Calculus

Fundamental question
•How do we measure how steep is the curve?
Constant Rate of Change
• Any linear function will have a constant rate of change.
y2 −y1 Δy
• Constant rate of change =
x2 −x1 Δx
• Gradient m= Constant rate of change
Average Rate of Change
• For a function y = f(x), the average rate of change of y with respect
to x over the interval [a, b] is the gradient of the secant line through (a,
f(a)) and (b, f(b)).
y2 −y1 Δy
• Average rate of change =
x2 −x1 Δx
Instantaneous Rate of Change
• Tangents to a curve at a point is informally as a line which has ‘the same slope’ as
the graph at this point.
• If we think of a very, very, . . . , very small section of the curve around the point,
we can consider it to be a line that cut with the curve. This straight line is what we
call the ‘tangent line’ to the curve at the point.
• https://www.desmos.com/calculator/mgtjldr975
 Value of Q Average rate
of change
Q0 (2,4) 3
Q1 (1.8,3) 2.8
Q2 (1.6,2.56) 2.6
Q3 (1.4,1.96) 2.4
Q4 (1.2,2.2) 2.2

From the trend, we may predict the instantaneous rate of change at (1,1) is 2
Instantaneous Rate of Change
• Consider the graph 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 :
𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓(𝑥)
• The gradient of Secant AB =
(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑥
• As h approaches 0, we use lim (ℎ) to define h.
ℎ→0

• Hence the gradient of the point on 𝑓 𝑥 is defined as :

𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓 𝑥
𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim ( ) -First Principle
ℎ→0 𝑥+ℎ −𝑥
Computing limit
If 𝑓 𝑥 = x 2
𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓 𝑥
simplify: 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = lim ( )
ℎ→0 𝑥+ℎ −𝑥

Exercise: find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) of 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 3

Brief Application of derivative
• Once we found the derivative, we could find the steepness and
gradient of almost every point on the graph.
• Finding the tangent and normal line.
• Finding the turning point and stationary point.
General equation for derivative of power function

• For f x = 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 where n is a non-zero integer.

Exercise
5
a. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 5 𝑏. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2
 𝜋
−3
c. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 −0.33 𝑏. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥
Lebniz’s notation

I come up with this

• If y=f(x), then the derivative of y with respect
notation 𝑑𝑦 𝑑(f(x))
to x is denoted by or
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
• 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓(𝑥)
ℎ→0
• 𝑑𝑥 = lim 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑥= lim (ℎ)
ℎ→0 ℎ→0
𝑑𝑦 𝑓 𝑥+ℎ −𝑓 𝑥
• = lim ( )
𝑑𝑥 ℎ→0 𝑥+ℎ −𝑥
Chain Rule
• For composite in the form of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑔 𝑥 ),
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
• we could use the property = ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

Example: 𝑦 = (3𝑥)2
Without Chain rule: With Chain rule:

𝒅𝒚
In short, 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒈′ 𝒙 𝒇′ (𝒈 𝒙 )
 Product rule
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
• =𝑢 +𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
• Proof:
• Let 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣,where u and v is a function of x

𝒅𝒚
Hence,f𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 , = 𝒇 𝒙 𝒈′ 𝒙 + 𝒇′ 𝒙 𝒈(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙
Product rule
• Exercise
a. 𝑦 = 2𝑥 × 𝑥 b. y = 𝑥 2 (2𝑥 + 1)
Quotient rule
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 −𝑢𝑑𝑥
• 𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = , =
𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑣2
• Proof: Exercise
𝑥+1
• Diff 𝑦 = 𝑥
Sketch Gradient function
Method:
1. Determine the region of positive and negative gradient.
2. Determine the gradient table of the original function
3. Sketch the shape of the gradient function.

Exercise:
a. b.
X-value X-value

Sign of Sign of
gradient gradient

Slope Slope