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Local to ETRS89 Datum Transformation for Slovenia: Triangle-Based

Transformation Using Virtual Tie Points

Article in Survey Review · January 2013

DOI: 10.1179/1752270611Y.0000000020

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 LOCAL TO ETRS89 DATUM TRANSFORMATION FOR SLOVENIA:
TRIANGLE-BASED TRANSFORMATION USING VIRTUAL TIE POINTS

S. Berk 1 and Ž. Komadina 2

1
Geodetic Institute of Slovenia, Ljubljana, Slovenia
2
Surveying and Mapping Authority of the Republic of Slovenia, Ljubljana, Slovenia

ABSTRACT
The present paper presents a geodetic datum transformation between the old and new national coordinate
reference systems of Slovenia. The basis for transformation is a set of about 2,000 points coordinated in both
systems. Virtual tie points are used, which form a regular triangular network covering the entire country. In
order to enable extrapolation, the network was expanded, thereby reducing its density. Coordinate shifts
between both coordinate systems were determined using best-fit transformation in the immediate neighbour-
hood of each virtual tie point. Weights assigned to these points depend upon their density and distance from the
virtual tie point. The results prove significant advantages of the proposed model: high accuracy, minimisation
of distortions, continuity and reversibility of transformation. Therefore, the model has been chosen for trans-
formation of all spatial databases which continuously cover the entire territory of the country and require
transformation accuracy of better than one metre.

KEYWORDS: Datum transformation, Delaunay triangulation, ETRS89, Rubber sheeting, Virtual tie point

INTRODUCTION

In the Republic of Slovenia, two national coordinate reference systems have been in use (by
Government act) since 1st January, 2008 – referred to simply as the ‘old’ and ‘new’ system
[15]. The old grid coordinate system is denoted as D48/GK (geodetic datum 1948, Gauss-
Krüger projection). The year 1948 refers to the computation of the astrogeodetic network.
The old datum has a local character. The associated reference surface is the Bessel 1841
ellipsoid. The new grid coordinate system is denoted as D96/TM or ETRS89/TM (geodetic
datum 1996, Transverse Mercator projection); it is the Slovene realisation of ETRS89. The
year 1996 is the rounded mean epoch of the three EUREF GPS campaigns carried out in
Slovenia [3], [4]. Real-time access to the new reference system is provided by the national
permanent GNSS network called SIGNAL [5].
The regular procedure for transfer between the two reference systems comprises a 7-
parameter spatial similarity transformation. However, the old system may not be considered
homogeneous due to its varying scale. For the optimal national 7-parameter transformation
for Slovenia the maximum positional discrepancies are larger than one metre [16]. To date
quite a few datum transformation models have been tested to deal with this homogeneity
problem, e. g. [7], [12] and [14]. The basic demands for transformation of spatial data
between the two reference systems of Slovenia are continuity, reversibility, minimal
distortions and best possible positional accuracy [1].
There exists a rather strong motivation for disregarding the heights in the derivation of
transformation parameters [18]. On the other hand, for horizontal datum transformation of a
small area, a plane transformation could be used instead of a spatial one with no practical
impact on the results [1]. The assumption is, of course, that there is the same map projection
used for both grid coordinate systems. In our case, the Gauss-Krüger projection (GK) and the
Transverse Mercator projection (TM) are virtually the same thing (the same formulae). The
difference in coordinate computations results from different ellipsoids used (Bessel 1841
versus GRS80).
 The transformation model proposed in this paper is based on a rubber sheeting technique
using Delaunay triangulation. Examples from Great Britain [8], [9], Finland [13], Sweden
[10] and Switzerland [11] were utilised and adapted to the specific circumstances. As points
connecting both systems, virtual tie points were used instead of directly observed control
points. The term is primarily used for points outside the national borders, which are created
in order to enable extrapolation (e. g. in Finnish model [13]). In our case, virtual tie points
also replaced tie points within the country area. Coordinate shifts on each virtual tie point
were determined via best-fit transformation in its immediate neighbourhood. The advantages
of this are a high degree of smoothness and minimisation of distortions due to the regular
arrangement of points. The accuracy improvement is significant in case of high density of
points used for fitting.
The transformation model is designed for transformation of all spatial databases which
continuously cover the entire country and require the transformation accuracy of better than
one metre [2]. Such a transformation is needed to meet the INSPIRE Directive
recommendation on using ETRS89 as a common European coordinate reference system [17].

