic impulse rappers
can also be used.
Electric vibrators usually require more maintenance than pneumatic

vibrators or magnetic impulse rappers, but they are excellent for
removing stubborn deposits from discharge electrodes. They are not Figure 2.16
Vibrator
normally recommended for collecting plate cleaning.
Acoustic Cleaning
For many years, sound waves have been used to develop working energy. The ener-
gy is created when a diaphragm within the driver section of an acoustic horn is
pneumatically activated. This creates an intense vibration to produce the sound
waves which displace the air through which they pass. Depending on the level of
energy produced by the horn (normally expressed in decibels [dB] and pitch, or fre-
quency [cycles per second], expressed in Hertz [Hz]), this acoustic energy can pro-
vide an efficient method of augmenting cleaning.
Figure 2.17
Acoustic Horn
While not as common in precipitators as rappers and
vibrators, acoustic horns (Figure 2.17) have been used
successfully to supplement rapping systems. Installing
an acoustic horn in the hoppers or ducts can effectively
remove particulate buildup from these sections.
2-17
Rigid Frame Precipitators

Rigid frame precipitators are a typical European design. The emitting systems in
these units (Figure 2.16) use large frames supported at four points. The discharge
electrodes are fastened into the frames, creating a single energized grid in each cell.
While the discharge electrodes are generally more stable and resistant to breakage
than an American weighted wire design, they are also more difficult to work on
when repairs are needed. Rigid frame designs also typically use falling hammer
rappers for electrode cleaning which frequently require more maintenance. Bus sec-
tions in a rigid frame ESP are often much larger than in American designs, so the
rigid-frame precipitator tends to be more spark sensitive than other designs.
The electrodes in a rigid frame ESP may consist of coiled-spring wires, serrated
strips or needle points mounted on a supporting strip. The rigid frames help to
eliminate swinging of discharge wires. These designs are used as successfully as the
U.S. wire designs. One major disadvantage of the European design is that a broken
wire cannot be easily replaced due to limited access.
Other features of European designs worth noting, such as the Lurgi design shown
in Figure 2.18:
• The collecting plates are suspended directly under the hot roof so there is no
access above the plates internally, making inspections and repairs difficult and
expensive.
• Rappers are horizontally mounted, and take up valuable space in the

casing that could be used for plate area.
In Figure 2.19 (at right), an AAF-Elex design is illustrated, showing a semi-rigid

electrode. This electrode design is similar to a weighted wire design in that it
requires a tensioning weight.
2-18
Hot Roof
Support Insulator
Anvil
Discharge Electrode
Support Beams
Wire Frame
Figure 2.18
Typical European Rigid Wire Frame Assembly
Collection
Electrode Panel
Wires
Lower Transverse
Gas Flow Girder
Stabilizer Frame
Figure 2.19
AAF-ELEX Electrostatic Precipitator
2-19
Chapter 3 – Precipitator Electrical Systems and Components
CHAPTER 3
Precipitator Electrical
System and Components
3-1
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM AND COMPONENTS

To maximize the power input, particulate collection and electrical efficiency, a modern precipi-
tator power supply operates the precipitator field at the highest practical usable energy level,
increasing both the system’s particle charge and collection capabilities. This is affected by
many factors such as:
• The electrical ratings of the equipment

• Sparking in the field
• The onset of back corona
• The proper match of the electrical components to the precipitator load
• Voltage and current wave forms
In the most basic analysis, a precipitator power supply should operate at one of five limits –
either the transformer/recitifier’s primary or secondary rated limits or the limit of the ESP as
defined by its spark-over voltage.
Because the high voltage electrical system is the power behind the precipitation process, the
component selection and operation of the ESP power supply is critical to achieve and maintain
high efficiency.
Frederick Cottrell demonstrated in early experiments that a steady DC voltage obtained from a
filtered power supply was not suitable for use in precipitators due to an unsatisfactory spark
response. As a result, modern precipitator power supplies deliver an unfiltered, or pulsating,
output. The pulsating DC output is fed into the precipitator field, which, in effect, forms a
capacitor (two conductors separated by insulating material). This concept becomes important
when, during operation, sparking occurs. Sparks, and arcs (prolonged sparks), cause a momen-
tary field breakdown and, in effect, cause the gas to become a conductor rather than an insula-
tor. The importance of this will be seen later.
Power Supply Components

The principal components of the precipitator high voltage (HV) power supply system include
the transformer/rectifier sets, automatic voltage controls, current limiting reactors and silicon
controlled rectifiers. These components and a discussion of the precipitator power supply cir-
cuit will be the focus of this chapter.
3-2
Figure 3.1 shows a typical control cabinet layout, while Figure 3.2 illustrates the typ-
ical power supply circuit in an ESP.
Control
Transformer
Ground Lug
Terminal Blocks
AVC Quick
Disconnect
Alarm Relay
Wire Duct
Variable
Inductance Ground Bar
Current Limiting
Reactor Control
Module (option-
al)
Main Contactor
Current Transformers
Power Output
SCR Stack Terminal Block
Figure 3.1
Typical Control Cabinet Layout
3-3
Variable Inductance
SCR Stack Current Limiting Reactor
Transformer/Rectifier (T/R) Set
(VI-CLR)
L1 • • • • •
• + -
Primary V • • •
Current
L2 • CT • • Voltage
• Signal
•Resistor Divider
SQ-300
(+) (-)
VI-CLR Secondary Secondary Precipitator
Control
Firing A Current V Voltage Field
Circuit Meter (DC) (+) Meter (DC)
(-)
SQ-300
Automatic
Voltage Control
•
•
Signal Signal
Resistor Resistor
Figure 3.2
Typical ESP Power Supply Circuit
Main Disconnect Breaker

This is a circuit breaker that provides a lockable disconnect and over-current protec-
tion from the main line supply to the control cabinet.
Magnetic Contactor
The magnetic contactor is usually located in the individual control cabinet and pro-
vides overload protection for the transformer/rectifier. It is magnetically actuated
from the start and stop button.
Silicon-Controlled Rectifier Stack

Silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) are used to control the AC power to the trans-
former/rectifier. They are solid-state semiconductor devices that act like a switch
with a “gate” that allows them to be turned on electrically. Because an SCR con-
ducts in only one direction, two SCRs are connected in an inverse-parallel configu-
ration to provide control on both the positive and negative half cycle. Figure 3.3
shows a typical sine wave. Each SCR conducts alternately, one on the positive half-
cycle, the other on the negative half-cycle. The automatic voltage control (typically
3-4
microprocessor-based) determines
SCR which SCR is switched on and at
Firing Zero Crossings
Angle Power what time in that half-cycle.
(90°) On
+ Time
-
An SCR which is switched on
Conducti remains on until the current flow-
on
Angle ing through it decays below what
(90°)
is called the “holding current,”
0° 90° 180° 270° 360° usually at or near the end of the
1 Half Cycle 1 Half Cycle half-cycle (zero crossing). The
(8.33 millisec- (8.33 mil-
onds) liseconds) SCR cannot be switched off in any
Figure 3.3 - Sine Wave other manner.
The point at which an SCR is turned on, or “fired”, is measured in degrees from the
beginning of the half-cycle and is called the firing angle. The part of the half-cycle
during which the SCR conducts is also measured in degrees from the firing point
until conduction ceases and is called the conduction angle. Power control is
achieved with SCRs by varying the point in the half-cycle at which each SCR is
switched on.
The nature of the SCR device is such that the output from them is no longer a sine
wave because each half-cycle is “chopped” at the Figure 3.4
Chopped Wave From
point in that cycle where an SCR is “fired” or SCR
switched into a conductive state. Figure 3.4 illus-

trates these chopped wave forms.
+
-
It is one of the roles of the current limiting reactor

to “reshape” the wave form to something more
like a sine wave. Having properly shaped wave
forms is essential to electrical efficiency and will be
further discussed later in this chapter.
3-5
Current Limiting Reactor

The current limiting reactor (CLR) is an inductor of fixed value used in series with
the transformer/rectifier. Many CLRs used in precipitator applications have taps
which can be changed manually to provide a limited selection of inductance values.
Some CLRs can automatically vary their inductance values.
The CLR’s main function is to limit the current flow during sparking. If a spark
occurs while an SCR is conducting, the spark continues until the SCR stops con-
ducting near the end of the half-cycle. During this time, the T/R set effectively has a
short on its secondary due to the spark, and this is reflected into the primary. A
properly designed T/R set has some built-in circuit impedance, but it is not enough
to significantly limit the current during sparking. Since the SCR is fully turned on
and the T/R set presents a low impedance due to the spark, the only circuit element
remaining to control current flow is the CLR. Therefore, it is important that the CLR
have the right inductance value to control spark currents.
Another function of the CLR is to shape the

voltage and current wave forms. For opti-
+
- mum electrical and collecting efficiencies,
the wave shape of the voltage and current
presented at the primary of the T/R set
Figure 3.5 - Reshaped Wave Form From CLR must be a sine wave. Under certain condi-
tions (such as operation under 70% of maximum power) the SCRs will create wave
form distortions. The CLR is needed to filter and restore the wave form to some
approximation of a sine wave (Figure 3.5). Selecting the proper inductance value of
the CLR is important for this function as well. Historically, the inductance value of
the CLR has been determined by using 50 percent of the impedance of the T/R set.
Variable Inductance-Current Limiting Reactors

Some CLRs now have the ability to change their inductance values electrically and
automatically based on the needs of the system. This process works to maintain the
proper wave forms for efficient electrical operation. These patented CLRs are now
available from only one manufacturer and are called Variable Inductance Current
Limiting Reactors (VI-CLRs).
3-6
4.00
The scope traces at left show the

3.00 Secondary Current
increased conduction time that
2.00
1.00
can be gained using a VI-CLR.
V 0.00 There is little “off-time” when the
-1.00
inductance is correct. Average
-2.00
power can be increased without
-3.00 Secondary Voltage
increasing the peak voltage, so
-4.00
Conventional CLR 5.0 ms/Div spark rates don’t rise.

Variable Inductance CLR
Transformer/Rectifier Set
A transformer/rectifier (T/R) set is a combination step-up transformer and full-wave
rectifier. The transformer raises the incoming 480 VAC to between 45 and 75 kilovolts
DC average. The rectifier converts the alternating current (AC) output from the sec-
ondary of the transformer to full-wave rectified DC. A typical T/R set used in a pre-
cipitator application is filled with oil for cooling and insulation. Typical ratings might
be:
RMS primary voltage: 400 Volts AC (VAC)

RMS primary current: 240 Amps (A)
Average secondary voltage: 45,000 Volts DC (VDC) avg.
Average secondary current: 1500 milliamps (mA)
Transformer turns ratio: 1:135
In most industrial precipitators, one T/R set is connected to one or two precipitator
bus sections and is connected to the discharge electrodes through a bus conductor.
The bus conductosr are usually uninsulated cablse or steel pipes. They are enclosed in
pipes, or bus ducts, to protect personnel. High voltage bus lines are isolated from the
ESP frame and shell by stand-off and throughput insulators made of non-conducting
plastic or ceramic material.
3-7
Automatic Voltage Controls

The automatic voltage control (AVC) controls the operation of the SCR stack. It also
measures the primary and secondary voltage and currents levels. Many AVCs also
monitor limits for the primary voltage, primary current, secondary voltage and cur-
rent, spark rate and power setback level (the power level achieved initially after a
spark or arc quench). Some AVCs also monitor other variables including: form fac-
tor, secondary fractional conduction, apparent power, and other advanced features.
The AVC’s main function is to provide the triggering pulses which fire the SCRs,
putting them into a state of conduction. It determines the point in the electrical half-
cycle where the SCR is fired, thus achieving power control. For example, if the AVC
fired each SCR at 90 degrees in the electrical half-cycle as illustrated in Figure 3, the
firing angle would be 90 degrees, the conduction angle would be 90 degrees, and
exactly half of the AC power
Limit (current, voltage, spark rate, etc.) would be applied to the T/R
set. It is in this manner that
Setback
the AVC provides power con-
Power
Slow Ramp
trol to ensure operation with-
to Limit or
Spark in the electrical limits of the
equipment. Further, if the
Quench
(response to AVC does not fire an SCR for
spark)
Fast Ramp a half-cycle, the output of the
precipitator power supply is
interrupted for that half-cycle.
Time
This permits interrupting or
Figure 3.6 - AVC Operation
“quenching” sparks when the
AVC detects them.
In essence, most AVCs operate based on the programmed operation limits as

described above, or at spark rate. The AVC increases precipitator power until a limit
or spark is reached (Figure 3.6). If a limit is reached and there are no sparks or arcs,
the maximum amount of power is then being introduced into the ESP (limits are
based on T/R set operating limits). If a spark or arc occurs, the AVC stops the
power at the next zero crossing on the sine wave. This is the only time it can stop
3-8
the SCR from conducting. This is called the quench, and last for a predetermined
number of half cycles. The amount of time the AVC quenches is a user-adjustable
setting. Once the spark or arc is extinguished, the AVC begins what is called a “fast
ramp” to the setback level. This allows the power to rise quickly in the precipitator.
The setback level is a user-adjustable setting that is apercentage of full power. The
setback is used so that full power is not applied immediately and perhaps cause
another spark, or propagate a spark or arc already in progress. It is important to
note here that these actions occur in hundredths of a second. Once the setback level
is reached, the AVC slowly applies more power until another limit or spark is
reached. How well and how fast an AVC performs these functions can greatly affect
the efficiency of the precipitator.
Voltage controls can also be controlled from a remote location through the use of
central personal or mainframe computers that run remote control programs. AVCs
are linked using a serial communications line to a computer. Software programs for
remote control can include many features that allow users to log specific data on the
controls, trend operating parameters, generate performance curves and other func-
tions. The screens below show software that can (left) simulate a voltage control
cabinet to allow remote control, and (right) maintains history files for trending of
data.
Meters
Meters are also included in the control circuitry and monitor the variations in the
electrical power input. As mentioned, some AVCs will also monitor and display
various parameters. The most commonly used standard metering consists of:
3-9
Primary Voltmeter – This meter measures the input voltage coming into the
transformer in AC volts. The input voltage ranges from 0 to 480 volts AC.
However, most modern precipitators use 400 to 480 volts as the primary
voltage limit. The meter is located across the primary winding of the
transformer.
Primary Ammeter – This meter measures the primary current flow in the
transformer in amperes. The primary ammeter is located off a current
transformer in the primary power circuit. The primary voltage and current
readings give the power input to the transformer/rectifier.
Secondary Voltmeter – This meter measures in DC volts the operating voltage

delivered to the discharge electrodes. The meter is located between the output
side of the rectifier and the discharge electrodes.
Secondary Ammeter – This meter measures the current supplied to the
discharge electrodes in milliamperes. The secondary ammeter is located between
the rectifier output and the automatic control module. The combination of the
secondary voltage and current readings gives the power input to the discharge
electrodes.
Sparkmeter – This meter measures the number of sparks per minute in a

precipitator field.
The analog-style panel meters described here are usually kept in service even if the
AVC has digital displays of the same information.
Saturable Core Reactors

