ASSIGNMENT RTCPS 2023

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Dr. Ram Krishan Abhishek Jaiswal

Assistant Professor Roll No: 192202

Department of Electrical Engineering Section : B

National Institute of Technology, Warangal

Contents

Communication in Power System ............................................. 2

Types of Communication Media ............................................... 4

Power line carrier communication ....................................... 4
Microwave ................................................................................6
Optical Fiber Communication .............................................. 7
VSAT Communication ........................................................... 9

Types of Network elements in LAN & WAN ........................ 11

Local Area Network (LAN) ................................................. 11
Wide area Network (WAN) ................................................. 14

Process of data communication ...............................................15

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 Communication in Power System

Communication in power systems refers to the exchange of information between

various components of the power system, including generators, transformers,
transmission lines, distribution systems, and loads. Effective communication is critical
for the efficient and reliable operation of power systems, as it enables real-time
monitoring, control, and protection of the system.

Fig : Power System

The basic communication system requirements are:

Sender: The person or device that initiates the communication and sends the message.

Message: The information or data that is being communicated.

Medium: The channel or means by which the message is transmitted from the sender to
the receiver. This can include wired or wireless networks, airwaves, or physical media
like cables or fiber optics.

Receiver: The person or device that receives the message and interprets its meaning.

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Noise: Any interference or distortion that affects the message during transmission. This
can include background noise, signal distortion, or other factors that can make the
message difficult to understand.

Feedback: The process of verifying that the message has been received and
understood. This can involve asking questions, acknowledging receipt of the message,
or providing additional information.

Context: The circumstance or setting in which communication occurs. This can include
elements that affect how the message is received and interpreted on a cultural, societal,
or other level

There are several types of communication used in power systems, including:

Control communication: This type of communication is used to transmit control signals

and commands from the central control station to the various components of the power
system. These signals can be used to turn generators on or off, adjust transformer taps,
switch transmission lines, and control the flow of power to different parts of the system.

Protection communication: Protection communication is used to transmit protection

signals and commands from the protection relays to the circuit breakers in the power
system. These signals are used to trip the circuit breakers and isolate faulty sections of
the power system in order to prevent damage and ensure system stability.

Monitoring communication: Monitoring communication is used to transmit information

about the operating conditions of the power system to the central control station. This
information can include voltage and current measurements, fault locations, and other
parameters that are important for system operation and planning.

Maintenance communication: Maintenance communication is used to facilitate

maintenance activities on the power system, including the diagnosis of faults and the
scheduling of maintenance tasks. This type of communication can be used to transmit
data from sensors and diagnostic equipment to the central control station, where it can
be analyzed and used to plan maintenance activities.

There are several technologies used for communication in power systems, including
wired and wireless communication, fiber optics, and satellite communication. These
technologies can be used to transmit data in various formats, including analog signals,
digital signals, and packets.

In summary, communication is a crucial element of power system operation and

enables the efficient and reliable delivery of electricity to consumers. Effective
communication can improve system reliability, reduce downtime, and improve overall
system efficiency.

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Types of Communication Media
Power line carrier communication

One of the technologies used to transmit and receive signals, i.e. communication
signals, is power line carrier communication, also known as power line communication.
Power line carrier communication, often referred to as main communication, power line
digital subscriber line, and power line networking, is abbreviated as PLCC. Some of the
modulation techniques used for communication include phase-shift keying (PSK),
amplitude shift keying (ASK), OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing), and
frequency shift keying (FSK).

Power Line Carrier Communication Circuit Diagram

Coaxial cables, safety relays, transmission lines, line traps, line tuners, drain coils, and
coupling capacitors make up the power line communication circuit diagram. The graphic
below displays the power line communication circuit diagram.

Coaxial Cables: One kind of electrical wire that transports high-frequency signals
efficiently is the coaxial cable.

Protective Device: This mechanism is used to prevent damage to the wave trap or line
trap.
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Line Trap: The line trap is used to stop carrier signal transmission as well as
unintended losses of carrier signal power. Both applications requiring wide-band
frequency blocking and those requiring narrow-band frequency blocking can use the line
trap, also referred to as the wave trap.

Line Tuner: The coupling capacitor and line tuner are linked in series.

Drain Coils: In the illustration above, the drain coil's function is to supply the carrier
frequency and power frequency with high and low impedances, respectively.

Coupling Capacitors: The coupling capacitor's job is to give the power frequency and
carrier signal high and low impedances.

Power Line Channel Characteristics

The PLCC channel characteristics are:

Characteristic Impedance: The typical impedance of a transmission line is given by

Z0 =√L/√C

where "C" stands for capacitance and "L" stands for inductance. Henry (H) is the unit of
inductance, whereas Farad is the unit of capacitance. (F). The range for power line
communication is between 300 and 800 ohms.