TRIANGLE-BASED PIECEWISE AFFINE TRANSFORMATION

Triangle-based piecewise affine transformation in the plane (henceforth: triangle-based

transformation) is a linear rubber sheeting model. A network of tie points is used to generate
transformation parameters. The network topology is defined by Delaunay triangulation. For
a particular network configuration, this is the best way to achieve mathematical consistency
[6] and to keep annoying distortions to a minimum. For each Delaunay triangle, a 6-
parameter affine transformation in the plane is used; the three triangle apices (in both
systems) uniquely define the transformation parameters. Transformation on the common
edge of two adjacent triangles has the same effect regardless of whether we use the
transformation parameters from the left or the right triangle.
Discontinuity of transformation could appear in cases of poor geometry of the network
and/or large distortions. The sufficient condition for continuity is unchanged orientation of
each individual Delaunay triangle when crossing from the source into the target system.
Consequently, the topological relationships are preserved and no gaps or overlapping can
appear. If the topological agreement of triangulations in source and target systems is
achieved, such a transformation shall be reversible, too. The transformation from source into
target and back into source system results in identical transformation. This characteristic
makes possible subsequent densification of tie points. Data already transformed with an
older version could be improved with successive transformations into the old system with
this older version and back into the new system with an improved version of transformation.
This is important when managing regularly updated databases.
The triangle-based transformation for Slovenia is a direct grid-to-grid transformation; the
transformation and correction models are joined together. The mid-range shift values from
the old to the new system are –370.0 metres in easting and 485.5 metres in northing, see Fig.
12. Coordinate discrepancies when using this simple 2-parameter transformation (shifts
only) are up to about 3.5 metres.

POINTS USED FOR COMPUTATIONS OF TRANSFORMATION PARAMETERS

The first connection between the old and new reference systems of Slovenia was established
with the Slovene realisation of ETRS89. Among about 50 sites defining the new reference
frame, the complete I order control network of 35 sites was refixed in ETRS89 [3]. Activities
of the Surveying and Mapping Authority of the Republic of Slovenia to provide high-quality
transformation started in 1997. In order to connect the old and new reference systems, sites
of II–IV and some low-order control networks were occupied with GPS. All these points

2
were established as permanent survey markers. The parallel goal of the project was a
densification of existing low-order control networks used for topographic and cadastral
survey. Consequently, the spatial distribution of points is not uniform across the country.
Density varies considerably, particularly among the urban areas and mountains or woodland,
see Fig. 1.
More than 100 networks of points were surveyed and fitted directly to the points
determined in EUREF GPS campaigns or in the few densification campaigns. Most of the
surveys were finished by 2006. With some subsequent densifications, the number of points
coordinated in both reference systems exceeded 2,000. For an area of about 20,000 square
kilometres, this is one point to 10 square kilometres on average. Some points were rejected
from the data set through the analysis of transformation consistency and a total of 1,958
points were chosen for further processing.

Fig. 1. Distribution of 1,958 observed points and their Veronoi polygons;

the average polygon area is 10.35 km2 and the median area is 2.37 km2.

TRIANGULAR NETWORK OF TIE POINTS

The first network of tie points for triangle-based transformation for Slovenia (version 1.0)
was formed in 2006 as a selection of all observed points. The basic idea was successive
elimination of points in the areas of highest density. Cluster medoids were eliminated in each
iteration until the distance between the two closest points exceeded 3,000 metres. This
distance (as a parameter of the tie point selection algorithm) was chosen by trying to reach a
geometrically acceptable network [1: Fig. 1]. This network consists of 598 tie points. The
influence of random errors had a significant impact on the accuracy of transformation
because only geometric criteria were used in the algorithm of tie point selection.

