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Plant phenolics: A Review on Modern extraction techniques

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18

Plant Phenolics: A Review on Modern

Extraction Techniques
MOHAMMAD SHAHID, MOHD YUSUF AND FAQEER MOHAMMAD*

ABSTRACT

Interest in the development of procedures for extraction of bioactive compounds

from natural sources has increased in recent years due to the potential
applications of these compounds in food, chemical and pharmaceutical
industries. The retrieval of phenolics from plant materials is greatly influenced
by the extraction procedure employed and related factors. This chapter provides
an updated overview of the methods used to extract phenolic compounds from
plant sources, ranging from more traditional to advanced extraction processes.
Problems associated with conventional extraction procedures led to demand
for alternative techniques for extraction of phenolic compounds and several
new extraction techniques have been developed and refined in last two decades
because of their potential to efficiently extract a great variety of valuable phenolic
compounds. Some promising extraction protocols used to extract the different
type of plant phenolics are discussed in detail.

Key words: Plants, Phenolic compounds, Extraction, Bioactive

compounds, Solvents, Sample preparation

1. INTRODUCTION

Plants contain a wide variety of active compounds such as alkaloids,

terpenoids, saponins, anthocyanins, flavonoids, tannins, phenols,

Department of Chemistry, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi - 110025

* Corresponding author: E-mail: faqeermohammad@rediffmail.com
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2 RPMP Vol. 41—Analytical and Processing Techniques

polyacetylenes, polyketides, glycosides, oils and resins, which are deposited

in their specific parts such as leaves, flowers, bark, seeds, fruits, root, etc.[1,2]
A broad range of plants produced secondary compounds have found
commercial and industrial applications in our daily life in the form of flavors
and fragrances[3], dyes and pigments[4,5], cosmetics[6], pharmaceuticals[7],
preservatives[8], resins and gums[9,10], rubbers[11], biofuels[12], bioplastics[13]
and other industrial products[14]. These plant chemicals are secondary
metabolites, which are derived biosynthetically from plant primary
metabolites and are not directly essential for basic photosynthetic or
respiratory metabolism[15]. These secondary metabolites can be classified
into several groups according to their chemical classes (i.e., alkaloids,
terpenoids and phenolics). Plant secondary metabolites are usually
classified according to their biosynthetic pathways (e.g., phenolics, terpenes
and steroids, and alkaloids etc.)[16]. Of which, a good example of widely
distributed and most abundant secondary metabolites of plants is given by
phenolics (compounds possessing at least one aromatic ring with one or
more hydroxyl groups attached), with more than 8,000 phenolic structures
currently known, ranging from simple molecules to highly polymerized
complex substances[17,18]. A general classification of phenolic compounds
based on chemical structure is given in scheme 1.

Due to these countless benefits, researches have been intensified aiming

to find best extraction techniques for bioactive phenolic compounds for their
commercialization. Traditional methods, such as Soxhlet extraction, which
have been used for many decades, are very time consuming and require
relatively large quantities of solvents[19]. Recently, a number of novel
phenolics extraction methods have been developed and successfully
employed with increased efficiency in terms of yield, time, cost and solvent
consumption[2,20-24]. This chapter emphasize a brief description to the unique
capabilities of modern extraction techniques for plant phenolic compounds
with their current trends of use.

2. CONVENTIONAL EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES

The conventional extraction techniques for plant phenolics are based on

the extracting power of different solvents, in use and the application of
heat and/or mixing. The existing classical phenolics extraction techniques
are Soxhlet extraction, maceration and hydrodistillation.2

The well known Soxhlet laboratory extractor (Fig. 1) was first proposed
by the German agricultural chemist, Franz Ritter von Soxhlet in 1879.25 This
technique was originally designed for extraction fat from milk but now it
has widely been used for extracting valuable bioactive co-mpounds from
various natural sources. It is also used as a model for the comparison of new
extraction alternatives. In general, a small amount of dry sample is placed
in a thimble-holder that is gradually filled with the solvent used for extraction
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Plant Phenolics: A Review on Modern Extraction Techniques 3

Scheme 1: Classification of phenolic compounds based on chemical structure

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4 RPMP Vol. 41—Analytical and Processing Techniques

