Monosaccharide is a simple sugar that constitutes the building blocks of a more complex form of sugars such as

oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. (most fundamental type of sugar)

Examples of monosaccharides are fructose, glucose, and ribose.

What Are Oligosaccharides?

Oligosaccharides are carbohydrates that contain two or more than two monosaccharides

The term "oligo" in oligosaccharide indicates that these molecules typically contain a relatively small number of monosaccharide
units, often ranging from 2 to around 10, although the exact number can vary. Oligosaccharides are found in a variety of natural
sources, including plants, bacteria, and animals, and they serve various biological and physiological functions.

What is the function of oligosaccharides?

Oligosaccharides can have many functions including cell recognition and cell adhesion.

Cell recognition, also known as cell adhesion or cell-cell recognition, is a fundamental biological process by which cells identify,
interact with, and adhere to other cells or molecules in their environment. This process is critical for various biological functions,
including tissue development, immune response, signaling, and maintenance of tissue integrity.

What is Polysaccharides, or polycarbohydrates, are the most abundant carbohydrates found in food. They are long-chain
polymeric (REPEATING UNITS OF MONOSACCHARIDES) carbohydrates composed of monosaccharide units bound together
by glycosidic linkages. This carbohydrate can react with water using amylase enzymes as catalyst, which produces constituent
sugars.

( A glycosidic linkage, also known as a glycosidic bond, is a type of covalent chemical bond that connects two monosaccharide
molecules to form a larger carbohydrate or sugar molecule).

Amylase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the digestion of carbohydrates, specifically starches and complex sugars. It is
produced in various parts of the body, including the salivary glands in the mouth and the pancreas.

What is polysaccharide known as?

polysaccharide, also called glycan, the form in which most natural carbohydrates occur. Polysaccharides may have a molecular
structure that is either branched or linear.

A branched molecular structure is one in which atoms are connected in a way that forms additional chains or groups (branches)
of atoms extending from the main chain.

A linear molecular structure is one in which atoms are arranged in a straight, unbranched chain, similar to a single line.The
atoms are connected in a continuous, linear fashion without side chains or additional branching.

What is the function of polysaccharide?

The three main functions of polysaccharides are providing structural support, storing energy, and sending cellular communication
signals.

The term monosaccharide etymologically means “single saccharide”. Pag sinabing saccharide refers to the unit structure of
carbohydrates.
Etymology: Ancient Greek μόνος (mónos, meaning “alone, single”) + saccharide. Synonyms: simple sugar;.
It is called Simply because it its readily digested and serve as a rapid source of energy.
a monosaccharide consists of three chemical elements: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

CHEMICAL FORMULA OF MONOSACCHARIDES

The general chemical formula for monosaccharides is (CH2O)n, where "n" can vary and typically ranges from 3 to 7. In this
formula:
"C" represents carbon atoms.
"H" represents hydrogen atoms.
"O" represents oxygen atoms.
"n" can be any whole number between 3 and 7, indicating the number of carbon atoms in the monosaccharide.
For example, glucose, a common monosaccharide with six carbon atoms, has the chemical formula C6H12O6. This formula fits
the general formula for monosaccharides, where "n" is 6, indicating six carbon atoms in glucose.

Monosaccharides are classified based on the number of carbon atoms in their structure, with the most common types being:

Trioses: Monosaccharides with three carbon atoms.

Trioses are a type of monosaccharide, specifically categorized as a subclass of monosaccharides that have three carbon atoms.
These small carbohydrates are the simplest of all sugars. Trioses have the general chemical formula (CH2O)3, reflecting the fact
that they contain three carbon atoms, six hydrogen atoms, and three oxygen atoms.

There are two common types of trioses:

Aldotrioses: It is an important molecule in the context of glycolysis(central role in both energy production and the catabolism
(breakdown) of glucose or other sugars), a metabolic pathway involved in energy production.

Ketotrioses: It is a simple sugar involved in various metabolic processes.