3
 This first network of tie points was improved in 2008 (version 2.0). In an attempt to reduce
the influence of random errors, a new network of tie points was formed, swapping existing
tie points in the previous network with ‘the most representative ones’. This means that a
previously selected tie point was replaced with a point with minimal positional discrepancy
after the best-fit transformation determined from the points in its immediate neighbourhood.
The number of tie points decreased to 560 due to fusion of some of them. The distance
between the two closest tie points in the network decreased to 2,000 metres. In this way, the
accuracy of transformation was improved, but the network geometry worsened.

Triangular Network of Virtual Tie Points

The natural way to improve the accuracy and to minimise the distortions at the same time
seemed to be the use of virtual tie points instead of any selection of directly observed ones.
Such a network was formed with a new improvement in 2009 (version 3.0), which is
presented here in greater detail.
A regular triangular network was chosen, with an area of 20 square kilometres per each
network triangle; thus, the triangle side length (a) is about 6,796 metres, see Fig. 2. In this
way, the average density of tie points remain more or less the same as in version 1.0.

Fig. 2. A regular triangular network of virtual tie points cut along the national borders;
the network triangle area is 20 km2, so the triangle side length is about 6,796 m.

The triangular network was cut along the national borders and coastline. Owing to the
necessity for extrapolation, this network was expanded, thereby reducing its density.
Extrapolation of the transformation is needed for the territorial sea, but also for parts of
neighbouring countries bacause maps are rectangle-shaped. Expansion of the network was
carried out forming closed strips of triangles. The density of points in each external
boundary of the triangle strip was reduced according to the density in the internal boundary
at a ratio of 2 : 3. It means that the triple triangle side length at the previous boundary
corresponds to the double triangle side length at the next boundary.

4
 The buffer width (ax) is unknown here and was determined by the condition that all the
triangles tended toward equiangularity. The sum of squares of the interior angle deviations
from 60° was used as a criterion function, see Fig. 3.

4(π 3 − α ) + 4(π 3 − β ) + 2(π 6 − α ) + 2(2π 3 − α − β ) + (2π 3 − 2β ) = min

2 2 2 2 2

which can be rewritten as

4α 2 + 5β 2 + 2αβ − 3πα − 4πβ = min . (1)

3a/2

α β β α

π/2−α π−2β π/2−α

ax

π−α−β π−α−β
π/2 α β β α π/2

Fig. 3. Strips of triangles expanding the regular triangular network (left)

and repetitive pattern of five triangles forming each triangle strip (right).

Both auxiliary angles should be expressed with the unknovn factor x

α = arctan ( x) and β = arctan (2 x) .

By applying the above substitutions into the criterion function (1) and its differentiation,
we get the equation

(28x 2
) ( ) (
+ 22 arctan (2 x) + 36 x 2 + 12 arctan ( x) − π 20 x 2 + 11 = 0 . ) (2)

A numerical solution of the equation (2) is x = 1.1086.

The expansion of the network was carried out manually following these principles:
the buffer width is about 111 % of the average triangle side length at the external
boundary of the previous triangle strip (following from equation (2) solution:
x ≈ 1.11 );
the average triangle side length at the external boundary of each triangle strip is about
150 % of the average triangle side length at its internal boundary (following from a
ratio of 2 : 3);
the triangles in the strip are acute-angled or right-angled – an interior angle should not
exceed 90°;
the triangle side lengths in each triangle strip boundary are equable as far as possible;
the triangle strip boundaries tend toward convexity – the external boundary of the
final strip is a convex hull of the set of virtual tie points.

5
The final network comprises of 899 virtual tie points forming 1,776 Delaunay triangles. A
total of 594 points form a regular network and the rest an expanded network, which enlarge
the transformation domain by about 18 times, see Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. A regular triangular network of virtual tie points, expanded by

reducing its density at a ratio of 2 : 3 for each added triangle strip.

