LESSON 3: Focus on the Learner
- Frankfurt Germany
- one can be an effective facilitator of
learning if one has a good working
knowledge of the learners’
development.
- Child and Adolescent Development
course, the foundational theories
related to learners’ development
- module aims to help you think about
the and review these theories that
you have taken up and connects
them to learning.
Advance Organizer
1. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
- known as the founding father of
psychoanalysis
- Born in 1856, in the
Austro-Hungarian Empire
- He chose medicine and specialized
in neurology
\ Repudiation
2. Erik Erikson
- Born June 15 1902- May 12 1994
- Jewish
- Taught @ Harvard Medical School,
UC Berkley, Yale, San Francisco
Psychoanalytic Institute, Austen
Riggs Center, Center for Advanced
Studies
Erikson’s Psycho-Social Development
Age ( Years), Stage, Psychosocial Crisis,
Psychosocial Strength & environmental
influence.
1, Infancy, Trust vs. Mistrust, Hope,Maternal
2-3, Early childhood, Autonomy vs. Shame
and Doubt, Willpower, Both parents or adult
substitutes
4-5, Preschool, Initiative vs. Guilt, Purpose,
Parents, family and friends
6-11, Middle Childhood, Industry vs.
Inferiority, Competence, School
12-18, Adolescence, Identity vs. Role
confusion, Fidelity, Peers
18-35, young adulthood, Intimacy vs.
Isolation, Love, Spouse, lover, friends
35-65, Middle Age, Generativity
vs.Stagnation, Care, Family, society
Over 65, old age, Integrity vs. Despair,
wisdom, all humans
Erikson’s Psycho-Social Stages of
Development
Significant, maladaptation, Malignancy
- Mother, Sensory, Withdrawal
- Parents, impulsivity, Compulsion
- Family, Ruthless, Inhibition
- Neighbor (schools),
Narrow(virtuosity), Inertia
- Peers (role model), fanaticism,
- Friends (partners), Promiscuity,
Exclusivity
- Household ( workmates),
Overextension, Rejectivity
- Mankind( my kind), Presumption,
Disdain
 5. Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological
3. Jean Piaget theory
- Piaget’s cognitive development
theory
- was born in Switzerland in 1986.
- He was a psychologist.
- He concluded that children were not
less intelligent than adults, they
simply think differently.