Trioses are the smallest carbohydrates and serve as essential components of more complex sugars, including disaccharides,
oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. They are also involved in various metabolic pathways and cellular processes, particularly
as intermediates in energy production and carbon metabolism.

Tetroses: Monosaccharides with four carbon atoms (e.g., erythrose).

• Tetroses are a type of monosaccharide, and they have four carbon atoms. These sugars are slightly larger
and more complex than trioses, which have three carbon atoms, but they are still relatively simple compared to other
carbohydrates.
• Tetroses have the general chemical formula (CH2O)4, which reflects the fact that they contain four carbon atoms,
along with hydrogen and oxygen atoms.

• While tetroses do exist, they are not as common as trioses, pentoses, or hexoses in biological systems
• In the context of carbohydrates, tetroses are of lesser biological significance compared to other monosaccharides like
pentoses and hexoses, which play more prominent roles in various cellular processes and energy metabolism.

Tetroses are not as common as pentoses, hexoses, and trioses for several reasons:

Chemical Complexity: Tetroses are slightly larger and more chemically complex than trioses (3-carbon sugars), which are the
simplest and most essential sugars in many metabolic pathways. Hexoses (6-carbon sugars) are the most abundant and widely
used sugars in biology, and they serve as primary sources of energy.

Less Prevalent in Nature: Tetroses are relatively less prevalent in nature compared to trioses, pentoses, and hexoses. Trioses
are the intermediates in glycolysis, a central pathway in energy metabolism, and pentoses are essential in the structure of
nucleic acids like DNA and RNA. Hexoses, such as glucose, are abundant in various foods and serve as immediate sources of
energy.

Limited Biological Roles: While tetroses do exist in nature, their biological roles are more limited compared to other sugar
classes. For example, erythrose and threose are tetroses that have limited metabolic importance in humans and other
organisms.

Energy Yield: The breakdown of larger sugars like pentoses and hexoses yields more energy due to the larger number of carbon
atoms in the molecules. In contrast, tetroses are less efficient as energy sources because they contain fewer carbon atoms.

Specific Occurrences: Tetroses are found in some metabolic pathways, but their presence is generally more specialized.
Pentoses: Monosaccharides with five carbon atoms (e.g., ribose and deoxyribose, which are important components of DNA and
RNA).

Pentoses are a type of monosaccharide, which means they are simple sugars composed of five carbon atoms. These sugars are
an important class of carbohydrates and have several significant biological roles. They are essential components of nucleic acids
(DNA and RNA), as well as other biologically important molecules.

2 Common pentoses include:

Ribose: Ribose is a pentose sugar with five carbon atoms. It plays a crucial role in the structure of ribonucleic acid (RNA). The
ribose sugar forms the backbone of RNA molecules and is also involved in various cellular processes.

Deoxyribose: Deoxyribose is another pentose sugar, similar in structure to ribose but with one less oxygen atom. It is a key
component of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), forming the sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA double helix.

Pentoses are notable for their involvement in genetic information storage and transfer. They serve as the structural basis for
nucleotides, which are the building blocks of DNA and RNA. The specific arrangement of pentose sugars in nucleotides, along
with the attached nitrogenous bases and phosphate groups, encodes and conveys genetic information.

In addition to their roles in nucleic acids, pentoses are also involved in various metabolic pathways, especially in the production
of energy and the synthesis of important biomolecules.

Hexoses: Monosaccharides with six carbon atoms (e.g., glucose, fructose, and galactose).

Hexoses are a class of monosaccharides, which are simple sugars composed of six carbon atoms. These sugars are essential in
biology and play various critical roles in energy metabolism, structure, and cellular processes.

Characteristic of monosaccharides

Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates and possess several defining characteristics:

Simple Structure: Monosaccharides have a simple, unbranched structure composed of a single sugar molecule. They are not
further broken down into smaller sugar units.

Solubility: Monosaccharides are highly soluble in water due to their hydrophilic (water-attracting) nature. They readily form
hydrogen bonds with water molecules.

Sweet Taste: Many monosaccharides have a sweet taste. For example, glucose and fructose are known for their sweet flavor.