A saturable core reactor is a component now considered obsolete technology,
replaced by the combination of SCRs/CLRs. However, this component is still found
on precipitators.
A saturable core reactor is a magnetic, variable impedance device used to control

the AC power to the T/R set. Its impedance is varied by application of DC power to
a control winding. When this power is increased, the impedance of the saturable
3-10
core reactor decreases. This applies more power to the T/R set. Conversely, when
the DC power to the control winding is decreased, the impedance of the saturable
core reactor increases, which applies less power to the T/R set. Therefore, power
control in the precipitator is achieved by control of the saturable core reactor’s DC
control winding.
Since the saturable core reactor is a large magnetic device, it is inherently slow to
react to changes made at the control winding. For instance, when a spark occurs,
the DC power is removed from the control winding, and can take an additional 300
milliseconds for the AC power to be sufficiently reduced to the T/R set for the
spark to extinguish. (Remember that a half cycle is just 8.33 milliseconds.) So during
this time, the spark is continuing and can cause equipment damage, such as circuit-
ry damage and electrode damage.
Saturable core reactors, even without DC power applied to the control winding,
have high leakage. This is because some AC power is applied to the T/R set even in
an off state. This tends to feed the development of arcs and sparks in the precipita-
tor field because power can never be completely turned off. To overcome this prob-
lem, resistors sized to 10% to 15% of the power rating of the T/R set are placed par-
allel with the primary of the T/R set. This means there is also waste due to the sat-
urable core reactor feeding power into arcs and sparks. The saturable core reactor,
being a variable impedance device and having high internal losses, also dissipates
energy in the form of heat.
With these problems, and others that will be discussed in the next section, it is easy
to see why many precipitator operators have retrofitted their ESPs with
SCRs/CLRs.
Electrical Efficiency and Power Transfer

As mentioned, the SCRs, CLRs and T/R sets have standard ratings that may vary
from unit to unit – even on the same precipitator. For efficient electrical operation, it
is important that each component in series be properly sized in relationship to each
other and to the work that must be performed in the precipitator (collecting dust).
3-11
T/Rs are typically sized to provide a specific

A current density, based on the square feet of
total collection surface area and the type of
+ dust to be collected. Current density is the
-
amount of secondary current in any particular
ESP field, per unit of plate area and is mea-
sured in milliamps/square foot. SCRs and
CLRs are, in turn, based on the size of T/R.
B The battle for electrical efficiency is won or
+
-
lost by proper sizing of these components and
the proper adjustment and operation of the
AVC.
Often, a precipitator’s electrical efficiency is

assumed when opacity readings are good; if
C the ESP is efficient, it is collecting dust and
+ the opacity level will be low. However, this
-
can lead to a false sense of security. The pre-
cipitator may be collecting dust well enough
to maintain good opacity readings, yet its use
of power still be highly inefficient. It is often
D possible to decrease energy consumption
while maintaining good opacity levels.
Measuring Electrical Efficiency

Earlier in this chapter it was noted that the wave forms entering the system from a
typical 480V, 60 HZ incoming line voltage are sine waves (A). As the wave enters
the SCR stack, it becomes chopped on both the negative and positive (B). The
clipped wave is reshaped by the CLR to a form closely resembling a sine wave (C),
and the T/R set steps up and rectifies it to high voltage direct current (D).
3-12
In essence, the closer to a sinusoidal shape the wave form can remain throughout
the process, the more work it can do in the precipitator. Primary form factor and
secondary fractional conduction are the two electrical measurements commonly
used to evaluate precipitator wave shapes.
Primary Form Factor

Primary form factor is a measure of how closely the shape of the current in the pri-
mary of the T/R set approaches an ideal sine wave. The primary form factor is
determined by first measuring both the root-mean-square (RMS) and the average
value of the current in the primary of the transformer/rectifier set. Next, the RMS
value of the primary current is divided by the average value. Expressed as an equa-
tion, this yields:
Pri. Form Factor = RMS Pri. Current/Average Pri. Current
For an ideal sine wave, the following relationship exists:
RMS value: 0.707 peak value of the sine wave

Average value: 0.637 peak value of the sine wave
Form Factor: 0.707/ 0.637 = 1.11
Therefore, the form factor of an ideal sine wave is 1.11. Precipitator power supplies
operating at the maximum nameplate rating of the T/R set are normally designed
to operate at a form factor of 1.2. With precipitator power supplies using SCRs for
power control, the primary form factor increases as the power level is reduced. The
shape of the current in the primary of the T/R set becomes distorted, appearing less
like an ideal sine wave due to the action of the SCRs.
The SQ -300™ Automatic Voltage Control, manufactured by BHA Group, Inc., auto-
matically measures and reports the primary form factor at any power level. The fol-
lowing example will illustrate how to manually determine the primary form factor
for a T/R set operating at its maximum rating. The same procedure can be used at
any power level. The T/R set nameplate rating for this example are as follows:
3-13
RMS primary voltage: 400 VAC

RMS primary current: 240 Amps (A)
Avg. secondary voltage: 45,000 VDC
Avg. secondary current: 1500 milliamps (mA)
1. If the turns ratio of the T/R set is not known, it can be determined from the
T/R set nameplate ratings for average secondary voltage and RMS
primary voltage. First, convert the average secondary voltage to RMS by
multiplying it by 1.19. Now divide the RMS secondary voltage by the RMS
primary voltage. For this example, the maximum nameplate ratings of
45,000 volts average and 400 volts RMS will be used.
n = Avg. Sec. Voltage * 1.19/ RMS Primary Voltage

n = 45,000 * 1.19/ 400
n = 53,550/ 400
n = 133.88
2. The average primary current can be determined by reading the secondary

current meter which responds to the average value of the secondary
current in the precipitator field. A nameplate rating of 1500 mA
will be used.
Average primary current = (n) * Sec. Current

Average primary current = 133.88* 1500 mA
Average primary current = 200.82
3. The RMS value of the primary current can be read directly from the
primary current meter supplied with the precipitator control if this meter
is of an iron vane type. This is usually indicated by the non-linear marking
of the meter face. Iron vane meters respond to the RMS value of the
primary current. For this example, the maximum nameplate rating of 240
mA will be used.
3-14
Primary form factor = RMS Pri. Current/Average Pri. Current

Primary form factor = 240/ 200.82
Primary form factor = 1.2
Secondary Fractional Conduction

In an ideal transformer, the shape of the alternating current wave form in the
primary of the transformer would be continuously reproduced on the secondary. In
the case of the T/R set, the wave form would additionally be rectified or converted
to DC.
The secondary fractional conduction is a measure of how closely the shape of the
current in the secondary of the T/R set approaches an ideal rectified sine wave. The
following relationship exists between the primary form factor and the secondary
fractional conduction:
Secondary Fractional Conduction = (1.11/Form Factor)2
Again, for an ideal sine wave, the following relationship exists:
RMS value: 0.707 peak value of the sine wave

Average Value: 0.637 peak value of the sine wave
Form Factor: 0.707/ 0.637 = 1.11
Fractional
Conduction: (1.11/ 1.11)2 = 1.00
Therefore, the secondary fractional conduction of an ideal full wave rectified sine
wave is 1.00. Precipitator power supplies operating at the maximum nameplate rat-
ing of the T/R set are normally designed to operate at a fractional conduction of .86.
This corresponds to a primary form factor of 1.2. This means that each secondary
current pulse is above zero for 86% of the time.
Remember that precipitator power supplies are unfiltered and, therefore, pulsating.
With precipitator power supplies that use SCRs for power control, the secondary
fractional conduction decreases as the power level is reduced. The shape of the cur-
rent in the T/R set‘s secondary becomes distorted, appearing less like an ideal full
wave rectified sine wave.
3-15
As with the primary form factor, the SQ-300™ Automatic Voltage Control also
automatically measures and reports the secondary fractional conduction at any
power level. The secondary fractional conduction can be determined manually by
measuring the secondary current with an oscilloscope. For most industrial precipi-
tators operating with a negative field such as Research Cottrell, Joy Western and
others, the oscilloscope is connected to measure the voltage developed by the sec-
ondary current across a resistor. The resistor is connected between the positive
bushing of the T/R set and ground. One exception to this is United McGill precipi-
tators which operate with a positive field. For these units, the oscilloscope is con-
nected to measure the voltage developed by the secondary current across a resistor
connected between the negative bushing of the T/R set and ground.
Once the oscilloscope is connected, the length of time one secondary current pulse
is above zero is measured. Next, this duration is divided by the maximum possible
duration. For a line frequency of 60 Hertz (Hz), the maximum possible duration is
8.33 milliseconds, the period of a single half-cycle. Expressed as an equation, this
yields:
Secondary Fractional Conduction = t/T

where t = the duration of one secondary current pulse;
T = the maximum possible duration.
Importance of Precipitator Wave Shapes

Both maximum collection efficiency and electrical efficiency can be obtained togeth-
er by proper control of not only the amplitude of the DC voltage and current in the
precipitator field, but its shape as well. This can be obtained by maintaining a low
primary form factor ( ≈ 1.2) and a high secondary fractional conduction (≈ .86).
3-16
Collection Efficiency
The effect of the primary form factor on the secondary current can be expressed as
an equation as follows:
Avg. Sec. Current = RMS Pri. Current / (n) * Pri. Form Factor
where n = the turns ratio of the transformer/rectifier set.
The average secondary current is inversely proportional to the primary form factor.
Therefore, the amplitude of the secondary current can be increased by reducing the
primary form factor. The effect of reducing the primary form factor is to increase the
secondary fractional conduction as follows:
Secondary Fractional Conduction = (1.11/Form factor)2
The increase in fractional conduction provides additional charging time for the pre-
cipitator field which forms a capacitor, two conductors separated by an insulating
material. Therefore, the ripple contact of the secondary voltage wave shape is
reduced. This has the practical effect of increasing the average secondary voltage.
Increasing the amplitude of the average voltage and current in the precipitator field
will cause more particulate collection to occur because the particle charge is
increased, as is the attraction to the plates. The net effect is to increase the corona
power. Approximate corona power can be expressed as an equation as follows:
[ (Vp + Vm) / 2] * (i avg.)
Where Vp = Peak secondary voltage
Vm = Minimum secondary voltage
i avg. = Average secondary current
99.9
This equation illustrates that
Cllection Efficiency - Percent
99 corona power and collection

efficiency can be increased
along with secondary volt-
age or current, or both. The
80
typical relationship between
corona power and precipita-
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
tor collection efficiency is
Corona Power - Watts Per 1000 ACFM shown in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7
Collection Efficiency Vs. Input Power
3-17
In many cases, the practical limit to how high the secondary voltage can be raised is
governed by sparking in the precipitator field. Sparking will occur when the spark-
over voltage is reached. This voltage is determined by many factors, including gas
chemistry. When this voltage level is reached, the precipitator field voltage cannot
be further raised.
An ideal precipitator power supply will apply power in such a manner that the
peak value of the secondary voltage and current are near the average value. This
will produce the maximum average secondary voltages and current before spark-
over occurs. If the precipitator wave forms have very high peaks and very low aver-
ages, measurement of the precipitator wave shapes will show a high form factor
(>1.2) and a low secondary fractional conduction (< .86). Sparking will occur on the
peaks, and the field will have little average secondary voltage and current needed
for particulate collection.
Saturable Core Reactors and Wave Forms

Asaturable core reactor will also shape the voltage and current wave forms present
in the precipitator. As we have seen, the proper shape of these wave forms is critical
for efficient collection. A measure of the secondary current wave forms with an
oscilloscope shows saturable core secondary current wave forms to be narrow and
peaked (Figure 3.8). In addition, when its dura-
tion during the high cycle is measured, it has a
fractional conduction of between 40% and 70%.
This compares to SCR/CLR combinations with
low broad wave forms and fractional conduc-
Figure 3.8 - Saturable Core Wave form tions of 86%.
These narrow and peaked wave forms result in the most common operational com-
plaint of saturable core reactor systems, in that only very low power is delivered to
the precipitator field before sparking occurs. The result is very low collection effi-
ciency.
3-18
The saturable core reactor system has been shown to be an inefficient means of
power control, and due to its effect on precipitator wave forms, collection efficiency
is generally low. However, these systems are quite reliable. Where retrofit to
SCR/CLR systems is not practical due to cost or physical size constraints, reason-
able performance can be expected from these systems when paired with an
advanced microprocessor-based automatic voltage control.
Electrical Efficiency
The amplitude of the average voltage and current in the precipitator field can be
increased by maintaining a low primary form factor and a high secondary fractional
conduction. This occurs without an increase of input power. The effect of the prima-
ry form factor on the RMS primary current can be expressed as an equation as fol-
lows:
RMS Pri. Current = Avg. Sec. Current * (n) * Pri. Form Factor
where n = the turns ratio of the transformer/rectifier set.
For a constant secondary current output and particulate collection rate, the input
power can be reduced. This is accomplished by reducing the primary form factor to
a value near 1.2 and increasing the secondary fractional conduction to a value near
.86. Only the shape of the input wave form is changed, not its amplitude. This pro-
vides a “tuning” of the entire electrical circuit, including the precipitator field, by
providing a better match of the load to the line which provides improved power
transfer. As the primary form factor increases and the secondary fractional conduc-
tion decreases, the useful output of the precipitator power supply decreases with
respect to its input.
3-19
Chapter 4 - Electrostatic Precipitation Theory and Operations
CHAPTER 4
Electrostatic Precipitation
Theory and Operations
4-1
PRECIPITATION THEORY AND OPERATIONS

In previous chapters we have reviewed the mechanical and electrical components in
a precipitator. This chapter will review precipitation theory and its practical effect in
precipitator operations in two sections:
1. The Precipitation Process
2. Basic Factors That Influence Precipitator Operation
Section 1
The Precipitation Process
The complete electrostatic precipitation process consists of five basic steps that
operate on a continuous basis:
1. Gas distribution into the treatment zone
2. Particle charging/corona discharge (gas conduction)
3. Deposition of the dust onto the collector plates
4. Accumulation (agglomeration) of the dust
5. Removal of the collected material
Once the particles are charged, they will migrate to an oppositely charged surface
because of electrostatic attraction (opposite charges attract each other). The collected
particulate will then be removed by rapping (or by washing with liquid sprays in
some styles of precipitators). This charging, collecting and removal sequence is
commonly referred to as precipitation.
It is important to first understand how and why a precipitator is built in sections.