Fig. 1: Schematic model of Soxhlet extraction

from a distillation flask. When the liquid reaches the overflow level, the
solution of the thimble-holder is aspirated by a siphon. Siphon unloads the
solution back into the distillation flask. This solution carries extracted solutes
into the bulk liquid. Solute is remained in the distillation flask and solvent
passes back to the solid bed of plant. This operation is repeated until the
extraction is completed. Soxhlet extraction is a very simple methodology
that requires little training, can extract more sample mass than most of the
latest alternatives. However, there are some serious drawbacks of Soxhlet
extraction as compared to other techniques for solid sample preparation such
as the long time requirement for extraction and the wastage of large amount
of solvent, which is not only expensive to dispose off, but also the source of
additional, environmental problems[2,26]. Maceration and hydrodistillation are
two other conventional methods popularly employed as inexpensive ways to
get essential oils and bioactive compounds from plants[2].

3. MODERN EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES

Major limitations associated with conventional extraction techniques such

as longer extraction time, requirement of costly and high purity solvent,
evaporation of the huge amount of solvent, low extraction selectivity and
thermal decomposition of thermo labile compounds led to the development
of new and promising extraction techniques[2,26,27]. Some of the most
promising non-conventional extraction techniques are discussed below:
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Plant Phenolics: A Review on Modern Extraction Techniques 5

3.1. Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE)

Ultrasound assisted extraction is one of the most emerging modern

techniques for the extraction of plant phenolic compounds. Ultrasound
waves are high frequency sound waves above human hearing capacity (>
20 kHz), which can pass through solid, gas, and liquid media. Ultrasound
is classified according to frequency range as power ultrasound (20–100 kHz)
and diagnostic ultrasound (1–10 MHz). These waves are known to produce
cavitations in liquid medium in addition to other mechanical effects such
as dispersion, degassing, diffusion, and intense agitation of liquid. The
collapse of these cavitation bubbles induces a mechanical stress on the
cells and subsequent cell disruption and penetration of the solvent into the
cells which increases the solubilization of the compound and finally the
extraction yield[4,5]. Cavitation near liquid–solid interfaces directs a fast-
moving stream of liquid through the cavity at the surface. Impingement by
these microjets results in surface peeling, erosion and particle breakdown,
facilitating release of bioactive compounds from the biological matrix. This
effect increases the efficiency of extraction by increasing mass transfer by
eddy and internal diffusion mechanisms[28]. There are two main types of
ultrasound equipment that can be employed for extraction purposes, namely
an ultrasonic water bath and an ultrasonic probe system fitted with horn
transducers (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Schematic model of ultrasound assisted extraction

Ma et al.[29] extracted seven phenolic compounds of two families including

cinnamic acids (caffeic, p-coumaric, ferulic, sinapic acid), and benzoic acids
(protocatechuic, p-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic acid) from citrus (Citrus unshiu
Marc) peels by UAE. Pingret et al.30 studied lab and pilot-scale ultrasound-
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6 RPMP Vol. 41—Analytical and Processing Techniques

assisted water extraction of polyphenols from apple pomace. They showed

that Total Phenolics Content (TPC) obtained by UAE was 30% higher than
the content obtained by conventional extraction and both methods presented
the same extraction kinetics. Chavan and Singhal[31] performed a study on
the separation of polyphenols- alkaloid, arecoline in Areca catechu by
ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE) using 80% acetone at pH 4.0 as the
extraction solvent. Muñiz-Márquez et al.[32] investigated the Effects of
several experimental factors, such as sonication time, solid/liquid ratio and
concentration of solvent on ultrasound-assisted extraction of phenolic
compounds from Laurus nobilis. They found that best extraction conditions
were solid/liquid ratio 1:12 (g mL–1), and time of sonication 40 min with an
ethanol concentration of 35%. Tao et al. (2014) investigated the effects of
acoustic energy density (6.8–47.4 W/L) and temperature (20–50ºC) on the
extraction yields of total phenolics and tartaric esters using ultrasound-
assisted extraction from grape marc[33]. Majd et al.[34] applied UAE technique
to optimize the experimental conditions for the extraction of phenolics from
bovine pennyroyal (Phlomidoschema parviûorum) leaves by response
surface methodology and compared its efficiency with maceration extraction.
An optimization study was carried out by Paz et al.[35] on ultrasound-assisted
extraction parameters, such as the liquid: solid ratio, solvent concentration
and extraction time, using response surface methodology for the extraction
of polyphenols from desert plants including Jatropha dioica, Flourensia
cernua, Turnera diffusa and Eucalyptus camaldulensis. Orphanides et al.[36],
presented a mathematical formulation that describes the role of ultrasonic
irradiation in ultrasonic assisted extraction with thermodynamic terms.
There model described the influence of ultrasound irradiation on the
chemical potential of extracted compounds and predicted the increase of
the yield of extraction using ultrasound irradiation. Ultrasonic extraction
also facilitates more effective mixing, faster energy transfer, reduced
thermal gradients and extraction temperature, selective extraction, reduced
equipment size, faster response to process extraction control, quick start-
up and increased production. Due to simplicity, ease of operation, low cost,
smaller consumption of organic solvents and time reducing technique
ultrasonic assisted extraction is gaining popularity and could be a very
promising, reliable and feasible method for extraction of plant phenolics in
future.