Attenuation: The attenuation is expressed in decibels (dB), and losses owing to

mismatched impedance, coupling, restrictive losses, and other losses occur in the line
trap, tuner, and power lines.

Noise: At the receiving end, the signal to noise ratio (S/N) is high.

Bandwidth: For relaying purposes, the bandwidth range is from 1000 Hz to 1500 Hz,
and for FSK, the bandwidth range is from 500 Hz to 600 Hz. (Frequency Shift Keying).

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Microwave

Microwave communication is a system that uses microwave frequencies to transmit

data signals between different devices in the power system. Microwave communication
is commonly used in power systems for remote locations where it is not feasible to lay
cables or optical fiber, such as in substations or wind farms. The system consists of the
following components:

Transmitter: The transmitter is a device that converts the data signals from the control
center into microwave frequencies. The transmitter then sends the microwave signal to
the antenna for transmission.

Antenna: The antenna is a device that sends and receives microwave signals. The
antenna is typically mounted on a tower or a mast and is directed towards the receiving
antenna at the other end.

Receiving Antenna: The receiving antenna is a device that receives the microwave
signal transmitted from the transmitting antenna. The signal is then sent to the receiver
for processing.

Receiver: The receiver is a device that demodulates the received microwave signal and
converts it back into digital data that can be understood by the control center.

Modem: A modem is a device that modulates the data signals from the control center
into a form that can be transmitted over the microwave link. The modem also
demodulates the received signals and converts them back into digital data that can be
understood by the control center.

Microwave communication has several advantages over other communication systems,

including high bandwidth, long-distance transmission, and easy installation. However,
the system also has some limitations, including susceptibility to weather conditions,
such as rain, fog, and snow, which can cause signal degradation. Microwave
communication is also susceptible to interference from other radio signals, which can
cause signal interference and degradation.

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Overall, microwave communication is a reliable and cost-effective communication
system for remote locations where it is not feasible to lay cables or optical fiber. The
system is commonly used for high-speed communication, such as protection, control,
and monitoring of transmission lines.

Optical Fiber Communication

Optical Fiber Communication is a type of communication technology that uses light to

transmit information through optical fibers, which are thin, flexible, and transparent
strands of glass or plastic. The technology works by converting electrical signals into
light signals and then transmitting those signals through the optical fibers, which are
then converted back into electrical signals at the receiving end.

The basic components of an optical fiber communication system include a transmitter,

an optical fiber, and a receiver. The transmitter is responsible for converting electrical
signals into light signals, which are then sent through the optical fiber. The optical fiber
acts as the transmission medium, carrying the light signals over long distances without
losing their intensity or quality. The receiver at the other end of the fiber then converts
the light signals back into electrical signals for processing.

Optical fibers are made of high-quality glass or plastic and are very thin, typically less
than one-tenth the width of a human hair. They consist of a core, which carries the light
signals, surrounded by a cladding layer, which reflects the light signals back into the
core to prevent signal loss. The cladding layer is covered by a protective coating to
prevent damage to the fiber.

The light signals used in optical fiber communication are typically generated by
semiconductor lasers or light-emitting diodes (LEDs). These devices produce light at
specific wavelengths, which are used to carry the information being transmitted. The
light signals are then modulated using different techniques, such as amplitude
modulation, frequency modulation, or phase modulation, to encode the information
being transmitted.

Optical fibers can carry large amounts of information over long distances, with very low
signal loss and interference. This makes optical fiber communication ideal for high-
speed data transmission and long-distance communication applications. Optical fibers

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can be used in a wide range of applications, including telecommunications, data centers,
cable television networks, and scientific research.

Optical fibre communication system

Electrical Transmitter a light wave carrier is modulated by an electrical stage that

powers an optical source.
LEDs or lasers are examples of optical sources that convert electrical energy into
optical energy. The prerequisites are:

1. High output power

2. High linearity
3. Limited spectral width
4. Rapid modulation
5. Stable temperature
6. A long lifespan

Optical fibres used for transmission Use repeaters or an optical amplifier on a regular
basis as a medium to make up for transmission losses. Low dispersion, decreased fibre
non linearity, low attenuation, high optical signal to noise ratio, and a broad repeater
span are required qualities.

Optical detector detects optical signals and transforms them into corresponding
electrical signals. For instance, photo transistors, photo diodes etc
Requirements are sensitive at operating wavelengths, low power and operating voltage
consumption, quick reaction active area that matches fibre characteristic, temperature
stability, small size and affordable internal gain capability, and low noise.