This practice is called sectionalization.
Electrical Sectionalization
Precipitator performance depends partly on the number of installed sections or
fields. The maximum voltage a given field maintains is affected by the particle con-
centration and size distribution. These parameters may vary from one point to
another within the unit. To keep each section of the precipitator working at high
efficiency, use of small, independent sections is recommended. Multiple fields are
4-2
used to provide electrical sectionalization. Each field has separate power supplies
and controls to adjust for varying gas conditions within the unit (Figure 4.1).
The need for separate fields arises mainly because power input requirements differ
at various locations within a precipitator. For example, the inlet field of a precipita-
tor is subjected to much higher dust concentrations than the outlet field, and the
inlet field will typically collect up to 80% of the dust.
In the downstream fields, the dust loading is less concentrated. Consequently,
Bus Sections
(8 in this example)
Chambers
(2 in this example)
Insulator Fields
Compartment
(2 in this
Bus Duct
Transformer/ example)
High Voltage System
Rectifier
Support Insulator
Discharge Electrode Rapper
Roof Collecting Surface Rapper
Side
Access Doors
Gas
Distribution
Device
Collecting
Plates
Discharge Figure 4.1 - Sectionalization
Electrode
Hopper
corona current is higher in downstream fields. Particle charging will more likely be
limited by excessive sparking in the inlet fields than in the outlet fields. The corona
power to the outlet sections must be very high to charge smaller particles.
If the precipitator had only one T/R set, the excessive sparking would limit the
power input to the entire precipitator. This would result in a reduction of overall
collection efficiency.
4-3
The precipitator is divided into a series of independently energized bus sections, or

fields, in the direction of gas flow. Each field acts as an independent precipitator
preceded or followed by another independent precipitator.
Usually, each field has an individual transformer/rectifier set, voltage controls and
high voltage conductors that energize the discharge electrodes within the field. This
allows greater flexibility for individual field energizing. Precipitators with collection
efficiency of more than 99% are typically designed with three or more fields.
Another major reason for having multiple fields in an ESP is the possibility of elec-
trical failure in one or more fields. Electrical failure may occur as a result of a num-
ber of events such as over-filling hoppers, discharge wire breakage or power supply
failure. ESPs with a greater number of fields are less dependent on the operation of
all fields to achieve a high collection efficiency.
Parallel Sectionalization
In field sectionalization, the precipitator is designed with a single series of consecu-
tive, independent fields. In parallel sectionalization, the series of fields is electrically
sub-divided into two sections so each field has a parallel component. A precipitator
such as the one shown in Figure 4.1 has two parallel sections, (chambers) four fields
and eight cells. Each cell can be independently energized by a bus conductor from
its own T/R set.
One important reason for providing sectionalization across the width of the ESP is
to provide a means of handling uneven dust concentrations, gas flow distribution
and flue gas temperatures disparity. Temperatures may vary from one side of the
ESP to the other, especially if a rotary air preheater is used before the ESP. Since fly-
ash resistivity is a function of the flue gas temperature, this temperature gradient
may cause variations in the electrical characteristics of the dust from one side of the
ESP to the other. The gas flow into the ESP may also be stratified, causing varying
gas velocities and dust concentrations which can also affect the electrical character-
istics of the dust. Using numerous separate bus sections can provide flexibility to
handle flue gas variations. The more cells provided in an ESP, the greater the chance
4-4
the unit will operate at its designed collection efficiency.
In Figure 4.2, we can see how much dust a typical precipitator collects in each field
and the corresponding voltage and current levels produced on the automatic volt-
age controls for those fields.
The most obvious observation should be the fact that the inlet field of the precipita-
tor collected more than 20 times the amount of dust as the outlet field. This is gen-
erally the case in most precipitators. The inlet field also had the highest collection
efficiency of this simple three field precipitator.
Although not obvious, it is significant to note that the precipitator voltage (kilovolt)
decreases from inlet to outlet, whereas the precipitator current (milliamp) increases
from inlet to outlet field. The reason for this is a phenomena called “space charge”
which will be examined later.
Figure 4.2
Dust Collection and Voltage Levels
KV mA
Voltage Inlet Middle Outlet
Control
Readings 80% 70% 60%
Gas
Flow
20# 6# 2.4# To Stack
80# 14# 3.6#
Given:
100# Entering ESP
Assume:
Each Field Collects as
Shown
Efficiency:
97.6%
4-5
We know that the more work a motor is required to perform, the higher the operat-
ing current will be. But yet in this precipitator example, the most dust is collected in
the field operating at the lowest current levels (inlet field). Obviously then, a precip-
itator does not follow common electrical rules of thumb. But what does determine
the voltage and current levels in each field? First, let’s take all of the dust out of the
gas going to the precipitator and see how it performs.
Charging Particles in the Precipitator

Because the majority of precipitators have plates as collection electrodes, this
arrangement will be used to describe how particles are removed from flue gas in a
typical ESP.
Particles suspended in flue gas are charged as they pass through the precipitator by
the high-voltage, pulsating, direct current applied to the discharge electrode system.
The discharge electrodes are negatively charged while the collecting plates are
grounded. The applied voltage is increased until it produces a corona discharge. If
you were able to see inside an ESP, you would see the corona as a luminous glow
around the discharge electrode.
The corona causes gas molecules to ionize. The negative gas ions bombard the parti-
cles suspended in the flue gas stream, imparting a negative charge to them.
Negatively charged particles then migrate to the collection electrode and are collect-
ed (Figure 4.3).
Corona Generation
The corona is a discharge phenomenon in which gaseous molecules are ionized by
electron collisions in the region of a strong electric field. The intense electric field
close to the discharge electrode accelerates the free electrons present in the gas.
These electrons acquire sufficient velocity to ionize gas molecules on collision, pro-
ducing a positive ion and an additional free electron (Figure 4.4).
The additional free electrons create more positive ions and free electrons as they col-
4-6
lide with additional gas mole-

cules. This process is called
avalanche multiplication and
occurs in the corona glow
region (Figure 4.5). Avalanche
multiplication will continue
until the local electric field
strength weakens until there is
insufficient energy to perpetu-
ate ionization. At this point the
electrons will not be moving
fast enough to ionize gas mole-
cules upon collision.
The sluggish positive ions

Figure 4.3 - Particle Charging
migrate back to the negative discharge
electrode and form new free electrons
(by secondary emission) upon impact-
ing the discharge wire or gas space
Positive Ion
+ around it. The highly mobile electrons
Free Electrons
Corona produced during the avalanche multi-
Discharge -
- + - plication process follow the electric
- field lines toward the collection elec-
trode.
Gas Molecule
The electrons leave the corona region
Figure 4.4 - Corona Generation and enter the interelectrode region.
The magnitude of the electric field is diminished, and the free electrons’ velocity
decreases. When electrons impact on gas molecules in the interelectrode region,
they are captured and negative gas ions are created. These negative ions serve as
the principal mechanism for charging the dust.
Negative gas ions migrate toward the grounded collection electrode. A space
4-7
+ charge, which is a stable concentra-

+ -
+ - tion of negative gas ions, forms in
- -
+
+ -
-
the interelectrode region. Increases
-
+ -
+ -
-
in the applied voltage will increase
- + -
- the field strength and ion formation
+ - -
-
+ - until sparkover occurs. Sparkover is a
+ -
- -
sudden rush of localized electric
+ -
+ -
+
current through the gas layer
Figure 4.5 between the discharge and collec-
Avalanche Multiplication of Gas Molecules tion electrodes and refers to internal
sparking between them. It causes an
immediate short-term collapse of the electric field.
ESPs should be operated at voltages high enough to cause some sparking, but not at
a frequency where the electric field constantly collapses. The average sparkover rate
for optimum precipitator operation varies greatly depending on the process and
other conditions, but is usually between 30 and 90 sparks per minute. At this spark
rate, the gain in efficiency associated with increased voltage compensates for de-
creased gas ionization due to collapse of the electric field. For optimum efficiency,
the electric field strength should be as high as possible. Voltage and current levels
that can be developed are dependent upon the dust characteristics, internal align-
ment of the electrodes, rapping effectiveness, gas temperature and many other vari-
ables.
Field and Diffusion Charging

The movement of negative gas ions has two main charging effects on dust particles
in the inter electrode region. These effects are called field charging and diffusion
charging. Each type of charging occurs, but one will dominate depending on parti-
cle size.
Field charging dominates for particles with a diameter >1.0 micron, while diffusion
charging dominates for particles with a diameter between 0.1 and 0.3 microns. A
combination of the two charging mechanisms occurs for particles ranging between
0.3 and 1.0 microns in diameter. It is also possible to charge particles by electron
4-8
charging. In this case, free electrons that do not combine with gas ions are moving
at an extremely fast rate. These electrons hit the particle and cause a charge.
However, this effect is responsible for very little particle charging.
During field charging (Figure 4.6), particles enter the electric field, causing a local
dislocation of the field. Negative gas ions traveling along the electric field lines col-
lide with the suspended particles and impart a charge to them. The ions will contin-
ue to bombard a particle until the charge on that particle is sufficient to divert the
electric field lines away from it. This prevents new ions from colliding with the
charged dust particles. When a particle no longer receives an ion charge, it is said to
be saturated. Saturated, charged particles then migrate to the collection electrode
and are collected.
Collecting Plate
- Diffusion charging is associat-

- ed with the random
- Brownian motion of the nega-
- tive gas ions. This random
- Particle Charged
Particle motion is related to the veloc-
-
ity of the gas ions due to ther-
-
- mal effects: the higher the
temperature, the more move-
Field Lines Saturated Charge Particle
Distorted by Migrating Toward Collection ment. Negative ions collide
Particle Electrode
Figure 4.6 - Field Charging with the particles because of
their random thermal motion and impart a charge on the particles. Because the par-
ticles are very small (submicron), they do not cause the electric field to be dislocated
as in field charging. These small particles depend on the random motion of the neg-
ative gas ions to actually impact on and charge them negatively. The charged parti-
cles then migrate to the collection electrode.
4-9
Discharging Particles at the Collection Electrode

When a charged particle reaches the grounded collection electrode, the charge on
the particle is slowly leaked to the grounded collection plate (Figure 4.7). A portion
of the charge is realigned and contributes to the intermolecular cohesive and adhe-
sive forces that hold the particles onto the plates. Particles are held to the plates by
adhesive forces. Newly arrived particles are held to the collected particles by cohe-
sive forces. The dust layer is allowed to build on the plate to a thickness of about
0.08 to 1.27 cm (0.03 to 0.5 in), and then the rapping
cycle is initiated.
-
It is during the process of particle discharge at the col-
- lection electrode where a phenomenon call back corona
- can occur. Back corona is, in essence, a second corona
- discharge off of the collected dust. The importance of
-
back corona will be discussed later again in this chapter.
Figure 4.7
Particle Discharge at
Collection Electrode
Rapping Particles into the Hopper

Periodic rapping of the precipitator’s plates is necessary to maintain the continuous
flue gas cleaning process. The plates are usually rapped while gas flow continues
through the precipitator and the applied voltage remains constant. However, in
some cases, added efficiency can be obtained by temporarily reducing power in a
field, then initiating the rapping. This is called “power-off rapping” or “reduced-
power rapping.”
Plates are rapped when the accumulated dust layer is relatively thick (0.08 to 1.27
cm or 0.03 to 0.5 in.). This allows the dust layer to fall off the plates as large aggre-
gate sheets and helps eliminate dust re-entrainment. Most precipitators have
adjustable rapper controls which allow the rapper intensity and frequency to be
changed to tailor rapping to the requirements of each field.
4-10
Dislodged dust falls from the plates into the hopper, which is a collection bin with
sides sloping approximately 60° to allow dust to flow freely from the top of the
hopper to the discharge opening. Dust should be removed as soon as possible to
avoid material handling problems such as compaction and bridging. In these cases,
the dust is very difficult to remove and can cause a field to short out if the hopper
becomes too full. Most hoppers are emptied through some type of air lock device
such as a rotary discharge device, screw conveyor or pneumatic conveyor. Acoustic
horns are often used in dust removal processes.
Section 2.
Factors That Influence Precipitator Operation
To maximize the collection efficiency, the highest possible voltage and current
should be present in the precipitator fields. These values are limited by either a
breakdown of the gas in the inter electrode space (sparking) or by a electrical break-
down of the dust layer (back corona).
This section will look at these and other factors that affect performance in relation to
the precipitator process discussed in the previous section.
Determining Precipitator Efficiency