3.2. Microwave Assisted Extraction (MAE)

Microwaves are non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation with a frequency

from 300 MHz to 300 GHz. The development of microwave assisted
extractions was ûrst reported in 1986.21,37 MAE transfers energy to the
solution, which is heated by twin mechanisms of dipole rotation and ionic
conduction. The radiation frequency corresponds to the rotational motion
of molecules; in condensed matter, energy absorption immediately causes
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Plant Phenolics: A Review on Modern Extraction Techniques 7

energy redistribution between molecules and homogeneous heating of the

medium.38 A typical model of MAE is given in Fig. 3. MAE causes disruptions
of hydrogen bonds and migration of dissolved ions, resulting in increased
penetration of solvent into the matrix, which facilitates the extraction of
target compounds. Due to significant pressure developed inside the matrix,
there is an increase in the porosity of the biological matrix resulting in
higher penetration of solvent into the matrix.38 There are two main types
of MAE systems, namely closed vessel and open vessel. Closed vessels are
used for extraction of target compounds at higher temperature and pressure
conditions, whereas open vessel systems are used for extractions carried
out at atmospheric pressure conditions[21].

Fig. 3: Schematic model of microwave assisted extraction

Many reports have been published on application of microwaves for

extracting plant phenolics in recent years. The extraction mechanism of
MAE is basically involves three sequential steps: (i) separation of solutes
from active sites of sample matrix under increased temperature and
pressure; (ii) diffusion of solvent across sample matrix; (iii) release of solutes
from sample matrix to solvent[39]. Routray and Orsat[40] compared the
methods of extraction used during this study (MAE, ultrasonic extraction
and 24-h room temperature extraction) which efficiently extracted phenolic
compounds in shortest period of time possible using organic solvents. They
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8 RPMP Vol. 41—Analytical and Processing Techniques

showed that both the time of extraction and the microwave power level
were significant factors affecting the microwave assisted extraction of
phenolic com-pounds.

Krishnaswamy et al [41] investigated the influence of independent

variables such as microwave power, extraction time, and solvent
concentration and their interactions on total phenols and the optimized
the MAE process using a central composite design for extraction of phenolic
antioxidants from grape seeds (Vitis vinfera). Elez-Garofuliæ et al[42]
evaluated the influence of MAE on the isolation of anthocyanins and
phenolic acids from sour cherry Marasca and concluded that optimal MAE
conditions differed for anthocyanins and phenolic acids, especially in terms
of temperature and irradiation time; lower temperature (60°C) and shorter
time (6–9 min) was more convenient for anthocyanins extraction, while
phenolic acids gave higher extraction yield at higher temperatures (70°C)
and longer irradiation time (10 min). Švarc-Gajic et al.[43] applied optimal
MAE procedure based on microwave-assisted extraction for the extraction
of total polyphenols, flavonoids, anthocyanins, monomeric and condensed
anthocyanins from Rosmarinus officinalis and proposed that magnetron
power for total polyphenols was 800 W, whereas for flavonoids,
anthocyanins, monomeric and condensed anthocyanins the power of 320W
provided the best extraction efficiency. Cardoso-Ugarte et al.[44], investigated
the use of microwave assisted extraction (MAE) for the extraction of
betalains from diced red beets and proposed a prediction model to meet the
optimal extraction times. There results showed that betalain yields obtained
by MAE were twice as high as those obtained during conventional
extraction. Dahmoune et al.[45,46] optimized the MAE processing parameters
for extraction of total phenolic compounds from the leaves of Pistacia
lentiscus L. and Myrtus communis by using different statistical
methods. The extract obtained P. lentiscus under these conditions showed
a total phenolic compounds yield comparable to the CSE and UAE extracts.
They reported an average 10% higher total flavonoids yield, and a 10–30%
higher condensed tannins yield compared to UAE and CSE, respectively.
Further, extraction time of phenolic compounds from M. communis leaves
extracted using MAE was about 14 and 15 times lower than the UAE and
traditional extraction method, respectively.