Repeaters and Optical Amplifier: Convert optical signal to electrical signal, recover
the signal used, and then convert back to optical signal for additional transmission to
account for signal loss over long distances. This approach narrows the operational
bandwidth while raising costs and complexity. The optical signal is simply amplified
using optical amplifiers. Due to their operation throughout the entire optical domain, they
offer increased SNR.

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Fibre Couplers and Fibre Connectors are employed to convert one fibre into another
and to distribute light from the main fibre into one or more branches of fibres.

In conclusion, optical fibre communication is a type of communication in which data is

transmitted through clear, thin strands of glass or plastic using light. Because of its
tremendous efficiency, the technology can send a lot of data across long distances with
very little signal loss and interference. Modern telecommunications and data
transmission systems must now include optical fibre connectivity, which has
revolutionised the way we communicate.

VSAT Communication

VSAT stands for Very Small Aperture Terminal. It is a satellite communication system
that uses small dish antennas to transmit and receive data from a satellite in orbit.
A VSAT communication system consists of two main components: the VSAT terminal
and the satellite. The VSAT terminal is a small dish antenna that is typically between
0.75 and 2.4 meters in diameter. It is installed on the ground or on a mobile platform
such as a vehicle or an airplane. The VSAT terminal is connected to a modem, which
converts digital data into a format that can be transmitted over the satellite link. The
satellite is a geostationary or low Earth orbit satellite that receives the data from the
VSAT terminal and retransmits it back to Earth.
The VSAT communication system operates in two frequency bands: the Ku-band (12-18
GHz) and the C-band (4-8 GHz). The Ku-band is used for higher data rates and is more
susceptible to rain fade, while the C-band is used for lower data rates and is less
affected by rain fade.

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VSAT communication systems can be used for a variety of applications, including:
 Internet access: VSAT can provide high-speed internet access in remote or rural
areas where terrestrial connectivity is not available or cost-effective.
 Voice and video communication: VSAT can be used for voice and video
communication, including videoconferencing, telemedicine, and distance learning.
 Remote monitoring and control: VSAT can be used for remote monitoring and
control of equipment and systems, such as pipelines, power grids, and weather
stations.
 Disaster response: VSAT can be used in emergency situations to provide temporary
communication links for first responders and relief workers.
VSAT communication systems have several advantages over other communication
systems, including:
 Coverage: VSAT can provide coverage over a large geographic area, including
remote or rural areas where terrestrial connectivity is not available.
 Scalability: VSAT can be easily scaled up or down to meet changing
communication requirements.
 Reliability: VSAT communication systems are highly reliable, with built-in
redundancy and automatic switchover in the event of a failure.
 Security: VSAT communication systems can be encrypted to ensure the security
and privacy of data transmitted over the satellite link.
However, VSAT communication systems also have some disadvantages, including:
 Cost: VSAT communication systems can be expensive to install and maintain,
especially for small-scale applications.
 Latency: The distance between the satellite and the VSAT terminal can cause a
delay in the transmission of data, resulting in increased latency.
 Rain fade: The signal from the satellite can be attenuated by rain, resulting in a
temporary loss of communication.

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 Types of Network elements in LAN & WAN
Local Area Network (LAN)

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a collection of computers and related devices that
communicate via a single wired or wireless link. Typically, connected devices within a
narrow geographic area share the resources of a single processor or server. Sharing
resources like files, printers, games, and other applications is possible with a LAN. A
LAN frequently connects to other LANs, the Internet, and other WANs in turn.

Components of LAN:

A LAN is made up of three basic elements:

A. The components that make up the LAN's hardware;

B. The applications that can be accessed via the LAN.
C. The individuals who utilize, manage, and generate the various files.

Each of these factors can be broken down into various parts.

A Hardware components

A LAN can be compared to a system made up of several construction parts. As required,

additional blocks can be configured and added. Some of the fundamental hardware
elements of LANs include:

1. Networking Interface Card (NICs):

A circuit board or card called a network interface card (NIC) is installed in a

computer so it may connect to a network. A Network Interface Card is present on

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 every networked device. The NIC may be integrated into the motherboard or
placed as a separate board into a computer's slot.

2. Server:
On a local network or the Internet, a network server is a computer that processes
requests and transmits data to other (client) computers. There are three varieties
of servers:

File Server: A file server is a computer that keeps files, is connected to a

network, and gives several workstation computers shared access to those files.

Print Server: A print server is a gadget that uses a network to link printers to
client computers. It accepts print requests from the computers and transmits
the jobs over the LAN to the correct printers.