One of the best ways to gain insight into the ESP process is to study the relationship
known as the Deutsch-Anderson equation. This equation is used to determine the
ESP collection efficiency under ideal conditions. The simplest form of the equation
is given below:
–ω (A/Q)
η =1–e
Where: η = collection efficiency of the precipitator

A = the effective collecting plate area of the precipitator, m2 (ft2 )
Q = gas flow rate through the precipitator, m3 /s (ft.3 /sec)
e = base of natural logarithm = 2.718
ω = migration velocity, cm/s (ft/sec)
4-11
This equation has been used for many years to calculate theoretical collection effi-
ciency in the design stage of an ESP. Unfortunately, while the equation is scientifi-
cally valid, it neglects three significant process variables and is difficult to under-
stand at best. First, it completely ignores that dust re-entrainment may occur during
the rapping process. Second, it assumes the particle size and migration velocity are
uniform for all gas stream particles. This is not true; larger particles generally have
higher migration velocity rates than smaller particles. Third, it assumes the gas flow
rate is uniform across the precipitator, and there is no compensation for dust parti-
cles that can bypass the treatment zone because of poor baffle designs.
Modified Deutsch-Anderson Equation

Since several deductions in the above equation were incorrect, it was replaced by
the Modified Deutsch-Anderson Equation.
The effective precipitation rate “ω” is a quantity that estimates how well the entire
dust mass entering the ESP will be collected. In one design technique, ωK is substi-
tuted into the Deutsch-Anderson equation in place of the migration velocity ω. This
variable ωK is calculated from field experience rather than theory; values of ωK are
usually determined using empirical data accumulated from installations of ESPs in
similar industries or from pilot plant studies. In this context, ωK does not represent
the migration velocity, but a semi-empirical parameter that can be used to deter-
mine the total collection area necessary for an ESP to achieve a specified collection
efficiency (White 1982).
Using the Deutsch-Anderson equation in this manner could be particularly useful

when trying to determine the amount of additional collection area needed to
upgrade an existing ESP in order to meet more stringent regulations or to improve
unit performance. However, it is important to remember collection area is not the
only parameter affecting ESP performance. Resistivity, gas flow distribution, gas
velocity, electrical sectionalization and aspect ratio also play a major role in deter-
mining ESP efficiency.
4-12
Understanding the Deutsch-Anderson Equations

For operators of precipitators, it is quite likely that these equations will have little
value on a day-to-day basis. However, it is important to understand their implica-
tion. The Deutsch equation simplified, in effect, reduces precipitator collection effi-
ciency as being directly related to two functions, as shown here:
Deutsch Equation Simplified

Precipitator Efficiency Is Directly Proportional To:
• The Speed of the Dust Toward The Collecting Plates
• The Relative Area of the Collecting Plates
Let’s take some simple examples so that we can understand this more completely. If
we first deal with the relative area of collecting plates in the precipitator, we find
that this function is often times referred to as the SCA of the precipitator. SCA is a
term referring to the specific collection area.
Specific Collection Area

The specific collection area (SCA) is defined as the ratio of collection surface area to
the gas flow rate into the collector. The importance of this term is that it represents
the A/Q relationship in the Deutsch-Anderson equation.
2
SCA = total collection surface FT
3
Actual gas flow rate in 1000 Ft /Min.
Expressed in metric units,
2
SCA = total collection surface in m
3
1000 m /hr
Expressed in English units:
2
SCA = total collection surface in ft
1000 ft/min
4-13
For example, if the total collection surface area of an ESP is 600,000 ft2 and the gas
flow rate through the ESP is 1,000,000 ft3/min (acfm), the SCA is 600 ft3 per 1000
acfm.
SCA = 600 000 ft2
1000 (1000 acfm)
= 600 ft2
1000 acfm
As can be seen from the above equations, the specific collection area is calculated by
dividing the surface area of collecting electrodes in the precipitator by the gas vol-
ume flowing through the precipitator. Therefore, the total number of plates (size)
and the total gas volume have a direct effect on precipitator efficiency.
Common sense would dictate if the precipitator was twice as big, then the precipita-
tor efficiency would increase because the SCA would have increased. However, it is
an extremely costly endeavor to increase the plate area in a precipitator. That would
involve adding collecting fields or increasing the height of the precipitator to get
more area.
The other aspect of the SCA has to do with the gas volume going through the pre-
cipitator. One can see that if the gas volume is reduced (since it is the divisor) that
this will increase the relative area (or SCA). That in turn would increase the efficien-
cy of the precipitator. Of course, reducing the gas volume would in turn reduce
production, also a very costly solution.
That leads us to a closer examination of the speed of the dust particles towards the
collecting plate. This is often referred to the migration velocity for the precipitator. It
is perhaps the most important factor because it is the factor that is directly affected
by changes in process (both decreased or increased), and it is the factor that mainte-
nance and design modifications to the precipitator can, in effect, increase.
4-14
For example, if the existing voltage controls were installed in the 1970s and if sat-
urable core reactors are being used, a simple upgrade to modern, microprocessor
automatic voltage controls should result in a good increase in the migration velocity
and, in effect, increase the precipitator collection efficiency. The same could be said
for replacing the collecting plates which have been warped over the years with new
plates and perhaps new styles of electrodes. This also would improve the overall
migration velocity. In both examples the relative size of the precipitator did not
change, but rather the migration velocity of the dust.
Migration Velocity
Once the particle is charged, it migrates toward the grounded collection electrode.
How readily the charged particles move to the collection electrode is denoted by the
symbol ω, in the equations seen earlier, called the particle migration velocity or drift
velocity. The migration velocity parameter represents the particle collectability with-
in the confines of a specific ESP. The migration velocity is expressed below:
Where: ω = Eo Ep a
2 p h
a = particle radius
Eo = strength of field in which particles are charged
(represented by peak voltage), V/m (V/ft)
Ep = strength of field in which particles are collected
(normally the field close to collecting plates), V/m
(V/ft)
h = gas viscosity, Pa. s (cp)
p = 3.14
As seen here, migration velocity depends on the electrical field strength near the
discharge electrode and near the collecting plates. Therefore, the precipitator must
use the maximum electric field voltage to achieve maximum collection efficiency.
The migration velocity also depends on particle size, since larger particles are col-
lected more easily than smaller ones.
4-15
Precipitator Operation Without a Dust Load

The collection efficiency of a precipitator is directly related to the total power for all
fields on the precipitator. In general, the higher operating power levels that each
field can achieve, the higher the collection efficiency for that field.
The precipitator fields can be tested for electrical field strength by performing an
“air load” which is simply involves energizing the fields under ambient conditions
during an outage. The air load is usually performed with a natural stack draft to
pull ozone out of the energized fields, but there are no process gases flowing
through the unit. It is important to have some air movement in order to obtain a
good “air load” readings. When the precipitator is energized in air, the following
results* were obtained:
Table 4.1 - Air Load Results
Precipitator Voltage Precipitator Current

(KV) (mA)
0 0
1 0
5 0
10 0
15 0
16.5 1
24 100
28 200
30.6 300
33.5 400
34.0 500
35.2 600
36.3 700
36.8 750
* Actual results are dependent on T/R set size, type of high voltage electrode, and the electrical clearance.
4-16
Air load data are very important for checking the fitness of the equipment.
The mA readings are synonymous with the actual current flowing in the precipita-
tor. Current flowing in a circuit is equivalent to the number of electrons that are
moving past that point in the circuit.
For current to flow in a precipitator, electrons need to flow from the wires to the col-
lecting plates. That means that the air in the precipitator must become a conductor.
It is easy to think of the various conductors as shown on Figure 4.8 and realize that
an insulator is a very poor conductor,
Poor Conductor a piece of copper wire is an excellent
(+)
Porcelain conductor, and an energized precipi-
(-)
Insulator
tator is somewhere in between. The
e
air load demonstrates that current
e
does not start to flow in a precipitator
Very Low Current Insulator
until (in this case) a voltage of 16.5
Very Good Conductor KV was achieved. That voltage is
(-) (+)
Copper Wire referred to as the corona onset voltage.
e e ee
e e e
e e e e e
e e e e e
e e e e e e With moderate increases in voltage, a
Normal Current Conductor correspondingly increasing current
results. If the alignment is correct
Moderate Conductor between the wires and plates in the
Wire and Plate in ESP
(-) (+)
precipitator, then the air load test
should achieve either the primary or
e e e e e e e e
e e e e e e e e e e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
secondary current rating of the T/R
e e
set being energized. In our example,

High Voltage
Ionized Gas
Electrode Wire
Molecules Collecting Plate
we ran out of secondary current (750
Normal Current - Ionized Gas mA) first.
Figure 4.8 Current Carriers
4-17
Therefore, in order to get corona discharge in a precipitator, dust particles are not
required. However, the concentration of particulate has a dramatic effect on the
power levels in the precipitator, as we will see in the next section. The term “space
charge” is used to indicate a precipitator field that is collecting a significant number
of fine particles or a heavy concentration of large particles. For our example, we will
examine the latter, which is a common occurrence in cement plant precipitator
applications.
Space Charge - High Dust Concentrations

As we saw in our section on air load, since there are no particles (dust) in the inter-
electrode space, there can be no space charge. However, with the influence of a
large concentration of large particles, we can see what affect it has on precipitators –
in this example on two wet process cement kilns. Kiln No. 1 has a cyclone type
mechanical collector in series with the precipitator, whereas kiln No. 2 does not.
The automatic voltage controls for those two precipitators were found to be operat-
ing as follows:
Unit Amperes Volts mA kV kW Sparks/Minute
Kiln No. 1-1 123 337 664 50.1 27 0
Kiln No. 1-2 142 247 758 36.2 23 0
Kiln No. 2-1 9 232 39 57.5 1 20

Kiln No. 2-2 16 324 71 52.0 2 14
Kiln No. 2-3 115 465 940 48.0 38 3
Kiln No. 2-4 120 346 924 35.1 28 0
Table No. 4.2 - Effect of Particulate on Space Charge
Because kiln No. 2 does not have the mechanical collector preceding it, the dust
loading (concentration) is significantly higher than kiln No. 1. The voltage control
readings show the affect of space charge. Space charge is indicated by high voltages,
but more importantly, by extremely low current. It is the absence of current flow
that is significant.
4-18
When asked what is the more important parameter, precipitator voltage (kV) or pre-
cipitator current (mA), often times people will say kV. They are partially correct in
most cases, but not in this one.
Precipitator voltage is responsible for pushing the dust particles toward the plates.
Current is responsible for keeping them there. So although Kiln No. 2, field 1 has a
lot of pushing force, (57.5), it has no holding force. Most of the dust re-entrains into
the next field.
The other important point to note is that sparking in a precipitator is directly related
to the precipitator voltage levels. That is why inlet fields have sparking (because of
the high KV) whereas outlet
fields sometimes do not. Transformer/Rectifier Set
e e e
e e
e
e e e
If one looks at the flow of cur- e •
e e e e
rent from the T/R set to the e e
e e e e
high voltage electrodes e • e
e
e KV
e
through the dust laden gas, to mA Meter mA
• e
e
(precipitator e
the collecting plate and back KV Meter
current) e (precipitator
to the T/R set (through earth Ground
e voltage) e Electrode
e e
ground) as is shown in Figure Return Leg
e e e
e e e e
e e
4.9, the effect of the ion mobil- e e +
e e e e e e
e e e e
ity may become apparent. Plate e e e e e e e +
(+) e e e e e +
e
e e e e e e e +
e e e e
The air load demonstrated e e e e e
e
e +
e e e e e
e +
that in air without dust, the
main current carriers are the
Free Electrons =e
free electrons and the nega- Positive and Negative Ions = + and e
Charged Particles (negative) = e e
tive ions. These two charac- e
Figure 4.9 - Current Flow and Ion Mobility

ters can be compared to run-
ning backs on a football team. They are very swift moving and seek the holes, and
the mA meter counts a lot of them during an air load.
4-19
With the introduction

40,000 per second = running back
of dust into the pre-
cipitator, the ion
(+)
mobility changes dra- (-) Plate
matically. The
charged particles,
Wire
• 100 per second = quarterback
which move very 1 per second = lineman
slowly (the linemen