The excellent enrichment performance, significant reduction of processing

time, ease of operation, a high yield of active substances, low cost and smaller
consumption of organic solvents and time indicate that the UAE method can
be used as a novel extraction technique for plant phenolics.

3.3 Ultrasonic-Microwave assisted Extraction (UMAE)

Ultrasonic is one of the most industrially used methods to enhance mass

transfer phenomena and microwave assisted extraction heats the extracts
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Plant Phenolics: A Review on Modern Extraction Techniques 9

quickly and significantly accelerates the extraction process. The coupling

of these two powerful radiation techniques brings promising and efficient
approach to extract bioactive compounds, presenting many advantages such
as reduced extraction time, consumption of lower volumes of solvents and
higher extraction yields than conventional extraction, MAE and UAE[24,47].
A schematic model of UMAE is given in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4: Schematic model of ultrasonic-microwave assisted extraction

The ionic liquids based simultaneous ultrasonic and microwave

assisted extraction (IL-UMAE) technique have been reported by Lou et
al.[47] for extraction of phenolic compounds from burdock leaves. The
results indicated that the yields of caffeic acid and quercetin obtained
by ILUMAE were higher than those by regular UMAE. Compared to
conventional HRE methods, the new approach provided higher extraction
yields (8–17% enhanced) and obviously reduced extraction time (from 5
h to 0.5 min), which suggested that the ILs solutions were excellent
extractant and ILUMAE was a rapid, highly effective extraction method.
Lu et al.[48] optimized several parameters of UMAE for tannin extraction
from Gall chinensis and the results were compared with of the
conventional extraction techniques. Zhou et al. [49] used polyethylene
glycol aqueous solution (PEGs) as an environmentally friendly solvent
to develop an extraction method for crude polysaccharides from
Pericarpium granati with UMAE technique. The experiment resulted
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10 RPMP Vol. 41—Analytical and Processing Techniques

that a PEGs aqueous solution is feasible for polysaccharide extraction

from Pericarpium granati. Promising result obtained from these studies
shows that UMAE is a more efficient extraction method than UAE and
MAE other extraction techniques, however some sincere efforts are
required for making it established technique in the extraction of phenolic
compounds from plants.

3.4 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE)

A supercritical fluid is a fluid at a temperature and pressure above its

critical point, where distinct liquid and gas phases do not exist. A
supercritical fluid has the typical density of a liquid, viscosity similar to
that of a gas, and diffusivity intermediate between those of a liquid and a
gas. Due to their low viscosity and high diffusivity supercritical fluids
possess much better transport properties than liquid. An important
advantage of SFE is that fluid density can be altered by changing the
temperature and pressure of the fluid and thus the dissolving power of a
fluid can also be altered by temperature and pressure changes, as it is
dependent upon the density of fluid. Because of its diûerent physicochemical
properties, SFE provides several operational advantages over traditional
extraction methods[50]. A schematic diagram of typical SFE instrumentation
is given in Fig. 5. Supercritical fluids are increasingly replacing the organic
solvents that are used in extraction of plant metabolites regulatory and
environmental pressures. SFE offers a fast extraction rate and high yield
and is an eco-friendly procedure with minimal or no use of organic solvents.
SFE has been widely employed in the food, pharmaceutical, pesticide, and
fuel industries.

Fig. 5: Schematic model of supercritical fluid extraction

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Plant Phenolics: A Review on Modern Extraction Techniques 11

Carbon dioxide is the most commonly used fluid for SFE applications
because of its low critical constants (Tc=31.1°C; Pc=72.8 atm), its non-toxic
and non-flammable properties, and its availability in high purity with low
cost. The only drawback of supercritical CO2 (SC-CO2) is its low polarity.
Good solvent properties of supercritical CO2 makes it ideal for extraction
of non-polar compounds such as hydrocarbons, while its large quadrupole
moment also enables it to dissolve some moderately polar compounds such
as alcohols, esters, aldehydes and ketones.51 The limitation of low polarity
of carbon dioxide has been successfully overcome by the use of chemical
modifier[51,52].