COORDINATE SHIFTS COMPUTATION ON VIRTUAL TIE POINTS

The network of virtual tie points was constructed in the new national grid coordinate system
(D96/TM) and the coordinates were rounded to the nearest whole number (metres). The
basic idea was to determine the corresponding coordinates in the old system (D48/GK) via a
best-fit transformation in the immediate neighbourhood of each virtual tie point. The
questions were, of course:
how to define immediate neighbourhoods of virtual tie points,
how to assign weights of points within them and
what transformation model to use for fitting?
The answers were established through an empirical procedure. Simultaneously, various radii
of immediate neighbourhoods, weight functions and transformation models were tested. The
criteria for selecting an optimal method for determining coordinate shifts refer to the quality
of the resulting triangle-based transformation, namely:
positional (radial) standard deviation,
maximum positional discrepancy and
maximum areal, linear and angular distortions.

6
These quality measures were estimated analysing the transformation of the whole set of
input data (1,958 points) for various versions of coordinate shifts determination.

Radii of Immediate Neighbourhoods of Virtual Tie Points

The reach of the immediate neighbourhood of virtual tie point should find a balance between
the contradictory tensions when looking for:
how wide the impact area shoud be to eliminate random errors
how small the impact area should be to reflect the local character of transformation as
far as possible.
For fixing the test radii, these two basic principles were followed:
each point should be used, so that it belongs to the immediate neighbourhood of at
least one virtual tie point, and
all the points should be treated equally as far as possible.
The principle of equal treatment requires the determination of minimum and maximum
possible numbers of points of a regular triangular lattice that could appear within a circle of
given radius. The circle centre could be placed at any point in a plane. The idea was to
choose intervals in which the differences between minimum and maximum possible numbers
of lattice points are small. Both functions with two most convenient intervals are shown in
Fig. 5.
10
Number of lattice points within the circle

6
max
5

2
min
1

0
r1 = 0.5
r2

r3
r4 = 1.0

r5

r6
r7
r8
r9 = 1.5
0

Circle radius in units of lattice distance

Fig. 5. Minimum and maximum number of points of a regular
triangular lattice captured within a circle of given radius.

Using the most convenient intervals (hatched in Fig. 5), the variation of the number of
immediate neighbourhoods that the point in a plane could belong to was low, which was the
idea of equal treatment of points. Three endpoints of those intervals were selected as test
radii, denoted as r2, r3, and r7. The exact radii, when the extreme number of captured lattice
points change, are

r2 = a 3 , r3 = a 3 2 , r7 = 7a 3 9 . (3)

7
From formula (3) we got (in our case: a = 6,796 m)

r2 = 3,924 m, r3 = 5,885 m, r7 = 9,156 m .

The values are rounded to the nearest whole number placed within the hatched intervals.
These radii were here called reference radii. The actually used radius of the immediate
neighbourhood of a virtual tie point could be wider because two additional conditions were
considered as circumstances require:
each immediate neighbourhood should contain at least four points and
the sum of Veronoi polygon areas of points within the immediate neighbourhood
should reach the area of a reference radius circle, see Fig. 8.
After empirical testing presented in the following pages, the reference radius r3 was chosen
for the final version of coordinate shifts determination. The reference area of the immediate
neighbourhood was 108.8 square kilometres and contains on average about 12 points. The
range of possible selections of an individual point into the immediate neighbourhoods was
between 1 and 3, see Fig. 5. The actually used circles defining the immediate
neighbourhoods, which are based on this reference radius, can be seen in Fig. 6. Their radii
reach up to 15,650 metres.

Fig. 6. Immediate neighbourhoods of virtual tie points within the

regular triangular network; the reference radius equals 5,885 m.

The reference radii at the boundaries of triangle strips which expanded the regular
triangular network were based on the reference radius chosen for virtual tie points within the
regular triangular network. The reference radius at the boundary of the regular triangular
network (the 1st boundary) is the same as within the regular triangular network. Therefore,
for the final version of coordinate shifts determination, it was assumed

R1 = r3 = 5,885 m .