Figure 4.10 - Relative Velocity of Current Carriers
on a football team)
establish a “particulate space charge” in the inter electrode space. Figure 4.10 will
give you an idea of their relative velocity. It can easily be seen when viewed in con-
junction with Figure 4.9, that in the inlet field of a precipitator you have a football
team stacked with a dense line, so many in fact that the running backs have a hard
time getting through.
The mA meter counts all current carriers that make it through, be they lineman or
backfield members.
As shown before in Figure 4.2, most of the dust is collected, meaning that most of
the linemen do make it through, but they are so slow that the primary current carri-
ers (negative ions and free electrons) do not get through to register on the mA
meter. That is why precipitator current (mA) is low in the inlet field.
The effects of high space charge can be both good and bad. On the positive side,
high voltages created by space charge in turn create higher “electric fields.” The
electric field is the pushing force against the dust particles, accelerating them
towards the collecting plates. Higher accelerations toward the collecting plates can
result in increased efficiencies. That is why in our simple example shown in Figure
4.2, the collection efficiency of the inlet field goes higher than the outlet field.
However, as in our example in Table 4.2, kiln No. 2 was operating with very low
current levels. Therefore, the space charge enhanced the particulate collecting field
(high voltages), but also contributed to suppression of the corona current. Corona
current directly affects particle charging. Higher particle charging reduces reentrain-
4-20
ment, meaning the collected dust stays on the plates until it is rapped off. If the
corona is suppressed, reentrainment can occur. That happened to the kiln No. 2
precipitator in Table 4.2. In order to improve the collection efficiency at that installa-
tion, barbed discharge electrodes were installed in the first and second field on kiln
No. 2. They produced somewhat lower voltages, but increased currents in the inlet
field. That additional corona current lead to an increased improvement in precipita-
tor efficiency by reducing reentrainment.
High dust concentrations, however, are not always detrimental. In the following
rather dramatic example, a precipitator in the central United States showed dramat-
ic improvement in collection efficiencies when the dust loading increased almost 20
times! That five field precipitator handles dust from the raw mill and the preheater
exhaust.
The dust loading with the mill in operation is approximately 220 grains per acfm,
with a typical operating opacity of 10% to 15%. At those times when the mill is
taken out of service, either on-demand or for unexpected trips, the precipitator sees
a significant reduction in grain loading, down to 15 grains per acfm. However, the
outlet opacity increases to 30% to 40%. How could such a dramatic decrease in dust
load to the precipitator result in such a dramatic decrease in precipitator efficiency
and the resultant significant increase in opacity?
Ohm's Law:
E=RxI Resistivity and Back
Corona
Collecting Plate Resistivity is the electrical
resistance of the dust, and is
E I
Discharge expressed in units of ohm-
+ -
Wire
• centimeter. Figure 4.11 is
best utilized for examining
I = Ion current density the Ohm’s Law relationship
E = Electric Field
R = Dust Layer Resistivity present at the dust layer on
the precipitator collecting
plate. The corona current
Figure 4.11
flows to ground from the
Ohm's Law Relationship at Dust Layer high voltage wire electrode
4-21
after it passes through the buildup of dust deposited on the grounded collecting
plate. The collecting plate is at 0 voltage potential, whereas the surface of the dust
layer (closest to the wire) even though being only 1/4" or so thick, can develop a
substantial voltage drop across it. The voltage drop which ensues is proportional to
both the magnitude of the corona current and to the electrical resistance of the dust
layer.
The maximum value of voltage drop that a layer of dust can support without break-
down is defined by the dielectric strength of the dust, and is typically about 15 to 20
KV. If that value is exceeded, breakdown in the dust layer occurs, resulting either in
the formation of back corona or the propagation of a spark across the entire elec-
trode space.
Back Corona
When back corona develops, there are actually two sources of corona generation in
the precipitator. We already know that the high voltage wires generate corona. The
second corona source is the breakdown of the dust layer on the plates.
This breakdown will generate positive ions, canceling out the negative charge pro-
duced by the high voltage wires. The dust particles literally become “neutralized”
with opposite charges and just continue. This results in the dramatic loss in collec-
tion efficiency associated with high resistivity dust.
This electrical breakdown of the dust layer can occur in one of two ways. First, if
the current flow in the circuit is exceedingly high (relatively uncommon) or if the
resistivity of the dust layer is high (most common). When the breakdown occurs
because of high dust resistivity, the useful corona current, voltage and power input
to the precipitator are limited by the resistivity of the dust layer. This causes the col-
lection efficiency of the precipitator to be significantly lower than would be
obtained with dust of lower resistivity.
The moisture content of the gas stream also affects particle resistivity. Increasing the
4-22
moisture content of the gas stream lowers the resistivity. This can be accomplished
by spraying water or injecting steam into the ductwork preceding the ESP. In both
temperature adjustment and moisture conditioning, gas conditions must be main-
tained above the dewpoint to prevent corrosion problems.
The lack of sufficient SO3 in the gas stream is more prevalent in the electrostatic
precipitation process when high resistivity problems occur. Most of the sulfur con-
tent in the coal burned for combustion sources converts to SO2. However, approxi-
mately 1% of the sulfur converts to SO3 . The amount of SO3 in the flue gas normal-
ly increases with increasing sulfur content of the coal. The resistivity of the particles
decreases as the sulfur content of the coal increases.
The use of low-sulfur western coal for boiler operations has caused flyash resistivity
problems for ESP operations. For coal flyash dusts, the resistivity can be lowered
below the critical level by the injection of as little as 10 to 30 ppm SO3 into the gas
stream. The SO3 is injected into the duct work preceding the precipitator. Other
conditioning agents, such as vaporized sulfuric acid, ammonia, sodium chloride
and soda ash have also been used to reduce particle resistivity. (White 1974)
Two other methods used to deal with particle resistivity include increasing the col-
lection surface area and handling the flue gas at higher temperatures. Increasing the
collection area of the precipitator will increase the overall cost of the ESP and may
not be the most desirable method of reducing resistivity problems.
Low Resistivity
Particles with low resistivity are difficult to collect because they are easily charged
and rapidly lose their charge on the collection electrode. The particles take on the
charge of the collection electrode, bounce off the plates and become re-entrained in
the gas stream. Examples of low-resistivity dusts are unburned carbon in flyash and
carbon black. If these conductive particles are coarse, they can be removed
upstream of the precipitator using a device such as a cyclone.
The addition of liquid ammonia (NH3) into the gas stream as a conditioning agent
4-23
has been used in recent years. It is theorized that ammonia reacts with H2SO4 con-
tained in the flue gas to form an ammonium sulfate compound that increases dust
agglomeration. Ammonia vapor is injected into the duct leading to the precipitator
at concentrations of 15 to 40 ppm by volume. The injection of NH3 has improved
the resistivity and agglomeration of flyash from coal-fired boilers with low flue gas
temperatures.
Effect of Resistivity
Figure 4.12 shows the dramatic effect that dust resistivity has on the efficiency of a
precipitator. SCA is a precipitator term that expresses the relative size of a precipita-
12
tor. As you can see, as the resistivity increases from 1010 ohm-centimeters up to 10
ohm-centimeters, the required size of precipitator to obtain the same efficiency
would have to triple.
A look at the voltage control readings for a precipitator with high resistivity prob-
lems would show low current levels in every field of the precipitator. Often times it
is hard to distinguish
when there is a resis-
tivity problem in the
1500
inlet fields, but by
SCA Required For 99.95% Efficiency
examining Table 4.2,

you will notice that
1000
the outlet fields on
the precipitators for
both kilns show very
500
high current levels in
this wet process
cement system. If
there had been a
0
0 1010 1011 1012
resistivity problem
Resistivity Ohm-CM (which is very rare
for wet process appli-
Figure 4.12 - Dust Resistivity Factor
4-24
1200
Power Supply Current Limit
1000 Clean plate air load curve -

all fields
Operating curve - SPARK

800 third field
Operating curve -
I = Precipitator Current (mA)
second field SPARK
600 Operating curve -

first field
400
Figure 4.13
Normal Precipitator Voltage-
Current (V-I) Curves
200
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
V = Precipitator Voltage (KV)
Grounded high voltage electrode Figure 4.14

1100 Abnormal Precipitator V-I
Curves
900
Moderate back corona
I = Precipitator Current (mA)
700
Severe back
corona
500 Dust deposits on dis-
charge electrode
SPARK
300 SPARK
Moderately high
SPARK
ash resistivity
Misalignment
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
V = Precipitator Voltage (KV)
4-25
cations), it would have evidenced itself by low current levels in the outlet fields.
Low current levels in the outlet field can also be produced by a misalignment of the
electrodes in a precipitator. Therefore, it can be difficult to tell if low current levels
are caused by dust resistivity, or alignment problems. That leads us to our next sec-
tion on voltage-current curves.
Voltage-Current Curves
A voltage-current curve to a precipitator troubleshooter is like a stethoscope to a
cardiologist. When a precipitator is running we cannot see what is happening inside
that might affect its performance. However, by a close examination of the relation-
ship between the voltage and current levels in the operating precipitator, one can
predict what is affecting performance.
A V-I curve is made by taking the voltage to zero, then slowly increasing the power
levels, recording both the kilovolts and milliamps at intervals (usually 50 mA or
100 mA) until sparking occurs. A curve can then be drawn from the points collected
utilizing the “X” axis for the kilovolts and the “Y” axis for the milliamps. Some typ-
ical V-I curves for a dry process cement kiln are shown on Figure 4.13 (previous
page). Note that the voltage and current corresponding to each field reflects the
voltage and current relationships as first shown in Figure 4.2 of our precipitator
example near the beginning of this section.
When there are problems with the operation of the precipitator, Figure 4.14 (previ-
ous page) would be more helpful for troubleshooting. For example, the high resis-
tivity dust as indicated by low current levels in the outlet fields may show up as the
“moderately high” ash (dust) resistivity curve shown on Figure 4.14. This short,
stubby curve shows corona onset voltage as normal (approximately 18 KV), but
current level only increases to a very low level as opposed to the way an outlet field
should, as shown on Figure 4.13.
This contrasts with a misalignment of the electrodes (electrical clearances) in the

precipitator. Misalignment exhibits itself by a very low corona onset voltage (the
electrical clearance is decreased), followed by spark over.
4-26
These curves can also be utilized to show if there is excessive dust buildup on the
high voltage electrodes. Excessive dust buildup exhibits itself almost as if the
diameter of the discharge electrode has been increased. Dust buildup on the DE has
the same effect of increasing the corona onset voltage from the normal range of 15
to 20 KV on up to 25 to 35 KV. It is isn’t possible to obtain good current flow when
the DE’s are built up with dust. Remember, a precipitator needs both high voltage
and high current levels.
Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio is the ratio of the effective length to the effective height of the col-
lector surface. The aspect ratio can be calculated using the following equation:
AR = effective length, m (ft)

effective height, m (ft)
In calculating the aspect ratio, the effective length of the collection surface is
obtained by adding the length of a plate in each consecutive field. For example, if a
plate is 10 feet long (in the direction of gas flow) and there is a series of four fields
in the ESP, the effective length of the collection surface would be 40 feet. If the
height of a collection plate is 30 feet, the aspect ratio for this example is 1.33.
AR = 10 ft +10 ft +10 ft = 30 ft
= 40 ft
30 ft
= 1.33
The importance of the aspect ratio is in relation to rapping loss. When particles are
rapped, collected dust is carried through the ESP by the gas flow. If the total effec-
tive length of the plates in the ESP is low compared to their effective height, some of
the dust will be re-entrained and carried out of the ESP before reaching the hoppers.
The time required for dust to fall from the top of a 9.1 m plate (30 ft. plate) is several
seconds. This is sufficient time for a large amount of collected dust to be carried out
of the ESP, unless the effective plate lengths are at least 10.7 to 12.2 m (35 to 40 ft.).
The aspect ratio for ESPs ranges from 0.5 to 2.0. However, for high-efficiency ESPs
(those having collection efficiencies of >99%), the aspect ratio used in precipitator
design should be greater than 1.0, usually 1.0 to 1.5.
4-27
Gas Flow Distribution

Gas flow through the ESP chamber should be slow and evenly distributed. The gas
velocities in the duct leading into the ESP are generally between 6 and 24 m/s (20 to
80 ft./sec.). The gas velocity into the ESP must be reduced for adequate particle col-
lection. This is achieved using an expansion inlet plenum.
The inlet plenum contains perforated gas distribution plates (or other distribution
media) to evenly distribute the gas flow through the precipitator. Typical gas veloci-
ties in the ESP chamber range from 0.75 to 1.80 m/s (2.5 to 6 ft/sec). With aspect
ratios of 1.06, the optimum gas velocity is generally between 1.37 and 1.8 m/s (3.5
and 4.5 ft/sec).
In review, listed below are the specific factors that influence precipitator perfor-
mance:
Collection and Discharge Electrodes

• Profile of collecting and discharge electrodes
• Spacing of collecting and discharge electrodes
• Alignment of electrode system
• Accuracy of manufacture of electrode system
• Mechanism used to dislodge accumulations of dust
from discharge and collecting electrodes
Electrical
• Field strength
• Corona current
• Size of precipitator field energized by each T/R and AVC
• Design of high voltage electrical system
• Form factor and fractional conduction
• Correct sizing of electrical components
4-28
Gas Stream
• Density
• Composition
• Temperature
• Moisture content (viscosity)
• Velocity in field, and distribution of velocity in field
Dust and Fume Particles

• Size and shape
• Composition
• Concentration
• Electrical resistivity
• Specific gravity
• Surface properties
• Forces of agglomeration between particles
4-29
Chapter 5 – ESP Maintenance & Troubleshooting
CHAPTER 5
ESP Maintenance
& Troubleshooting
5-1
ESP MAINTENANCE & TROUBLESHOOTING

A precipitator can be difficult to maintain for peak performance, but it is not impos-
sible to achieve long-term reliability and high collection efficiencies. To consistently
achieve desired performance levels, it is critical to have an effective maintenance
program as well as a basic understanding of the precipitator process so changes in
operating data can be properly interpreted.
Typical Precipitator Problems

Precipitator problems can be divided into two classifications, (1) unexpected short-
term upset problems that generate a trip-out and (2) the longer term problems that
reduce collection efficiency over time. As you would expect, the easier of these two
problems to solve are the unexpected short-term breakdowns that occur from time
to time. The most common of these problems are:
• Broken discharge electrodes
• Gas distribution problems
• Internal mechanical/alignment
• Corrosion
• Broken insulators
• Electrical supply problems
• Rapper or tumbling hammer failure
Both kinds of problems must be addressed for efficient, problem-free, precipitator

operation. This section will concentrate on short-term problems since they are more
common.
Broken Discharge Electrodes (DEs)