Communication Server: A computer system built to handle a variety of

communications-based applications is referred to as a communication server.

3. Station:
A station is a computer that communicates with other connected devices while
being connected to a server computer across a local area network.

4. HUB:
A location where devices on a network can connect regularly. Hubs are frequently
used to link LAN segments. A hub has numerous ports. All LAN segments can see
every packet since it is duplicated to the other ports when a packet arrives at one
port.

5. Switch:
A switch is similar to a hub in that it serves as the point at which network cables
are connected, but a switch has the ability to receive a packet and only deliver it to
the intended computer.

6. Router:
For LANs, routers establish the link to the Internet. They choose the destination for
packets using a configuration table.

7. Access point:
a physical component or computer programme that facilitates communication
between users of wireless devices and wired LANs.

8. Power Supply:
A power source is necessary for both wired and wireless networks. The current is
used in wireless networks to produce radio waves. Data is transmitted across a
cabled network and is read as an electrical pulse.

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 9. Connector:
Any device that is used to link numerous LAN connections with the computer's
hardware is referred to as a network connector.

10. Shared Peripheral Device:

Any device that is connected to and managed by a computer is referred to as a
peripheral device. Examples of such devices include a printer, hard drive, CD-
ROM drive, and modem. When properly linked to a LAN, any or all of these
devices can be accessed by many users.

B. LAN Software:
The next stage is to make the LAN's physical building blocks operational after they have
been installed. Devices cannot operate properly and cooperatively on the LAN without
software. Three types of software can be found on a LAN:

• Each attached server's operating system: The server operating system is

regarded as the network's central processing unit.

• The operating system of each connected station: An operating system is

necessary for the operation of all PCs.

• Software applications accessed by LAN users: Applications software are

program used to carry out particular tasks. The most popular business
applications include database administration, spreadsheet analysis, and text
processing.

Groupware: Groupware is a new category of application software that has been

made available for LAN environments. Programs known as groupware enable
individuals to collaborate when separated by distance.

Client/server computing: The applications software used in client/server computing

is developed and sold specifically for LAN use. The client portion of client/server
software runs on the user's computer, and the server portion is installed on the file
server.

C. The People:
The individuals who make up a LAN are among its most crucial components. A LAN's
function is to enable resource sharing. People perform this sharing, making them an
essential component of the system.

There are two categories of individuals active in any LAN: resource users and resource
managers.

• The users: A individual who utilizes network resources is referred to as a user.

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 • Network Administrator: This person is in charge of keeping the LAN running
smoothly. The administrator must be well knowledgeable about the architecture and
operation of the network.

A LAN is made up of a collection of devices and computers connected via switches and
hubs. This LAN needs a router in order to connect to the Internet. The setup of the
switches and hubs has a significant impact on the network's speed.

Wide area Network (WAN)

A network that spans a wide geographic region, generally several cities, nations, or
even continents, is known as a wide area network (WAN). Remote users can access
resources and information from various locations thanks to WANs, which are used to
connect numerous LANs or individual devices over vast distances. WANs frequently
employ a variety of network component types, such as:

Routers: A router is a networking tool that links a local area network (LAN) or many
networks to the internet. Routers are used in wide-area networks (WANs) to link several
sites or networks and forward data packets between them. IP addresses are used by
routers to identify devices on a network and choose the optimal route for data to take.
.

Using a modem, a computer's digital impulses are transformed into analogue signals
that may be transmitted via phone lines. A dial-up or broadband connection is used to
link a WAN to the internet via modems.

Multiplexers: For transmission across a WAN, a multiplexer is a device that combines

numerous data streams into a single stream. To improve the quantity of data that may
be transmitted across a specific bandwidth in WANs, multiplexers are utilised.

Switches: A switch is a networking tool that connects several LAN or WAN-connected

devices. Switches are used in wide area networks (WANs) to link several sites or
networks and forward data packets across them.

Hubs: A hub is a straightforward networking device that links numerous devices

together over a LAN or WAN. Hubs are less popular than switches in WANs because of
their lower efficiency and potential for network congestion.

Gateways: A gateway is a hardware or software component that links various network

types, such as a LAN and a WAN. Gateways are used to convert between several
network protocols and data formats, enabling communication between various networks.

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Virtual Private Networks (VPNs): Over a public network, like the internet, a VPN is a
secure network that is set up. VPNs are used to link remote users to corporate networks
or to link sites in a wide area network (WAN).

In conclusion, network components in WANs include hubs, gateways, switches, hubs,

multiplexers, routers, and VPNs. Together, these components enable effective and
secure communication over vast distances between various sites and networks.