8
Differences between the pairs of successive reference radii of the immediate neighbourhoods
of virtual tie points in the boundaries of the triangle strips increased in the same proportion
as the buffer widths. At the last boundary, the reference radius was fixed to create a circle of
an area equal to the country’s area

Rn = PSVN π = 80,333 m ,

where PSVN is the country’s area. In this way, the outward extrapolation of transformation is
successively generalised, limiting to the optimal transformation, in which all the points
(1,958 points) are taken into consideration.
The reference radii of immediate neighbourhoods of virtual tie points at the boundaries of
triangle strips were determined according to the decreasing density ratio. The proportions
among the buffer widths are

n −1
3 9 27 3
1: : : :L :   ,
2 4 8 2

where n is the number of triangle strip boundaries. To determine each individual radius in
between, the unknovn difference between the first two radii (d) should be expressed

i −1
n
3 Rn − R1
Rn − R1 = d ∑   ⇒ d= i −1
, (4)
i =1  2  3
n

∑  
i =1  2 

The difference in formula (4) can be calculated (in our case: n = 8) as

64(Rn − R1 )
d= = 2,314 m .
2059

All the missing reference radii can now be calculated with this recursive formula

i −1
3
Ri +1 = Ri + d   . (5)
2

Using the above formula (5), the reference radii for the final version of coordinate shifts
determination are: 5,885, 8,199, 11,670, 16,877, 24,687, 36,402, 53,974 and 80,333 metres
for the 1st to 8th boundary respectively. Owing to the two additional conditions (concerning
the minimum number of points and the sum of their Veronoi polygon areas), the actually
used radii based on this reference radii were much wider, reaching up to 496,673 metres in
the 8th boundary, see Fig. 7.

9
 1st boundary 2nd boundary

3rd boundary 4th boundary

5th boundary 6th boundary

7th boundary 8th boundary

Fig. 7. Immediate neighbourhoods of virtual tie points in the boundaries of the

triangle strips which expanded the regular triangular network; the reference radii
are from 5,885 m at the 1st boundary up to 80,333 m at the 8th boundary.

Definition of Weights of Points

Weights assigned to the points within the immediate neighbourhood of a virtual tie point
should eliminate the annoying influence of:
non-uniform density of points, see Fig. 1, and
varying distances of points from the virtual tie point.

10
It is obvious that the point in the area of high density should have smaller weight and vice
versa. On the other hand, distant points should have less influence than points near a virtual
tie point. The idea was to bind the weight of point to the area of its Veronoi polygon. The
arguments would be that each part of the country’s territory should be treated equally and
that each point should represent the area closest to it. This principle was then combined with
the inverse distance weighting (IDW) and inverse squared-distance weighting (ISDW)
approaches. Four weight functions were compared empirically:
weight of point is equal to 1 (no weighting),
weight of point is equal to the area of its Veronoi polygon,
weight of point is a quotient of the area of its Veronoi polygon and its distance from
the virtual tie point and
weight of point is a quotient of the area of its Veronoi polygon and the area of a
circle, centred in the virtual tie point and reaching that point with its circumference,
see Fig. 8.
It was checked that no point is closer than 100 metres to any virtual tie point (so no division-
by-zero problems). The last definition of weight proved to be the most appropriate. For its
geometrical interpretation, see Fig. 8.

879

91
87 83
81

89

79 82
347v

891

Reference circle of the immediate neighbourhood

Fig. 8. Geometrical interpretation of weight of point no. 87 in

the immediate neighbourhood of virtual tie point no. 347;
it is a quotient of the two hatched areas.

Results of Testing
Two models were tested when looking for an optimal best-fit transformation in the
immediate neighbourhood of a virtual tie point:
4-parameter plane similarity transformation and
6-parameter plane affine transformation.

11
Including the three test radii and the four weight functions, we got 24 different ways of
calculating coordinate shifts on virtual tie points. All the 24 variants were generated,
analysed and their results compared to find the optimal one. Achieved positional accuracy
was the primary criterion, followed by the magnitude of distortions. All the points used for
the coordinate shifts determination (1,958 points) were used also for the transformation
accuracy analyses. The winning combination was the one with:
the second tested reference radius (5,885 metres),
the fourth tested weight function (Veronoi polygon area combined with ISDW, i. e. a
quotient of the two areas, see Fig. 8), and
the first tested transformation model (plane similarity transformation).
A comparison of the three reference radii when applying the optimal weight function
(Veronoi polygon area combined with ISDW) and the optimal transformation model (plane
similarity transformation) is shown in Fig. 9.