Probably the most frequent problem encountered is broken discharge electrodes.
When a DE breaks, the dynamic forces inside the precipitator will cause it to contact
the collecting plates and short out the field. While ESPs can still operate with one
field down, it is obviously not recommended. Discharge electrodes break for a num-
ber of reasons, not all of them strictly related to the DE itself.
5-2
Discharge electrodes fail because of electrical erosion, mechanical fatigue and/or

corrosion. While this is one of the most common problems with precipitators, it is
also one of the easier to correct and prevent if the root cause of the problem is found
and corrective action is taken.
Electrical erosion of discharge electrodes is characterized by “penciling” or thinning

down of the discharge electrode to a point to where it can no longer withstand the
applied stress and breakage occurs. This particular failure is the most common, and
it can be solved by upgrading the automatic voltage control and evaluating the
transformer/rectifier and current limiting reactor sizing.
Poor spark control is the main cause of DE (wire) failure, but the dynamic stability
of the discharge electrodes can also contribute to electrical erosion. When the DE
support and guide frames allow the DEs to oscillate, they will wear and eventually
break. In weighted-wire precipitators, inadequate mass of tensioning weights can
promote excessive wire motion.
Gradual loss of performance is a more difficult problem to correct. Many factors

must be evaluated and corrected. These typically include gas distribution, rapping,
insulators and electrical supply problems.
Gas Distribution
Uniform gas flow distribution is absolutely critical to achieving good performance.
To properly use all of the effective plate area in a precipitator, it is necessary to dis-
tribute the gases evenly over the available inlet cross-sectional area. Gas velocity
through the precipitator is usually designed in the range of 1 to 1.3 meters per sec-
ond. This velocity is low enough to provide adequate treatment time and avoid
high re-entrainment losses of dust during periods of rapping. The problem encoun-
tered with velocities in this range is that it is difficult to achieve acceptable distribu-
tion with a single perforated plate or channel baffle. The reason for this is that there
is not enough dynamic pressure to make major flow redistributions at the point of
the perforated plate. The desired goal is to have 85% of the velocity values across
the face of the precipitator within +15% of the mean, and no more than 1% at +40%
of the mean.
5-3
As an example, a precipitator with a nominal gas velocity of 1 meter per second

would have a localized maximum operating velocity of 1.8 meters per second, if
90% of the flow happened to be directed into the upper one-half of the collection
zone. This type of problem is not that uncommon and will seriously reduce the
attainable performance. This is because the high velocities will not only increase the
dust re-entrainment during rapping, but will also cause space charge suppression in
the high velocity zone and lower the effective specific collecting area of the ESP.
Process gases must be directed through the treatment zone before collection can
take place. This seems obvious, yet many precipitators lack proper gas baffling.
Process gas can often bypass the treatment zone through areas between the last
plate of a field and the precipitator casing. Bypassing the treatment zone by passing
below the collecting plates into the area at the top of the hoppers is also a fairly
common problem. This type of gas sneakage is detrimental in that much of the dust
that has been rapped off of the plates and is in the process of being deposited into
the hopper is re-entrained in the gas stream.
Internal Mechanical Problems/Discharge Electrodes-Plate Alignment

Assuming the gas flow is properly distributed across the entire cross-sectional area
of the precipitator, the next most important factor is the internal mechanical condi-
tion. Proper electrical clearances and rapping effectiveness are the major areas of
concern. If electrical clearances are compromised due to misalignment of electrodes
or bowed collecting plates, the maximum voltage and field strength in the field will
be limited and so will the attainable performance.
Electrical clearances should be kept as close as possible to the manufacturer’s pub-

lished tolerances. If misalignment or collecting plate bowing cannot be corrected,
and some of the discharge electrodes are too close to the plates, they should be
removed. It is usually true that up to 10% of the discharge electrodes can be
removed without a serious loss of performance. Do not remove too many DEs from
the same gas passage, however, or localized lack of treatment could occur.
5-4
Proper stabilization of the discharge electrodes is also very important. This factor
seems to be more of a problem with weighted wire precipitators than the rigid
frame design. The reasons for this problem include tensioning weights that are too
light to maintain proper stabilization during dynamic loading and ineffective lower
frame stabilizers to limit movement of the lower frame due to forces encountered
during operation.
Another important factor is the condition and the effectiveness of both the high
voltage and the collecting electrode rapping systems, discussed below.
Corrosion
This is both a long-term and short-term problem and can be critical to a precipita-
tor’s performance (and safety). Corrosion is generally caused by in-leakage of ambi-
ent air, resulting in condensation of moisture, acids or other corrosive elements
found in the gas stream. There is practically no area on or in a precipitator that is
immune from corrosion.
Corrosion can be localized and fairly easy to repair when it occurs on small sections
of plates, hoppers, housing and other similar areas. Localized corrosion is usually
the result of ambient air inleakage and poor insulation (or no insulation). The best
way to prevent corrosion of this kind is to assure that the precipitator is properly
insulated and that in-leakage of outside air is prevented. Corrosion that appears on
structural components, such as support beams, should be repaired at the earliest
possible opportunity.
Broken Insulators
Insulators usually break or crack as the result of dust buildup which causes electri-
cal tracking. Tracking is the result of an electrical charge passing across the insulator
from the high voltage bus to ground. The best way to prevent tracking is to install a
purge air system to keep the insulators warm and free of dust and moisture. While
ring heaters are fine for keeping insulators warm, they do not reduce dust buildup.
5-5
Electrical Supply Problems

A variety of short-term, easily corrected problems can occur in the electrical system.
Typical problems include:
• Improper automatic voltage control settings - The AVC is designed to apply

maximum allowable power to the precipitator, limited only by the electrical
capacity rating of the T/R set, or the capacity rating of the precipitator as
defined by the sparkover voltage. The T/R set should be at one of those limits
during operation.
• Excessive sparking or arcing - (not strictly related to electrical components

or settings alone)
• Outdated AVCs, CLRs, T/Rs or other electrical components
• Inefficient use of electrical power
• Improperly sized components
Electrical system evaluation is an essential part of any overall troubleshooting pro-

cedure. A thorough evaluation of the power control system should be conducted,
especially on older precipitators. Consider upgrading any obsolete saturable core
reactor with an SCR-CLR design. The performance of the precipitator is directly
related to the amount of electrical energy that is introduced into the system.
Upgrading many of the outdated control systems can increase the power input to a
precipitator by 25% to 35% with corresponding gains in collecting efficiency.
Periodically take voltage-current curves under operating conditions. Evaluate that

data for the shape of the curve, the corona onset voltage and the peak value of the
curve. By evaluating and comparing the voltage curves on a periodic basis, any
degradation that is occurring over time can be quantified. Changes in operation,
rapping programs and control settings can be made that will minimize any prob-
lems that may be noticed from the V-I curve data.
5-6
Rapping System Problems

The rapping system for the collecting plates and high voltage systems should also
be inspected and checked for proper operation very frequently. Motion detectors are
often used to check rotation of tumbling hammer systems. Electromagnetic rappers
and vibrators can be checked easily using rapper programming software that
records voltage and current draw.
Much can be learned by simply observing the thickness of the dust layer on the col-
lecting plates and discharge electrodes. Heavy accumulation of dust on the dis-
charge electrodes will alter the voltage-current generation characteristics. The coro-
na onset voltage of any discharge electrodes will be increased by dust buildup. This
is why electrodes are designed with small wire diameters and why many rigid elec-
trodes have points or pins to act as generators of the corona discharge. If these elec-
trodes have their effective diameter increased due to accumulations of dust, the
ability to generate corona is compromised as is the operational performance of the
precipitator. Common reasons for rapper ineffectiveness include:
• Loss of energy through loose bolted connections and binding of the rapper
shafts in their guides
• Misaligned and worn tumbling hammer rapping assemblies
• Worn out rapper shock bars and mechanical fatigue of the plate rapper
shock bar connections
• Improper use of the rapper in terms of the amount of collecting
surface or discharge electrode length to be rapped by any one rapper
All of these rapper malfunctions and problems can be remedied and proper
performance restored.
Resistivity and Sizing

No thorough evaluation of the precipitator would be complete without dust resis-
tivity. Changes in moisture and temperature can result in large shifts in resistivity
that can have a positive affect on the overall condition efficiency of the precipitator.
5-7
When resistivity tests are done in the lab they are very accurate, and from a
cost/benefit standpoint are relatively inexpensive. In addition to checking the resis-
tivity of the dust, it is helpful to evaluate the overall sizing of the precipitator.
Routine Maintenance
Accurate and complete record keeping is the key to an effective maintenance pro-
gram. Logging inspection results and any preventive maintenance performed, as
well as observing collection efficiency, will help determine ESP operating efficiency.
Inspection frequency should be established by a formal in-house maintenance pro-

cedure. Vendors’ recommendations of an inspection schedule should be followed. A
listing of typical periodic maintenance procedures for a typical ESP is provided
below in Table 5.1. A well-executed maintenance program can keep the ESP from
breaking down prematurely and keep the unit in compliance with air pollution reg-
ulations.
Table 5.1 - Preventive Maintenance Checklist For a Typical Precipitator
Daily
1. Record electrical readings and transmissometer data
2. Check operation of hoppers and ash removal system
3. Examine control room ventilation system
Weekly
1. Check rapper and vibrator operation
2. Check and clean air filter
3. Inspect control set interiors
Monthly
1. Check operation of standby top-housing pressurizing fan and thermostat
2. Check operation of hopper heaters
3. Check hopper level alarm operation
4. Check for exterior corrosion, abnormal vibration, noise, leaks, and loose insulation, doors, and
joints.
5-8
Quarterly
1. Check and clean rapper and vibrator switch contacts
2. Check transmissometer calibration
Semi-annual
1. Clean and lubricate access door dog bolt and hinges
2. Clean and lubricate interlock covers
3. Clean and lubricate test connections
4. Check exterior for visual signs of deterioration, corrosion, abnormal vibration, noise and air leaks;
check door seal
5. Check T/R liquid levels and surge arrestor spark gap
Annual
1. Conduct thorough internal inspection
2. Clean top housing or insulator compartment and all electrical connections
3. Check and correct defective alignment of plates and discharge electrodes
4. Examine and clean all contactors and inspect tightness of all electrical connections and check
grounding
5. Clean and inspect all gasketed connections
6. Check and adjust operation of switchgear
7. Check and tighten rapper insulator connections
8. Observe and record areas of corrosion
Outage Checklist
1. Record air load and gas load readings during and after each outage
2. Clean and check interior of control sets during each outage of more than 72 hours
3. Clean all internal bushings during outages of more the 5 days
4. Inspect condition of all grounding devices during each outage over 72 hours
5-9
5. Clean all grounds and hopper buildup during each outage
6. Inspect and record amount and location of residual dust deposits on electrodes during each
outage of 72 hours or longer
7. Check all alarms, interlocks and all other safety devices during each outage
Troubleshooting Chart
On the following pages is a chart that should serve as a general guideline on the
more common problems that can occur and their possible causes. Use this chart for
general information only and consult your BHA account representative for detailed
information if problems persist or no immediate cause can be found.
5-10
Problem Identification
Problem and Definition Procedure Possible Cause Potential Solution
Dust buildup on collection plates Perform internal inspection to confirm Inadequate rapping system Replace vibrators with rappers; assure
excessive dust buildup that system has sufficient structural
integrity to withstand increased force
Determine if cleaned precipitator has
acceptable or signifcantly improved Insufficient rappers (collecting plate Install additional rappers
performance area per rapper greater than 1500
square feet)
Evaluate dust buildup patterns,
accelerometer test results, resistivity Low acceleration on collecting plates Improve rapping system to assure
measurements, and voltage-current effective transmission of force
data
High resistivity dust Install power-off rapping system, plus
Test emissions with clean collecting energization system, or gas
plates conditioning system
Variable inlet loading because of Vary rapping intensity and frequency

process conditions with use of fully programmable rapper
control such as the PRC-100
Dust buildup on discharge electrodes Perform internal inspection to confirm Inadequate electrode cleaning vibra- Replace vibrators with rappers; check
excessive dust buildup tion system to assure that emitting system can
withstand the increased force
Evaluate dust buildup patterns and
voltage-current data (high corona Insufficient number of rappers (elec- Install additional rappers
onset voltage; high current after corona trode length per rapper greater than
onset 1,800 feet) Install gas conditioner
Poor gas flow distribution Perform internal inspection to identify High gas velocity (> 5.5 fps) Reduce gas flow by reducing load or
dust buildup areas installing addtional collection capacity
parallel with existing system
Conduct hot-wire anemometer test
Adjust gas flow distribution (re-entrain-
ment is low)
Perform flow visualization test
Low gas velocity ( < 2 fps) Increase gas flow (system is primarily
Measure fractional efficiency to assess acting as a settling chamber)
re-entrainment
Repair gas flow distribution using field
data
5-11
Poor gas flow distribution (cont.) Conduct laboratory study to determine

required flow devices
Precipitator is spark limited Obtain voltage-current curves for trans- Close clearances Fix internals for better clearances
(This is often normal for inlet fields) former/rectifier sets
Excessive dust buildup on plates Improve rapping
Perform internal inspection to assess
physical close clearances between Dust on insulators (causing tracking) Add or improve purge air system
plates and wires, dust buildup on Add heaters to insulator compartment
plates, and deposits on insulators
Back corona condition Install gas conditioner system; use
Perform resistivity analysis of insulator intermittent energization
deposits and dust from plates High corona onset voltage, high cur-
rent Improve electrode cleaning
Power limited, high collecting plate Add T/R sets to increase electrical sec-
area per transformer/rectifier tionalization
Slow response of control Upgrade control system
Power not matched to operating condi- Upgrade current limiting reactors

tions
Determine process operating condi- Below dewpoint operation Change process conditions (raise tem-
High power but low efficiency tions perature, lower sulfur content, or
reduce excess air)
Measure or estimate acid dewpoint Current leakage across insulators
Failed insulators Install insulator purge air system
Measure pressure drop across system Improperly designed vaning/ductwork Perform study to determine vaning or
Excessive pressure drop ductwork modifications needed to meet
Measure fan current desired pressure drop
Compare design pressure drop values Perforated plate is plugging Clean plates and/or install rappers
with field measurements for various
parts of the system
5-12
Electrical control component failures Identify and record control cabinet, Severe environment problems with Cool and purge cabinets with clean air
failed part and failure date heat and/or dirt
Antiquated control system Update control system
Identify wire failure location and date Close clearances in specific section of Repair components as identified by
Discharge electrode failures precipitator inspection
Identify and record hopper evacuation
problems and correlate with wire failure Inability of controls to quench sparks, Update controls
locations arcs
Send samples of failed wires to labora- Random wire failures Install shrouded wires
tory for metallurgical analysis Update control system
Corrosion Change wire material

