Chapter #1 | States of Matter

1.1 Solids, Liquids, and Gases:

1. Solids: Solids have a definite shape and volume. They are

characterized by strong intermolecular forces, causing particles
to vibrate in fixed positions.
2. Liquids: Liquids have a definite volume but take the shape of
their container. They possess moderate intermolecular forces,
allowing particles to move around each other while maintaining
some cohesion.
3. Gases: Gases have neither a definite shape nor volume. They
can expand to fill their container. Gases have weak intermolecular
forces, and their particles move rapidly and randomly.

1.2 Structures of Solids, Liquids, and Gases:

- Solids: Particles are closely packed in a regular, repeating

pattern. They vibrate around fixed positions.
- Liquids: Particles are closely packed but can move past each
other. They have more freedom of movement compared to solids.
- Gases: Particles are widely spaced and move independently at
high speeds. They have a lot of kinetic energy and experience
minimal intermolecular forces.

1.3 Changes of State in Terms of Kinetic Particle Theory:

- Melting: Solid to liquid. Particles absorb energy, gaining kinetic

energy to overcome intermolecular forces.

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- Boiling: Liquid to gas throughout the liquid. Particles gain
energy, increasing their kinetic energy and breaking free from the
liquid's surface.
- Evaporation: Liquid to gas only at the surface. Particles with
sufficient energy escape the liquid's surface, leaving the rest of
the liquid cooler.
- Freezing: Liquid to solid. Particles lose energy, reducing their
kinetic energy, and intermolecular forces bring them closer
together.
- Condensation: Gas to liquid. Particles lose energy, reducing their
kinetic energy, and allowing intermolecular forces to bring them
closer together.

1.4 Heating and Cooling Curves:

- Heating Curve: As heat is added to a substance, its temperature

rises. Plateaus appear during state changes (e.g., melting, boiling)
when added heat breaks intermolecular forces.

- Cooling Curve: As heat is removed from a substance, its

temperature decreases. Plateaus appear during state changes
when released heat is used to form intermolecular forces.

1.5 Effects of Temperature and Pressure on Gas Volume:

- Temperature: As temperature increases, gas particles gain

kinetic energy and move faster, causing them to exert more
tremendous pressure on their container walls and occupy a larger
volume.

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- Pressure: Increasing pressure compresses gas particles,
reducing their volume. Decreasing pressure allows gas particles to
expand and occupy a larger volume.

1.6 Diffusion:

~Diffusion and Kinetic Particle Theory:

Diffusion is the gradual mixing of particles in gases or liquids due
to random motion. Particles move from areas of high
concentration to areas of low concentration.

~Effect of Relative Molecular Mass on Diffusion Rate:

- Gases with lower relative molecular mass diffuse faster because
they have lower intermolecular forces and higher average speeds.
- Gases with higher relative molecular mass diffuse slower due to
higher intermolecular forces and lower average speeds.