25
Deviation/discrepancy in cm

21.1
20 19.2 18.6

15

10
NEIGHBOURHOODS
4.4
1 Reference radius = 3,924 m
5 4.2 4.2
2 Reference radius = 5,885 m
0
3 Reference radius = 9,156 m
1 2 3
Angular distortion in arcseconds
Areal/linear distortion in ppm

200 40

150 30
26.5"
110 CRITERIA
99
100 20 85 83 Positional standard deviation
15.0" 14.4"
65 61 Maximum positional discrepancy
50 10 Maximum areal distortion
Maximum linear distortion
0
Maximum angular distortion
1 2 3
Fig. 9. Comparison of the tested reference radii.

The best positional accuracy was achieved when using the second tested reference radius
of the immediate neighbourhoods of virtual tie points, see Fig. 9, above. Some larger radii
were tested, too, and both primary criteria, the positional standard deviation and maximum
positional discrepancy were increasing monotonously. Another argument for choosing the
second radius was significantly reduced distortions compared to the first tested radius, see
Fig. 9, below.
A comparison of the four weight functions when applying the optimal reference radius
(5,885 metres) and the optimal transformation model (plane similarity transformation) is
shown in Fig. 10.

12
 25.1
25

Deviation/discrepancy in cm
20 19.4 19.2 18.6

15

WEIGHTS OF POINTS
10 All equal (to 1)
1
4.7 4.9 4.4
2 Veronoi polygon area
5 4.2
3 Veronoi polygon area with IDW
4 Veronoi polygon area with ISDW
0
1 2 3 4
Angular distortion in arcseconds
Areal/linear distortion in ppm

200 40

150 30

CRITERIA
100 20
15.1"
83 84 85 Positional standard deviation
75 14.5" 14.6" 15.0"
60 59 65 Maximum positional discrepancy
55
50 10 Maximum areal distortion
Maximum linear distortion
0
Maximum angular distortion
1 2 3 4

Fig. 10. Comparison of the tested weight functions.

The best positional accuracy was achieved when using the fourth tested weight function,
see Fig. 10, above. With improving the weight function according to the primary criteria, the
distortions increased slightly, but were still small enough, see Fig. 10, below.
A comparison of the two transformation models when applying the optimal reference
radius (5,885 metres) and the optimal weight function (Veronoi polygon area combined with
ISDW) is shown in Fig. 11.

25
Deviation/discrepancy in cm

20.6
20 18.6

15

10

4.2 4.3
FITTING MODELS
5
1 Plane similarity transformation
0
2 Plane affine transformation
1 2
Angular distortion in arcseconds

195
Areal/linear distortion in ppm

200 40
34.1"

150 30
129
CRITERIA
100 20 85 Positional standard deviation
15.0"
65 Maximum positional discrepancy
50 10 Maximum areal distortion
Maximum linear distortion
0
Maximum angular distortion
1 2

Fig. 11. Comparison of the tested fitting models.

13
 Better positional accuracy was achieved when using the first tested transformation model.
The affine transformation model is less acceptable according to all primary and secondary
criteria, see Fig. 11.

THE FINAL DATA SET AND TRANSFORMATION COMPUTATION

The final version of triangle-based transformation for Slovenia (version 3.0) is the optimal
variant among all the tested ones. The final transformation data set is a set of virtual tie
points created by constructing the triangular network – a total of 899 points. Their co-
ordinates were fixed in D96/TM and through optimal coordinate shifts determination, the
adequate coordinates in D48/GK were calculated. The resulting list of quadruplets of co-
ordinates (pairs for both systems) is the only data needed for transformation computation [1].
The transformation procedure consists of:
Delaunay triangulation of the set of virtual tie points in the source system (resulting
1,776 triangles),
generation of plane affine transformation parameters for all the network triangles (6
parameters for each triangle, resulting 10,656 parameters),
point-in-poligon search and transformation of all the data – point by point.
Because the Delaunay triangulation of virtual tie points in the source system topologically
agree with the Delaunay triangulation of these points in the target system, the same
procedure is used for inverse transformation. The only change to be performed is swapping
the first and second pair of coordinates in each quadruplet of the final data set.