6. Lev vygotsky socio-cultural theory

4. Lawrence Kohlberg
- Kohlberg’s
theory of moral development
- Born in 1927.He died on January
17th ,1987 at the age of 59.
- His book on moral development is
used by teachers around the world
to promote moral reasoning.
- Believes that our ability to choose
right from wrong is tied with our
ability to understand & reason
logically.
- In his research, he presented moral
dilemmas( difficult problems) to the
individuals and asked for their
responses. He was interested in
analyzing the moral reasoning
behind that responses.
LESSON 4: Student Diversity
FACTORS THAT BRING ABOUT
STUDENT DIVERSITY
1. Socioeconomic Status
(lower income, middle income or higher)
2. Thinking/ Learning style
(better in seeing, listening or manipulating
something)
3. Exceptionalities
(difficulty in spoken language or hearing,
seeing etc.)
HOW STUDENT DIVERSITY ENRICHES
THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
- Students’ self-awareness is
enhanced by diversity.
- Student diversity contributes to
cognitive development.
- Student diversity prepares learners
for their role as responsible
members of society.
- Student diversity can promote
harmony.
SOME TIPS ON STUDENT DIVERSITY
- Encourage learners to share their
personal history and experiences.
- Integrate learning experiences and
activities which promote students’
multicultural and cross-cultural
awareness.
- Aside from highlighting diversity,
identify patterns of unity that
transcend group differences.
- Communicate high expectations to
students from all sub-groups.
- Use varied instructional methods to
accommodate student diversity in
learning styles:
Sensory/perceptual modalities
Instructional formats/procedures
Student-centered/ teacher-centered
Unstructured/ structured
Independent/ Interdependent
learning
- Vary the examples you use to
illustrate concepts in order to
provide multiple contexts relevant to
students from diverse backgrounds.
- Adapt to the students’ diverse
backgrounds and learning styles by
allowing them personal choice and
decision-making opportunities.
- Diversify your method of assessing
and evaluating student learning.
- Form small-discussion groups of
students from diverse backgrounds
– different learning styles, different
cultural background, etc.
LEARNING/THINKING STYLES AND
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
SENSORY PREFERENCES
Visual Learners
- Visual-iconic, Visual-symbolic
- learn by reading or seeing pictures
Auditory Learners
- Listeners, Talkers
- student learns most effectively by
listening.
- They would prefer listening to a
lecture over reading a textbook
Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners
- need to physically touch or try
something in order to learn the
concept best.
- This style is often called
multi-sensory learning
GLOBAL-ANALYTIC CONTINUUM
Analytic thinkers - tend toward the linear,
step-by-step processes of learning.
(Left Brain) (Successive Hemispheric Style)
-Verbal
-Responds to word meaning
-Sequential
-Processes information linearly
-Responds to logic
-Plans ahead
-Recalls people’s names
-Speaks with few gestures
-Punctual
-Prefers formal study design
-Prefers bright lights while studying
Global thinkers - lean towards non-linear
thought and tend to see the whole pattern
rather than particle elements. (totality)
(Right Brain) (Simultaneous Hemispheric)
-Style
-Visual
-Responds to tone of voice
-Random
-Processes information in varied order
-Responds to emotion
-Impulsive
-Recalls people’s faces
-Gestures when speaking
-Less punctual
-Prefers sound/music background while
studying
-.Prefers frequent mobility while studying
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
1. Word Smart ( Linguistic Intelligence)
(use language effectively) (orally/writing)
2. Self Smart (Intrapersonal) (internal
aspects of the self)
3. Nature Smart (naturalist)( know about
and relate well to one's natural
surroundings)
4. Music Smart (musical) (ability to
perceive, discriminate, transform, and
express musical forms)
5. People Smart ( Interpersonal) (formulate
healthy social and formal relationships in
other people)
6. Reasoning Smart
(Logical/Mathematical) (capacity to work
with numbers and to reason well)
7. Body Smart (Kinesthetic) (use the body
to express emotion) (as in dance and body
language)
8. Picture Smart (Visual/Spatial)(deals with
the visual arts) (painting, drawing)
TEACHING STRATEGIES GUIDED BY
THINKING/LEARNING STYLES AND
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
1. Use questions of all types to stimulate
various levels of thinking
2. Provide a general overview of material to
be learned
3. Allow sufficient time for information to be
processed and integrate using both the
right- and left- hemispheres
4. Set clear purposes before any listening,
viewing or reading experience
5. Warm up before the lesson development
6. Use multisensory means for both
processing and retrieving information
7. Use a variety of review and reflection
strategies
8. Use descriptive feedback rather than
simply praising
LESSON 5: Learners with Exceptionalities