Several reports are available on plant phenolics extraction with SC-CO2, in

the presence or absence of co-solvents due to the easy recovery of the solute
and the recycling of the solvent through the simple manipulation of the
temperature or pressure. Santos et al.[53] extracted phenolic compounds from
Eucalyptus globulus bark. They used pure and modified CO2 with water, ethyl
acetate and ethanol as solvents. They showed that best results were obtained
with supercritical CO2 and ethanol as solvent and this extract contained much
higher quantities of eriodictyol and naringenin (flavanones), and isorhamentin
(O-methylated flavonol) than the conventional solid/liquid extracts obtained
with methanol:water and ethanol:water mixtures. Economic feasibility SFE
process for large-scale operations for the recovery of grape bagasse phenolics
(syringic, vanillic, gallic, p-hydroxybenzoic, protocatechuic and p-coumaric acids
and quercetin) from was reported by Farías-Campomanes et al.[54]. Konar et
al.[55] determined the effects of various process conditions (extraction pressure,
extraction temperature and the amount of methanol used as co-solvent) on
the extraction of caffeic acid derivatives (CADs) from the aerial parts
of Echinacea purpurea specimens grown in Turkey through SFE and compared
it with two conventional techniques (ultrasound and shaker). They concluded
that the effects of the pressure and temperature parameters are primarily
important for the efficient extraction. Veggi et al.[56] applied SC-CO2 extraction
in production of phenolic-rich extracts from Brazilian plants (Pyrostegia
venusta, Inga edulis, Heteropterys aphrodisiaca and Phaseolus vulgaris L.)
using pure CO2, CO2 with ethanol and CO2 with water and evaluated extraction
efficiency by factoring in the solvent system and plant matrix influence in
extraction yield, antioxidant activity, total phenolic content and total flavonoid
content. Resultant extracts in all cases yielded superior polyphenolic and
flavonoid contents than those reported in the literature data using conventional
extraction methods. Overall, SCFs are advantageously applied to increasing
extraction efficiencies to levels that cannot be achieved by traditional extraction
methods.

3.5 Enzyme Assisted Extraction (EAE)

Some inherent drawbacks of solvent extraction of plant products such as

safety hazards, high energy input, low product quality, environment risk
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12 RPMP Vol. 41—Analytical and Processing Techniques

and toxicological effects necessitated the search for alternative methods of

plant product recovery which can counter these problems. Enzyme-based
extraction of phenolic compounds from plants provides a potential
alternative due to the inherent ability of enzymes to catalyze reactions
with exquisite specificity, regioselectivity and an ability to function under
mild processing conditions in aqueous solutions[57]. Several recent studies
on enzyme-assisted extraction have shown faster extraction, higher
recovery, reduced solvent usage and lower energy consumption when
compared to non-enzymatic methods.

Landbo and Meyer[58] performed enzyme assisted extraction on Ribes

nigrum using various enzymes to extract phenolics from juice press
residues. Most of the tested enzyme preparations significantly increased
plant cell wall breakdown of the pomace. and enhanced the amount of
phenols extracted from the pomace to a significant extent. Li et al.[59],
evaluated total phenolic contents of citrus peels extracted by enzyme-
assisted aqueous extraction. They found that the main parameters that
affected the yield of phenolics include the condition of the peels, temperature
of the extraction, types of enzymes, enzyme concentration and species of
citrus. Cell wall degrading enzymes weakened or broke down the integrity
of the cell walls of the citrus peels and eased the extraction. Laroze et al.[60]
extracted antioxidant phenolics from raspberry solid wastes. They showed
that extraction efficiency was increased by the application of enzymes in
hydro-alcoholic extraction. Gomez-Garcia et al.[61] reported extraction of
phenolic compounds from grape waste using celluclast, pectinex and
novoferm enzymes and found that novoferm had the strongest effect on
phenolic release from grape waste. Zhang et al.[62] developed and optimized
a microwave-assisted enzymatic extraction (MAEE) method to enhance the
polyphenols extraction yield from waste peanut shells. The found that the
optimum conditions for polyphenol extraction were: irradiation time 2.6 min,
amount of cellulase 0.81 wt.%, a pH of 5.5, and incubation at 66 °C for
2.0 h. Under these conditions, the extraction yield of total polyphenols could
reach 1.75 ± 0.06%, which was higher than other extraction methods
including heat-refluxing extraction, ultrasonic-assisted extraction and
enzyme-assisted extraction. Xu et al63 evaluated various combinations of
solvent and enzyme, enzyme type (cellulase, pectinase, ß-glucosidase), and
hydrolysis time on the release of muscadine grape skin and seed phenolics,
and their antioxidant activities. They showed that pre-treated muscadine
skins and seeds with enzymes decreased total phenolic yield compared with
solvent (50% ethanol) alone. Enzyme release of phenolics from skins of
different muscadine varieties was significantly different while release from
seeds was similar. Enzyme hydrolysis was found to shorten extraction time.
Most importantly, enzyme hydrolysis modified the galloylated form of
polyphenols to low molecular weight phenolics, releasing phenolic acids
(especially gallic acid), and enhancing antioxidant activity. Nguyen et al.[64]
successfully applied two commercially available polysaccharide-degrading
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Plant Phenolics: A Review on Modern Extraction Techniques 13