QUALITY OF THE TRIANGLE-BASED TRANSFORMATION

Compared to the prevoius versions of transformation, the final version is significantly

smoothed, but retains its local character (scale variations), as seen in Fig. 12.
The achieved accuracy of the triangle-based transformation can be given as:
4.2 cm positional accuracy at the 1σ level, which is adequate to
8.2 cm positional accuracy at the 95 % confidence level, with
18.6 cm maximum positional discrepancy (for 1,958 points).
A histogram of positional discrepancies for all the 1,958 points, transformed with the final
version of transformation, can be seen in Fig. 13.
Maximum distortions caused by the final version of triangle-based transformation can
reach up to:
85 ppm for areal distortion,
65 ppm for linear distortion and
15 arcseconds for angular distortion.
All the values given above refer to the worst cases possible: the worst triangle when dealing
with areal distortions, the worst direction in the worst triangle when dealing with linear
distortions, and the worst pair of directions in the worst triangle when dealing with angular
distortions (maximum shear).

14
 Fig. 12. Coordinate shifts (D48/GK → D96/TM) for triangle-based transformation, version 3.0;
both surfaces (for easting and northing) are represented with lines of equal shifts – isoshifts;
approximate ranges of shifts are (–370.0 ± 3.0) m in easting and (485.5 ± 3.5) m in northing.

52.9 %
1000
Number of points

750

27.7 %
500

250 11.4 %

4.8 %
2.2 % 0.8 % 0.2 %
0
0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 18.6
Positional discrepancy in cm
Fig. 13. Histogram of positional discrepancies for 1,958 points,
transformed with the final triangle-based transformation.

Keeping distortions to a minimum is important for preserving areas and the geometry of
spatial relationships. The 85 parts per milion for areal distortion means that for a parcel of
size not exceeding 1.17 hectares (2.9 acres), the transformation could change for up to one
square metre. The 65 parts per milion for linear distortion means that for a parcel boundary
of length not exceeding 153 metres, the transformation could change for up to one centi-

15
metre. The 15 arcseconds for angular distortion means that for a square-shaped building of
side length not exceeding 137 metres, the transformation could cause up to one centimetre
deviation from the rectangularity.

CONCLUSIONS

High-quality datum transformation between the local system and ETRS89 is needed to
preserve the quality of spatial data. Owing to its varying scale, the local system may not be
considered homogeneous. To achieve continuity, reversibility and best possible positional
accuracy of transformation, a rubber sheeting technique based on Delaunay triangulation was
chosen. Virtual tie points with optimal geometric characteristics were used instead of
actually observed points, to reduce the influence of random errors and to keep distortions to
a minimum.
The triangle-based transformation for Slovenia is a direct grid-to-grid transformation. The
basis was a set of about 2,000 points coordinated in both systems. Coordinate shifts on
virtual tie points were determined via best-fit transformations in their immediate
neighbourhoods. An optimum was achieved empirically, by introducing weights and by
changing the radii of immediate neighbourhoods, to which the area of impact is limited. The
weight function was used to deal with the non-uniform density of points and their varying
distances from the virtual tie point. The aim was to find a compromise between eliminating
random errors and retaining the local character of transformation.
For most of the country’s area, subdecimetre accuracy was achieved. Areal distortions
were low enough to consider the transformation as area-preserving for the average urban
building plot size. Linear distortions would not have an impact on the field work, e. g. for
setting out a building, and angular shear would not cause the loss of rectangularity of
buildings.
Further work will be focused on checking the accuracy of transformation using boundary
markers from land cadastre database. Only after careful evaluation of its suitability for the
entire territory of the country, the transformation of all spatial databases into ETRS89 can be
started.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was partially supported by a grant from Norway through the Norwegian Financial
Mechanism – Grant Agreement SI0004-SGN-00085-E-V3-NFM.

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