Change process conditions (tempera-
ture, sulfur level, excess air)
Identify and record plugged hopper Excessive loading caused by process Operate evacuating system continu-
Hopper plugging location and failure date changes ously
Inspect interior to determine if any Change process conditions to obtain

mechanical damage lower inlet dust loading
Inadequate hopper system Install hopper level indicators, heaters

and vibrators
Failure of evacuating system Update system to obtain higher reliabil-

ity
Identify and record locations of corro- Operation below acid dewpoint Change process conditions
Corrosion sion
Local areas of corrosion in unit Identify and eliminate air in-leakage:
Record process operating values door seals, doors, expansion joints
Perform ultrasonic testing to estimate

remaining service life
5-13
Chapter 6 – Installation, Start Up & Shutdown Guidelines
CHAPTER 6
Installation, Startup
& Shutdown Guidelines
6-1
INSTALLATION, START-UP AND SHUTDOWN GUIDELINES

Depending on its size and complexity, installation and startup of a new precipitator
can take a few months to one or two years. In any case, proper installation proce-
dures will save time and money and will also help in future operation and mainte-
nance of the ESP.
Since all design tolerances are critical to achieve proper ESP performance (especially
those affecting discharge and collection electrode alignment), a thorough knowl-
edge of proper installation procedures is imperative.
Some key features to re-evaluate during installation are:
1. Easy access to all potential maintenance areas – fans, motors, hoppers,

discharge devices, dampers, flue gas flow rate, temperature monitors,
insulators, rappers, T/R sets, controls and discharge and collection
electrodes.
2. Easy access to all inspection and test areas – stack testing ports and
continuous emission monitors (opacity monitors) or particulate monitors.
3. Weather conditions – the ESP must be able to withstand inclement
weather such as rain or snow without interruption of operation.
During installation, the criteria presented below should be carefully evaluated.
1. Uniform flue gas distribution across the entire unit

Ductwork, turning vanes, baffle plates and inlets with perforated diffuser plates all
affect gas distribution. If improperly installed, they can create zones of high velocity
gas flow that decrease collection efficiency and cause re-entrainment of collected
dust, especially during rapping cycles.
2. Complete seal of ESP system from dust pickup to stack outlet

Air inleakage through doors, flanges or welded joints contributes additional gas
volume and can change gas and dust chemistry. Inleakage can be extremely dam-
aging, as it creates cold spots and can lead to moisture or acid condensation and
possible corrosion. If severe, it can cause the process gas temperature to pass into
6-2
the dewpoint, causing moisture or acid to condense on the hopper walls, the dis-
charge electrode or collection plates. In addition, air inleakage and moisture con-
densation can cause caking of flyash in the hopper, making normal dust removal by
the discharge device very difficult. Leaks can be found using ultrasonic imaging
equipment, smoke testing, and careful visual inspection.
3. Proper installation of discharge wires and collection plates

Collection electrodes are usually installed first, and the discharge wires are posi-
tioned relative to them. Each section of electrodes should be checked to ensure they
are level and the alignment between the discharge electrodes and plates is correct.
4. Proper installation of rappers

Collection plate rappers and discharge electrode rappers should be installed and
aligned according to the vendor’s specifications. The rapper transmission system
should be checked for free impact transfer, gas tight seals and solid connection to
the anvil beam. If hammer and anvil rappers are used, they should be checked to
verify the hammers strike the anvils squarely. Rapping frequency and intensity can
be optimized after the unit is brought on-line.
5. Proper insulation
Most ESPs use some type of thermal insulation to maintain the flue gas tempera-
ture. This is done to prevent any moisture or acids present in the flue gas from con-
densing on the hoppers, electrodes or duct surfaces. Thermal insulation and lagging
should be checked to ensure there are no leaks or gaps that could lead to cold spots.
6. Proper installation and operation of hopper discharge valves

It is important to check the operation of the discharge devices before bringing the
ESP on-line to check for proper installation. Make sure the discharge devices are
moving in the right direction to remove dust freely from the hopper. A backward
moving screw conveyor can pack dust so tightly that it can bend the screw.
6-3
7. Smoothly running fans

Fans must be checked for proper rotation, drive component alignment and freedom
from excessive vibration. Fans should be securely mounted to a base designed to
prevent shifting or vibration.
Each ESP installation should have its own checklist reflecting the unit’s unique con-
struction features. The installation crew should prepare a checklist before beginning
final inspection and initial startup. A suggested pre-startup checklist is detailed
below.
Pre-Startup Checklist
Collecting Plates
1. Free of longitudinal and horizontal bows and warpage
2. Free of burrs and sharp edges
3. Support system square and level
4. Side spacers and alignment devices positioned properly
5. Free of excessive dust buildup
6. Gas leakage baffles in place and not binding against the collecting plates
Discharge Electrodes
1. No broken or loose DE wires
2. Wire weights free in guides and weights not bound to shrouds
3. Rigid frames square and level
4. Rigid electrodes plumb and straight
5. Free of excessive dust buildup and grounds
6. Alignment within design specifications
Hoppers
1. Scaffolding removed
2. Discharge throat and poke holes clear
3. Level detectors working and unobstructed
4. Baffle door and access door closed
5. Heaters, vibrators and level alarms operational
6-4
Top Housing or Insulator Compartments

1. Insulators and bushing clean and dry with no carbon tracks or buildups
2. Bus conductors safe distance from grounded components
3. Heaters intact; purge-air system controls, alarms, dampers and filters in
place and operational
4. Purge-air fan motor rotation correct
5. All access doors closed
Rappers
1. All swing hammers, drop rods and rapper shafts in place and free
2. Guide sleeves and bearings intact
3. Control and field wiring properly terminated
4. Indicating lights and instrumentation operational
5. All debris removed from precipitator
Transformer/Rectifiers
1. Surge arrestor not cracked or chipped and gap set
2. Liquid level satisfactory; liquid clean and tested for dielectric strength
3. High-voltage connections properly made
4. Grounds on: precipitator, output bushings, bus ducts, conduits, etc.
Automatic Voltage Controls

1. Controls system wiring shielded and grounded
2. Power supply and alarm wiring properly completed
3. Interlock key in transfer block
Safety
A precipitator can be an extremely dangerous piece of equipment—especially con-
sidering the extremely high operating voltages, and the residual static charges.
Personnel who will be operating and maintaining the ESP must be well-trained in
all safety aspects to avoid any injury. One person at the plant should be assigned
the responsibility of constantly checking safety standards and equipment as well as
providing safety training for all personnel working with the unit.
6-5
Wiring and Controls

1. Prior to startup, ensure field wiring between controls and devices such as T/R
sets, rappers and rapper controls is correct, complete and properly labeled and
grounded.
2. Never touch exposed internal parts of control system. Operation of the
transformer/rectifier controls involves the use of dangerously high voltage.
Although all practical safety control measures have been incorporated into this
equipment, always take responsible precautions during operation.
3. Never use fingers or metal screwdrivers to adjust uninsulated control devices.
Access
1. Ensure personnel are out of the precipitator, and ducts prior to energizing.
Never violate established plant clearance and lock-out practices.
2. Never bypass the safety key interlock system. Destroy any extra keys. Always
keep lock caps in place. Use powdered graphite only to lubricate the lock system
parts; never use oil or grease. Never tamper with a key interlock.
3. Use grounding chains whenever entering the precipitator, T/R switch enclosure
or bus ducts. The precipitator can hold a static charge up to 15kV after it is de-
energized. The only safe ground is one that can be seen.
4. Never open a hopper door unless the dust level is positively below the door. Do
not trust the level alarm. Check from the upper access in the precipitator. Hot
dust can flow like water and severely burn or kill a person standing below the
door. Wear protective clothing.
5. Be on firm footing prior to entering the precipitator. Clear all trip hazards. Use
the back of the hand to test for high metal temperatures.
6. Avoid ozone inhalation. Ozone is created any time the discharge electrodes are
energized. Wear a supplied air mask when entering the precipitator, duct or
stack when ozone may be present. Do not rely on filter, cartridge or canister res-
pirators to protect against ozone exposure.
7. Never clean hoppers with an uninsulated metal bar. Keep safety and danger
signs in place. Clean, bright signs are obeyed more than deteriorated signs.
6-6
Fire/Explosion
1. In case of a boiler malfunction that could permit volatile gases and/or heavy
carbon carryover to enter the precipitator, immediately shut down all T/R sets.
Volatile gases and carbon carryover could be ignited by sparks in the precipitator
causing fire or explosion, resulting in precipitator destruction or damage.
2. If high levels of carbon are known to exist on the collecting surface or in the
hoppers, do not open precipitator access doors until the precipitator has cooled below 52°
C (125° F). Spontaneous combustion of the hot dust may be caused by the inrush
of ambient air.
3. If a fire is suspected in the hoppers, empty the affected hopper. If unable to
empty the hopper immediately, shut down the T/R sets above the hopper until it
is empty. Use no other method to empty the hopper. Never use water or steam to
control this type of fire. These agents can release hydrogen, increasing the
possibility of explosion.
Voltage-Current Readings With an On-Line ESP

As mentioned in previous chapters, V-I curves for an on-line precipitator can be used
to compare the operating voltage and current levels to the air load levels to help
determine if there are any problems.
Voltage and current will increase as the bus sections are energized until T/R limit or
sparkover occurs. High voltage readings will occur when collection plates are dirty
because of the voltage drop across the dust layer. High voltage with low current read-
ings will occur if the dust has high resistivity or if the discharge electrodes are fouled.
This can be seen as a curve where the voltage reaches the sparkover limit before the
current reaches the limit of the controls. The inlet fields generally have higher voltages
for the same current levels than the outlet fields. This is because the high concentra-
tions of dust in the inlet fields will tend to suppress the current. Outlet curves will
tend to show higher current for the same voltage level than the inlet fields.
6-7
Startup
Startup of an electrostatic precipitator is generally a routine operation. It involves
heating a number of components such as support insulators and hoppers. If possi-
ble, the ESP should not be powered up until the process reaches steady-state condi-
tions.
This is especially important for ESPs used on cement kilns burning coal as fuel.
While the kiln is warming up, combustible gases will be present in the exhaust
stream. Electrostatic precipitators cannot be activated until combustible fuel is no
longer present in the flue gas. The internal sparking of the ESP could cause a fire or
explosion.
When ESPs are used on boilers, the boiler should be started with gas or #2 fuel oil.
Heavy oil (#6 fuel oil) is not good for startup because tarry particulate emissions
can coat collection plates and are difficult to remove. If an ESP is used on a coal-
fired boiler, the ESP should not be started until a stable coal fire can be verified.
This will help prevent combustible gases from accumulating in the unit and causing
explosive conditions. A typical startup procedure for an ESP used on a boiler is
given below.
Typical Startup Procedures

Normal Operation
Startup (pre-operational checks—at least two hours prior to gas load):
1. Complete all maintenance/inspection items
2. Remove all debris from ESP
3. Safety interlocks should be operational and all keys are accounted
4. No personnel should be in the ESP
5. Lock out ESP and insert keys in transfer blocks
6-8
Pre-start (at least 1 hour to gas load):

6. Check hoppers
a. Level indicating system should be operational
b. Ash handling system operating and sequence; leave in operational mode
c. Hopper heaters should be in operation
7. Check top of housing purge-air system
a. Check operation of purge-air fan; leave running
b. Support insulator heaters should be in operation
8. Check rappers
a. Energize control, run walk-down sequence, ensure that all rappers are
operational
b. Set cycle time and intensity adjustments, using installed instrumentation
- leave rappers operating
Gas load:
9. After gas at temperature above 200° F (95°C) has entered the ESP for 2 hours:
a. Energize T/R sets
b. Check for normal operation of automatic voltage controls; note
readings
c. Check for all alarm functions in local and remote
d. Check proper operation of ash removal system
e. De-energize bushing heaters (hopper heaters optional)
Cold start (when it is not possible to admit flue gas at 200° F for 2 hours prior to
energizing controls, proceed as follows):
1. Perform steps 1-9 above; increase rapping intensity 50%
2. Energize T/R sets, starting with inlet field, set voltage controls to a point just
below sparking
3. In order to maintain opacity, energize successive fields as load increases, keeping
voltage below normal sparking (less than 10 sparks/minute
4. Perform step 9d above
5. After flue gas at 200° F has entered the ESP for 2 hours, perform steps l-b, and e
above; set normal rapping
6-9
Shutdown
When the process is shut down temporarily, the ESP system should be de-energized
to save energy costs. The shutdown of the ESP is usually done by reversing the
order of the startup steps, beginning with powering down the inlet fields to main-
tain appropriate opacity levels. Running the rappers for a short time after the ESP is
de-energized is advisable for removal of accumulated dust from the collection
plates and discharge wire removal. All hoppers should be completely emptied
before bringing the unit back on-line. A typical shutdown and emergency shutdown
procedure is detailed below.
Typical and Emergency Shutdown Procedures