Process of data communication

Data is information supplied in any format that is accepted by the individuals who create
and consume the data. Data dispatches are the communication of data between two
biases via a line connection or other sort of transmission medium. The communicating
bias must be part of a communication system constituted of tackle (physical outfit) and
software for data transmissions to work.( programs). The four fundamental factors that
characterise how well a data dispatching system performs are delivery, accuracy,
timeliness, and jitter.

1 Delivery: Data must be sent through the system to the designated recipient. Only the
designated device or user is allowed to access the data.

2. Accuracy - The system must give the data accurately. If data is corrupted during
transmission and is not recovered, it is useless.

3. Timeliness - The system must deliver information instantly. Late data delivery has
no significance. When it comes to video and audio, timely transmission means
providing the data right away, in the same order, and without any discernible pauses.
This kind of dissemination is known as real-time transmission.

4. Jitter – it is the difference in packet arrival time. It is the erratic delay of audio or
video packet delivery. Consider the following scenario: video packets are transmitted
every 3D millisecond. The video quality will be uneven if some packets arrive with a
3D-ms delay and others arrive with a 4D-ms delay.

Various methods of data representation

Today, information is available in a variety of formats, including text, numbers, photos,
audio, and video.

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1. Text- In data transfers, text is represented as a bit pattern, or a series of bits. (Os or
Is). Various bit pattern sets have been designed to represent text symbols. The
technique of representing symbols is known as coding, and each set is referred to as a
code. Unicode, the current coding standard, uses 32 bits to represent each symbol or
character used in any language on the planet. The first 127 characters of Unicode,
known as Basic Latin, are made up of the American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII), which was designed in the United States many years ago..
2. Numbers- Bit patterns can also be used to represent numbers. To make
mathematical processes simpler, a number is immediately converted to a binary number
rather than being represented by a code like ASCII.
3. Images- 3. Images- Images can also be represented using bit patterns. Each pixel in
an image is a tiny dot in a matrix of pixels, or "picture elements." The size of a pixel is
determined by the resolution. A picture can be divided into 1000 or 10,000 pixels, for
example. The second scenario has a higher resolution and a better image
representation, but it requires more memory to store the image. After being divided into
individual pixels in a picture, each pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The size and value of
the pattern are determined by the image. A pixel with a 1 bit pattern can represent an
image consisting of black and white dots, such as a checkerboard. There are several
methods for representing colour images. Because each colour is made up of a
combination of the three fundamental hues of red, green, and blue, one method is
known as RGB. Each colour's intensity is evaluated, and a bit pattern is assigned to it.
YCM is a different technique in which a colour is formed by combining three extra
primary colours: yellow, cyan, and magenta.
4. Audio- Audio is defined as the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. By
definition, audio differs from text, numbers, and images. It is not discrete; rather, it is
continuous. Even when we use a microphone to convert music or voice to an electric
signal, we still output a continuous signal.
5. Video- A picture or movie that has been recorded or aired is referred to as video.
Video can be created as a single continuous entity (for example, by a TV camera) or as
a collection of discrete images combined to create the illusion of motion. Once more,
video can be converted to a digital or analogue signal.
The process of data communication involves several steps, including:
Data generation: The first step in the process of data communication is data
generation. Data can be generated by various sources, including humans, machines,
sensors, and other devices.
Encoding: Once the data is generated, it needs to be converted into a format that can
be transmitted over the communication channel. This process is called encoding.
Encoding involves converting the data into a binary format, such as 0s and 1s, which
can be transmitted over the communication channel.

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Transmission: Once the data is encoded, it is transmitted over the communication
channel. The communication channel can be wired, such as a cable or fiber optic line,
or wireless, such as a radio frequency.
Reception: The next step in the process of data communication is reception. The
receiving device receives the transmitted data over the communication channel.
Decoding: Once the data is received, it needs to be decoded back into its original
format. This process is called decoding. Decoding involves converting the binary data
back into its original format, such as text or an image.
Data storage: Once the data is decoded, it can be stored on the receiving device or
forwarded to another device for further processing.
Acknowledgment: After the data has been received and decoded, the receiving device
sends an acknowledgment back to the transmitting device. This acknowledgment
indicates that the data has been received successfully.
Error detection and correction: In some cases, data may be corrupted or lost during
the transmission process. To ensure the accuracy of the data, error detection and
correction techniques are used. These techniques involve adding extra data to the
transmission, such as parity bits or checksums, which can be used to detect and correct
errors in the data.
In conclusion, the process of data communication involves data generation, encoding,
transmission, reception, decoding, data storage, acknowledgment, and error detection
and correction. This process ensures that data is accurately and securely transferred
between devices over a communication channel.

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