Monosaccharides have a sweet flavor because the orientation of the HYDROXIDE (OH) group interacts with the taste receptor
on the tongue that detects sweetness.

Isomers: Monosaccharides can exist as isomers, which are molecules with the same chemical formula but different structural
arrangements. For example, glucose and galactose are structural isomers because they have the same chemical formula
(C6H12O6) but differ in their structural arrangement.

Chirality: Most monosaccharides are chiral molecules, meaning they have at least one asymmetric carbon atom (chiral center).
This chirality gives rise to optical isomers (enantiomers), which are mirror-image forms of the same molecule. For example, D-
glucose and L-glucose are enantiomers of each other.

Ring Structure: In aqueous solutions, monosaccharides can exist in ring forms due to intramolecular reactions between the
carbonyl (aldehyde or ketone) group and a hydroxyl group on the same molecule. The most common ring structures are the
pyranose (6-membered ring) and furanose (5-membered ring).

Biological Significance: Monosaccharides are essential in biology, serving as a primary source of energy for cells and as building
blocks for more complex carbohydrates like disaccharides (e.g., sucrose, lactose) and polysaccharides (e.g., starch, cellulose).
Role in Energy Metabolism: Glucose, a common monosaccharide, is a key energy source for living organisms. It can be
metabolized through glycolysis and other metabolic pathways to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the primary energy
currency of cells.

Structural Isomers:meaning they have the same molecular formula but differ in the arrangement of atoms. For example, glucose
and fructose are structural isomers.

These characteristics highlight the fundamental role of monosaccharides in biochemistry, nutrition, and various biological and
chemical processes.

Monosaccharides can be chemically modified to create a variety of derivatives with specific properties and functions. Some
common monosaccharide derivatives include

Amino Sugars: Amino sugars are monosaccharide derivatives in which one or more hydroxyl groups are replaced by amino (-
NH2) groups. Glucosamine and galactosamine are common amino sugars. These derivatives are found in the structure of
glycosaminoglycans, which are components of connective tissues like cartilage

Deoxy Sugars: Deoxy sugars are monosaccharide derivatives in which a hydroxyl group (-OH) is replaced by a hydrogen atom (-
H). Deoxyribose, a derivative of ribose, is a component of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).

Phosphorylated Sugars: In phosphorylated sugars, a phosphate group (-PO4) is added to a hydroxyl group of the
monosaccharide. For example, glucose-6-phosphate is an important intermediate in glucose metabolism, and fructose-1,6-
bisphosphate is a key molecule in glycolysis.

Aldonic Acids and Uronic Acids: These are monosaccharide derivatives that result from the oxidation of the aldehyde group at
the end of the sugar molecule. For example, gluconic acid and glucuronic acid are aldonic and uronic acids, respectively.

Sugar Alcohols (Polyols): Sugar alcohols, or polyols, are monosaccharide derivatives where one or more hydroxyl groups have
been reduced to alcohol (-OH) groups. Common sugar alcohols include sorbitol, xylitol, and mannitol. They are used as sugar
substitutes in various food products and are less sweet than the corresponding monosaccharides.

Alditols: Alditols are sugar alcohols derived from aldoses (sugars with an aldehyde functional group). Sorbitol, derived from
glucose, is an example of an alditol. These compounds are often used as sweeteners or sugar substitutes.

Amino Acid Sugars: These derivatives involve the attachment of an amino acid to a monosaccharide molecule. N-
acetylneuraminic acid is an example of an amino acid sugar found in glycoproteins and gangliosides.

Glycosides: Glycosides are compounds formed when a sugar molecule is linked to another molecule, typically an alcohol or
phenol, via a glycosidic bond. Examples include glycosides found in plant secondary metabolites and natural products.

Glycosaminoglycans: These are long, linear chains of repeating disaccharide units, composed of an amino sugar (usually
glucosamine or galactosamine) and an uronic acid (glucuronic acid or iduronic acid). They are important components of
connective tissues and extracellular matrix.