Exceptionalities - learning disability,
mental retardation, sensory impairments,
emotional & behavioral disabilities, autism,
physical disabilities & health impairments.
Disability - measurable impairments/
limitation that interferes with a person's
ability. It may refer to a physical, sensory/
mental condition (kakulangan)
Handicap - a disadvantage that occurs as a
result of disability / impairment. (result of
disability) ( ex. May paa pero di
nakakalakad)
Categories of Exceptionalities
Specific cognitive or academic difficulties
1. Learning Disabilities.
- involves difficulties in specific
cognitive processes like perception,
language, memory or metacognition
that are not due to other disabilities
like mental retardation, emotional or
behavioral disorders or sensory
impairments. ( kahit anong aral hindi
pa rin nakukuha or naiintindihan)
2. Attention–Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder. (ADHD) (hyper)
a. Difficulty in focusing and maintaining
attention
b. Recurrent hyperactive and impulsive
behaviour.
3. Speech and Communication Disorder.
- There is difficulty in spoken
language including voice disorders,
inability to produce the sound
correctly, stuttering, difficulty in
spoken language comprehension
that significantly hamper classroom
performance. (bulol sa letter
r/s)(includes voice / nauutal)
Social/ emotional and behavioural
difficulties
4. Autism
- is a condition manifested by different
levels of impaired social interaction
and communication, repetitive
behaviors and limited interest.
5. Mental Retardation.
- There is a difficulty in managing
activities of daily living and in
conducting themselves appropriately
in social situations.(hindi makacope
up ) (very limited ang kaalaman)
6. Emotional/Conduct Disorders.
- This involves the presence of
emotional states like depression and
aggression over a considerable
amount of time that they notably
disturb learning and performance in
school.( may sinasabi lang nag
rereact agad) (person have
depression)
Physical disabilities and health impairments
7. Physical and Health Impairments
- Limited energy and strength
- Reduced mental alertness
- Little muscle control
8. Severe and Multiple Disabilities.
- This refers to the presence of two or
more different disabilities, at times at
a profound level. (all disability
person have)
People First Language
- Do not focus on the disabilities
(kakulangan) of a person. (nararapat
na ang isang tao ay ipakilala sa
kanyang kakayahan hindi sa
kanyang kahinaan)
Ex. Person with disability not disabled
person “ persons with aids” rather than “aids
victim”
- Avoid generic labels people with
mental retardation is preferable to
mentally retarded.
- Emphasizing abilities, not limitations,
using a wheelchair is preferable to
confirming a wheelchair.
- Avoiding euphemism
physically-challenged ( call by their
name not to their disabilities )
- Avoiding implying illness or suffering
from polio is preferable to being a
polio victim and multiple sclerosis is
preferable to suffering from multiple
sclerosis.
LESSON 6: Behaviorism
- the manner in which one behaves.
- anything that an organism does
involving action and response to
stimulation.
- the response of an individual, group,
or species to its environment.
According to the behaviorists - learning
can be defined as “the relatively permanent
change in behavior brought about as a
result of experience or practice.”
Behaviorists recognize that learning is an
internal event. However, it is not recognized
as learning until it is displayed by overt
behavior.
“Learning is represented by a change in
behavior”
Behavioral Learning theory
Behaviorism - focuses on one
particular view of learning:
- a change in external behavior
achieved through a large amount of
repetition of desired actions, the
reward of good habits and the
discouragement of bad habits.
- As we learn, we alter the way we
perceive our environment, the way
we interpret the incoming stimuli,
and therefore the way we interact, or
behave.
- Learning is permanent and doesnt
change
HOW BEHAVIORISTS VIEW THE
FUNCTION OF THE BRAIN
The behavioral learning theory is
represented by an S-R paradigm. The
organism is treated as a “black box.” We
only know what is going on inside the box
by the organism’s response.
Behaviorist
1. Ivan Pavlov -classical conditioning
(stimulus-response)
2. Edward Thorndike - experimental
approach only
3. John B. Watson - experimental
approach only
4. B.F Skinner - Operant Conditioning
JOHN BROADUS WATSON
🞭 Born Jan 9, 1878
🞭 Died Sept 25, 1958
🞭 Born in Greenville, South Carolina
🞭 American psychologist
🞭 Established the psychological school of
behaviourism
🞭 “Little Albert” experiment
🞭 Pavlov discovered classical conditioning
almost by accident. Originally, he wanted to
study the role of salivation in digestion. He
measured how much saliva dogs produce
when given meat. After a few days in the
experiment, Pavlov noticed that the dogs in
his laboratory started salivating when the
lab attendant entered the room with the
meat dish, before meat was placed in their
mouth.