Typical Shutdown Procedure
1. When boiler load drops and total ash quantity diminishes:
a. De-energize the ESP by field, starting with inlet to maintain opacity limit
b. De-energize outlet field when all fuel flow ceases and combustion air flow
falls below 30% of rated flow
c. Leave rappers, ash removal system, purge-air system and hopper heaters
operational
d. Four hours after boiler shutdown, de-energize purge-air system and hopper
heaters; secure ash removal system
e. Eight hours after boiler shutdown, de-energize rappers
Note: Normal shutdown is a convenient time to check operation of alarms
Emergency Shutdown
1. De-energize all T/R sets
2. Follow steps c, d, and e above (shutdown)
6-10
Glossary
GLOSSARY
i
Air Heater — A heat exchanger which transfers heat otherwise wasted from the flue
gases to the incoming furnace air.
Anemometer — A device for measuring small air velocities. See hot-wire

anemometer and rotating vane anemometer.
Anti-Sneak Baffles — A gas distribution device in which internal baffle elements

within the precipitator prevent the gas from bypassing the active field or causing
hopper re-entrainment.
Arc — A relatively long, large discharge of high voltage which is not immediately
self-extinguishing.
Aspect Ratio — The length of a precipitator divided by its height. The aspect ratio
normally ranges from approximately 0.5 to 1.5 and affects the amount rapping re-
entrainment contributes to the outlet burden.
Automatic Power Supply Control — The automatic regulation of high voltage

power for changes in precipitator operating conditions using feedback signal(s).
Auxiliary Control Equipment — The electrical components required to protect,

monitor and control the operation of precipitator rappers, heaters and other associ-
ated equipment.
Back Corona — Back-ionization; A discharge originating from the collecting elec-

trode, with a polarity opposite the discharge electrode. Back corona is caused when
the potential gradient through the dust deposited on the collecting electrode
exceeds the breakdown strength of the gas.
Bridging — The blockage of a hopper by the formation of an arch or ‘bridge’ of

compacted dust over the hopper exit, usually corrected with a vibrator or acoustic
horn.
Bus Section — The smallest portion of the precipitator which can be independently
de-energized (by subdivision of the high voltage system and arrangement of sup-
port insulators).
Cell (in width) — A cell is an arrangement of bus sections parallel to gas flow. Note:
Number of cells wide times number of fields deep equals the total number of bus sections.
Chamber — A gas-tight longitudinal subdivision of a precipitator. A precipitator

with a single gas-tight dividing wall is referred to as a two-chamber precipitator.
Note: Very wide precipitator chambers are frequently equipped with non-gas-tight load
bearing walls for structural considerations. These precipitators are by definition single
chamber precipitators.
ii
Glossary
Char — The carbonaceous material in dust — usually incompletely burned fuel

which has larger particles than the rest of the dust.
Chemical Conditioner — A chemical used to lower the resistivity of dust to reduce

or eliminate back-ionization.
Collection Electrode — The electrode (usually grounded) on which the particulate

is deposited in an electrostatic precipitator. Also called collecting plate.
Collection Surfaces — The individual elements which make up the collecting sys-
tem and provide the total surface area of the precipitator for the deposition of dust
particles.
Collection Surface Area — The total flat projected area of collecting surface
exposed to the active electrical field (effective length x effective height x 2 x number
of gas passages).
Collection Surface Rapper — A device which imparts vibration or shock to the col-
lecting surface to dislodge the deposited particles.
Conductivity — The reciprocal of resistivity — the units are Mho-meters (Mho =

Ohm, spelled backwards).
Conical Hopper — A hopper shaped like an inverted cone.
Control Damper — A device installed in a duct to regulate the gas flow by degree
of closure. Examples: Butterfly or Multi-Louver.
Control Equipment — High voltage power supply control equipment generally

consists of: electrical components required to protect, monitor and regulate the
power supplied to the precipitator high voltage system.
Corona Power (KW) — The product of secondary current and secondary voltage.
Power density is generally expressed in terms of: 1) watts per square foot of collect-
ing surface, or 2) watts per 1000 ACFM off gas flow.
Current density — The amount of secondary current per unit of ESP collecting sur-
face.
Discharge Electrode — The part which is installed in the high voltage system to
perform the function of ionizing the gas and creating the electric field. Typical
configurations are: rigid frame, weighted wire, rigid discharge electrode.
Discharge Electrode Rapper — The device for imparting vibration or shock to the
discharge electrodes in order to dislodge dust accumulation.
iii
Dust (or Mist) Concentration — The weight of dust or mist contained in a unit of
gas, e.g., pounds per thousand pounds of gas, grains per actual cubic foot of gas, or
grains per standard dry cubic foot (the temperature and pressure of the gas must be
specified if given as volume).
Effective Length — The total length of collecting surface measured direction of gas
flow.
Effective Height — The total height of collecting surface measured top to bottom.
Effective Width — Total number of gas passages multiplied by spacing dimension

of the collecting surfaces.
Effective Cross-Sectional Area — Effective width times effective height.
Effective Migration Velocity — This parameter, defined by the Deutsch-Anderson

relationship, is related to the average speed with which dust particles in an electro-
static precipitator move towards the collecting electrode. Values are gener-ally stat-
ed in terms of ft/min. or cm/sec.
Field (In depth) — An arrangement of bus sections perpendicular to gas flow ener-
gized by one or more high voltage power supplies.
Flyash — Dust from a furnace; the term distinguishes the ash that is entrained in
the gas from bottom ash which drops to a grate or pan at the bottom of the furnace.
Gas Distribution Devices — Internal elements in the transition or ductwork to pro-

duce the desired velocity contour at the inlet and outlet face of the precipitator. (See
Gas Distribution)
Gas Distribution Plate Rapper — A rapper used to prevent dust buildup on gas
distribution devices.
Gas Passage — A duct formed by two adjacent rows of collecting surfaces.
High Voltage Bus — A conductor enclosed within a grounded duct.
High Voltage Conductor — A conductor which carries the high voltage from the
transformer-rectifier to the precipitator high voltage system.
High Voltage Power Supply — The supply unit which produces the high voltage
required for precipitation, consisting of a transformer-rectifier and controls.
High Voltage System — All parts of the precipitator which are maintained at a high
electrical potential.
High Voltage System Support Insulator — A device which physically supports and
iv
Glossary
electrically isolates the high voltage system from the grounded structure.
Hopper — The vessel at the bottom of a precipitator where dust falls as it is rapped
from the electrodes.
Hopper Capacity — The total capacity of a hopper measured from a point some
distance below the high voltage system or plates, whichever is lower.
Hot-Wire Anemometer — A device that measures gasflow by its cooling effect on a

heated element. Air velocities of centimeters per second can be measured by this
method.
Impedance Device — A linear inductor or current-limiting reactor required to work

with SCR-type controllers. A transformer with a specially designed high impedance
core and coils. Saturable core reactor. Resistors.
Insulator Compartment — An enclosure for the insulator(s) which supports the

high voltage system (may contain one or more insulators.
Isokinetic Sampling — A sampling of the flue gases drawn from the mainstream of
the gas into the sampling apparatus with no change of velocity.
Manual Power Supply Control — The manual regulation of high voltage power
based on precipitator operating conditions observed by plant operators.
Migration Velocity — A parameter in the Deutsch-Anderson equation used to

determine the required size of an electrostatic precipitator to meet specified design
conditions. Values are generally stated in terms of ft/min. or cm/sec. See also
‘effective migration velocity.’
Penthouse — An enclosure over the precipitator which contains the high voltage
insulators.
Precipitator Current — The rectified or unidirectional average current to the precip-

itator.
Precipitator Gas Velocity — A figure obtained by dividing the volume rate of gas
flow through the precipitator by the effective cross-sectional area of the precipitator.
Gas velocity is generally expressed in terms of ft./sec. and is computed as follows:
Velocity = Gas volume (ACFM)

Effective cross-section area (FT2)
(Effective cross-section is construed to be the effective field height x width of gas
passage x number of passages.)
v
Primary Current —The current in the transformer primary.
Primary Voltage — The voltage across the primary of the transformer.
Pyramid Hopper — A hopper shaped like an inverted pyramid.
Rapper Insulator — A device to electrically isolate discharge electrode rappers yet

mechanically transmit forces necessary to create vibration or shock in the high volt-
age system.
Rapping Intensity — The ‘g’ force measured at various points on collecting or dis-
charge electrodes. Measured forces should be specified as longitudinal or trans-
verse.
Rapping Re-entrainment — Dust which has been rapped from the electrodes and is
carried back into the gas stream. This process can substantially lower the collecting
efficiency of a precipitator.
Resistivity — The electrical resistance that a meter cube of a substance (usually of

packed dust) has when measured between opposite faces of the cube. The units are
ohm-meters (or ohm-centimeters — a resistivity of 1 cm is equivalent to a resistivity
of 100 ).
Rotating Vane Anemometer — A windmill-like device, small enough to be held in

the hand, for measuring air speed.
Safety Ground Device — A device for physically grounding the high voltage sys-
tem prior to personnel entering the precipitator. The most common type consists of
a conductor, one end of which is grounded to the casing, the other end attached to
the high voltage system using an insulated operating lever or handle.
Scouring — The process in which collected dust is removed from the collecting
electrodes by the gasflow. Usually associated with a region of high velocity.
Secondary Current —The current in the transformer/rectifier secondary that is the

main energy source.
Secondary Voltage — The voltage as indicated by AC voltmeter across the sec-

ondary of the transformer.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) — A semi-conductor, electronic switch for volt-

age regulation; two are used in an inverse parallel arrangement for each half cycle,
positive and negative.
Sine Wave — A wave form consisting of a positive and negative half cycle, each one
lasting 8.33 milliseconds. Based on U.S. power generation at a 60 hertz cycle.
vi
Glossary
Slip — The proportion of dust escaping from the precipitator outlet. Slip may be
expressed as a decimal fraction, or a percentage. It is usually estimated by dividing
the outlet dust burden by the inlet dust burden.
Sneakage — The process in which dust-laden gas escapes through the treatment
zone, either through the top, bottom or around the sides. Each percent of gas sneak-
age reduces the attainable precipitator collecting efficiency by almost one percent.
Space-Charge — The charge present (as dust particles, gas ions, and free electrons)
in the space between the electrodes. Space-charge modifies the local electric field in
an electrostatic precipitator in a way analogous to space-charge modifying the field
inside a thermionic diode. The space-charge strengthens the field near the collect-
ing electrode (anode) and weakens the field near the discharge electrode (cathode).
Spark — A short, self-extinguishing discharge from the high voltage system to the
grounded system. Sparks effectively cause the gas stream to act as a conductor.
Specific Collecting Area (SCA) — A figure obtained by dividing total effective col-
lecting surface of the precipitator by gas volume expressed in thousands of actual
cubic feet per minute.
Sweepage — Sweepage is the process by which gases passing beneath the elec-
trodes of a precipitator pick up dust from the hoppers and carry it out of the
precipitator. Sweepage can severely limit precipitator efficiency and is usually
controlled by means of baffles.
Transformer/Rectifier — A unit comprising a transformer for stepping up normal

service voltages to voltages in the kilovolt range, and a rectifier operating at high
voltage to convert AC to unidirectional current (DC).
Treatment Time — A figure, in seconds, obtained by dividing the effective length in

feet of a precipitator by the precipitator gas velocity figure calculated above. The
length of time it takes process gas to move through the treatment zone.
Turning Vanes — A gas distribution device in which vanes in ductwork or transi-

tion guide the gas and dust flow to minimize pressure drop and control the velocity
and dust concentration contours.
Upper Weather Enclosure — A non-gas-tight enclosure on the roof of the precipita-

tor to shelter equipment (T/R sets, rappers, purge air fans, etc.) and maintenance
personnel.
Voltage — The average DC voltage between the high voltage system and grounded
side of the precipitator.
vii

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ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR BASICS

Understanding the Deutsch-Anderson Equations ..........................................4-13

Wiring and Controls ........................................................................................6-9

2.19 AAF-Elex ESP......................................................................................................2-20

Suggested Further Reading

1. The Art of Electrostatic Precipitation, Jacob Katz, P.E., distributed by

2. Electrostatic Precipitator Handbook, D.A. Lloyd, published by Adam

3. Industrial Electrostatic Precipitation, White, H.J., 1963. Addison-Wesley

4. Mechanical and Electrical Aspects of Electrostatic Precipitator

Increasingly stringent global emission limitations have mandated particulate

Precipitators Versus Other Air Pollution Control

average efficiency of a cyclone is Dwell Zone

Wet Process Collectors

it to a settling pond, and

ed filters approximately 2’ to 3’ long and are made

Baghouses Figure 1.4 - Cartridge Collector

Baghouses (also called dry dust collectors or fabric

Other advantages of precipitators include:

2. Efficiency - Sustained high efficiency collection (often greater than

3. Power Consumption - 20 to 60 kW per 100,000 cubic feet of gas,

4. Pressure Loss - Resistance negligible, rarely more than 0.4" water

5. Adaptability - Tolerates considerable fluctuations in operating

6. Effect - Normally the dust is recovered dry in its original state.

7. Maintenance - Internal items: maintenance at normal plant shut-down

8. Durability - Construction ensures long life under arduous conditions;

PRECIPITATOR EQUIPMENT AND COMPONENTS

Table 1.1 – Styles of Dry Electrostatic Precipitators

Weighted Wire Rigid Frame Rigid Electrode

Figure 2.1 - Basic Operating Principal of An Electrostatic Precipitator

The precipitation process and operations will be discussed in detail in Chapter 4.

• High voltage electrical supply system

• Other important components

Figure 2.2 shows a typical American type weighted-wire precipitator.

Hot Roof Access

High Voltage DE System Support

Figure 2.2 - Typical American Precipitator (With Top Housing)

Perforated Plates, Gas Distribution Media

High Voltage Switch

DE frame anvil beam Transformer/Rectifier

Lateral movement of upper or lower Longitudinal movement of upper or lower

Developments in electrode design have resulted in the rigid

Plates are subject to numerous prob-

To assure a longer service life of plates, it is important to inspect them, as a mini-

Other Important Components

bilizer types of insulators.

Support insulators physically Figure 2.13

late the discharge electrode

Insulators can suffer greatly from extreme environmental conditions – especially

Purge Air Systems

Rappers and Vibrators

In tumbling hammer systems, rapping intensity is controlled by the weight of the

Electromagnetic rappers operate more frequently,

Many older precipitators with electromagnetic rappers can achieve performance

Electric vibrators usually require more maintenance than pneumatic

Rigid Frame Precipitators

• Rappers are horizontally mounted, and take up valuable space in the

In Figure 2.19 (at right), an AAF-Elex design is illustrated, showing a semi-rigid

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM AND COMPONENTS

• The electrical ratings of the equipment

Power Supply Components

Main Disconnect Breaker

Silicon-Controlled Rectifier Stack

switched into a conductive state. Figure 3.4 illus-