J. WATSON
🞭 The first to study how the process of
learning affects our behavior, and he
formed the school of thought known as
BEHAVIORISM.
🞭 A STIMULUS is an observable
environmental event that has a potential to
exert control over a behavioral response.

EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE 🞭 A RESPONSE is an overt behavior by a

🞭 Born August 31, 1874
🞭 Died August 9, 1949
🞭 Born in Williamsburg, Massachusetts
🞭 Studied animal behaviour and the
learning process
🞭 Led to the theory of connectionism
🞭 Laying the foundation for modern
educational psychology.
learner.
🞭 Put it in a simpler way, a STIMULUS is
anything that can directly influence
behavior and the stimulus produces a
RESPONSE.
TYPES OF STIMULUS AND RESPONSE

E. THORNDIKE
🞭 Thorndike specified three conditions that
maximize learning:
- The Law of Effect states that the
likely recurrence of a response is
generally governed by its
consequence or effect generally in
the form of reward or punishment.
- The Law of Exercise stated that
stimulus-response associations are
strengthened through repetition.
- The Law of Readiness states that,
the more readiness the learner has
to respond to stimulus, the stronger
will the bond between them.

2 MAJOR TYPES OF CONDITIONING

1. Classical Conditioning
a. IVAN PETROVICH PAVLOV
🞭 Born Sept 14, 1849
🞭 Died Feb 27, 1936
🞭 Born in Ryazan, Russia
🞭 Physiologist, psychologist, and physician
🞭 Awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology
or Medicine in 1904 for research on the
digestive system

PAVLOV’S EXPERIMENT
 TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT AND
PUNISHMENT

COMMON PHENOMENA IN CLASSICAL

CONDITIONING
1.Stimulus Generalization
2. Extinction
3. Spontaneous recovery
4. Discrimination
5. Higher order conditioning

2. Operant Conditioning
BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER
🞭 Born March 20, 1904
🞭 Died August 18, 1990
🞭 Born in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania
🞭 American psychologist, author, inventor,
advocate for social reform and poet.
🞭 Innovated his own philosophy of science
called Radical Behaviorism
🞭 Operant or instrumental conditioning is a
form of learning in which the consequences
of behavior lead to changes in the
probability that the behavior will occur.
SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT
🞭 Reinforces are more effective when they
are given as soon as possible after a
student performs the target behavior. In
continuous reinforcement like this, a
student learns very rapidly but when the
reinforcement stops, the behavior
decreases rapidly too. Therefore, the
schedule of reinforcement was developed.
The schedule will determine when a
behavior will be reinforced.

4 TYPES
🞭 Fixed-ratio schedule
🞭 Variable-ratio schedule
🞭 Fixed-interval schedule
🞭 REINFORCEMENT is a consequence 🞭 Variable-internal schedule
that increases the probability that a
behavior will occur.
🞭 PUNISHMENT is a consequence that
decreases the probability a behavior will
occur.
🞭 Put it another way, reinforcement will
strengthen a behavior while punishment will
weaken a behavior.
DANGERS OF PUNISHMENT
🞭 Punishment can be abusive.
- For example, a teacher might
become so aroused when he is
punishing a student that he
becomes abusive.
🞭 Punishment may create a new problem,
that is aggression.
- Students commonly react to
physical punishment by learning to
dislike the punisher and perhaps by
reacting aggressively toward that
person.
Thus, punishment does not convey any
information about what an alternative and
more appropriate behavior might be.
It may suppress one inappropriate behavior
only to be replaced by another one.
Punishment can turn out to be reinforcing.
A student might learn that misbehaving will
get the teacher’s attention.
LESSON 7: Neo Behaviorism: Tolman
and Bandura
Neo Behaviorism
Tolman’s Purposive Bandura’s Social
Behaviorism Learning Theory
Goal- Directedness Principles
Cognitive maps Modeling
Latent learning 4 Conditions for
effective Modeling
Interviewing
Variables
Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism
-AKA “ Sign Learning Theory ”
-Learning is a cognitive process
-Learning is acquired through meaningful
behavior
- “ The stimuli which are allowed in are not
connected by just simple one-to-one
switches to the outgoing responses. Rather
the incoming impulses are usually worked
over and elaborated in the central control
room into a tentative cognitive-like map of
the environment.”
- A new stimulus ( the sign) becomes
associated with already meaningful
stimuli (the significant) through a series of
pairings; there was no need for
reinforcement in order to establish learning.
Tolman’s Key Concepts
1. Learning is always purposive and
goal – directed
- Individuals do more than merely
respond to stimuli; they act on
beliefs, attitudes, changing
conditions, and they strive towards
a goal.
2. Cognitive Maps
- Famous experiment on rats
concluded that organisms or
individuals to be exact learned the
location and will select the shortest
or easiest path to achieve the goal.
- Ex. Going to school everyday.
3. Latent Learning
- Learning that remains or stays with
the individual until needed.
- Learning that is outwardly
manifested at once.
- Ex. A 2 yr. old handling remote for
the first time.
4. The Concept of Intervening Variable
- Variables that are not readily seen
but serves as determinants of
behavior.
- Learning is mediated or influenced
by expectations, perceptions,
representations, needs and other
internal or environmental variables.
- Ex. Experiment on Rats - Hunger
5. Reinforcement Not Essential for
Learning
- Reinforcement is not essential for
learning, although it provides an
incentive for performance.
- Ex. Rats acquired knowledge of the
way through maze in the absence of
reinforcement.
Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)
- Also called “observational learning”
- Theory that emphasizes learning
through observation of others.
- We learn not only how to perform a
behavior but also what will happen
to us in a specific situation if we do
perform it.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL
LEARNING THEORY
1. People can learn by observing the
behavior of others and the outcomes of
those behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change
in behavior.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning.
4. Social learning theory can be considered
a bridge or a transition between
behaviorist learning theories and cognitive
learning theories.
HOW ENVIRONMENT AND PUNISHES
MODELING
- People are often reinforced for
modeling the behavior of others.
Bandura suggested that the
environment also reinforces
modeling.
This is in several possible ways:
1. The observer is reinforced by the
model.
2. The observer is reinforced by a third
person.
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to
reinforcing consequences (ex. Was I paying
attention to Ms. Torres Instructions?)
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior
affect the observer’s behavior
vicariously.
Vicarious reinforcement: When you
imitate behavior based on someone else
reinforced behavior. (experienced in the
imagination through the actions of another
person.)
(ex. Jane got a new doll for her 1st rank. I’m
going to study hard too)
CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL LEARNING
PERSPECTIVE OF REINFORCEMENT
AND PUNISHMENT
1. Contemporary theory proposes that both
reinforcement and punishment have
indirect effects on learning.
2. Reinforcement and punishment
influence the extent to which an individual
exhibits a behavior that has been learned.
3. The expectation of reinforcement
influences cognitive processes that
promote learning.
COGNITIVE FACTORS IN SOCIAL
LEARNING
1. Learning without performance
(through observation and actual imitation)
2. Cognitive processing during learning
(attention)
3. Expectations (consequences)
4. Reciprocal causation (person, behavior
and environment)
5. Modeling (live models and symbolic
models)
BEHAVIOR THAT CAN BE LEARNED
THROUGH MODELING
- Many behaviors can be learned at
least partly, through modeling.
- Aggression can be learned through
models. (violent behavior toward
other person)
- Moral thinking and moral behavior
are influenced by observation and
modeling.
- Moral judgment regarding right and
wrong which can, in part, develop
through modeling.
4 Elements of observational Learning
1. Attention
- Mental focus or concentration
- Willingness of the child to observe
and mimic ( unintentional
imitation)the behavior of a model.
2. Retention
- To encode the behavior in the
memory
- Ability to store information
3. Production
- To actually perform the behavior
observed
4. Motivational/reinforcement
- Force that drives one to act
EFFECTS OF MODELING BEHAVIOR
1. Modeling teaches new behaviors.
2. Modeling influences the frequency
of previously learned behaviors.
3. Modeling may encourage
previously forbidden behaviors.
4. Modeling increases the frequency
of similar behaviors.