enzymes, Viscozyme L and Rapidasefor for the extraction of phenolic

compounds from cauliûower (Brassica oleracea) outer leaves. These studies
shows that enzyme assisted extraction is an attractive green alternative
approach in the modern techniques for plant phenolics extraction.

3.6. Pulsed-Electric Field Extraction (PEFE)

Pulsed electric field (PEF) process is a fast, non-thermal, and highly effective
method for extraction of intracellular compounds. It works on through the
process of cell membrane disruption by electroporation, where a liquid food
or other pumpable product, is passed through a small treatment chamber,
where it is subjected to a short pulse of very high voltage. During suspension
of a living cell in electric field, an electric potential passes through the
membrane of that cell and based on the dipole nature of membrane
molecules, electric potential separates molecules according to their charge
in the cell membrane. After exceeding a critical value of approximately 1 V
of trans-membrane potential, repulsion occurs between the charge carrying
molecules that form pores in weak areas of the membrane and causes drastic
increase of permeability[65]. During the last few last decades, the equipment
and processes required for PEF for plant polyphenol extraction have
undergone extensive development. Puértolas et al.[66] used response surface
methodology to optimize pulsed electric field treatment for anthocyanin
extraction at different extraction times (60–480 min) and temperatures (10–
40°C) using water and ethanol (48% and 96%) as solvents. This PEF
treatment increased the anthocyanin extraction yield, the effect being
higher at lower extraction temperature with water as solvent. Luengo et
al.[67] investigated the influence of PEF treatment on the extraction by
pressing of total polyphenols and flavonoids (naringin and hesperin) from
orange peel. They demonstrated the potential of PEF to improve the
extraction by pressing of polyphenols from fresh orange peel. PEF procedure
enhances the antioxidant capacity of the extracts, reduces extraction times
and does not require using organic solvents. Boussetta et al.[68] presented
an experimental study of the influence of pulsed electrical discharges of
low energy (3 to 10 J) on the extraction of polyphenols from grape seeds. To
obtain a better understanding they studied three basic phenomena involved
in the whole discharge process separately: pulsed electric field (PEF), pre-
breakdown phase (streamer), and breakdown phase (arc). Their results
showed that polyphenol extraction is much more efficient with arcs,
compared to streamers and PEF and concluded that during the discharge
process, the enhancement of polyphenol extraction can be mainly ascribed
to the final arc phase. The total energy per unit mass CWp required to
extract 5000 mg GAE/100 g DM with the arc (CWp = 16 kJ/kg) is 27 times
lower compared to streamers alone, and 47 times lower compared to PEF.
Furthermore, they found that the mechanical affects of arcs (shock waves,
expanding cavity, and strong turbulence) are much more pronounced
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14 RPMP Vol. 41—Analytical and Processing Techniques

compared to streamers. These mechanical effects are responsible for the

fragmentation of grape seeds, and strongly promote the release of
polyphenols. Other parameters such as the test cell shape and the inter-
electrode distance also show that the polyphenol extraction is further
enhanced when grape seeds are in close proximity with the breakdown
arc. In optimized conditions, the extraction efficiency with low energy
discharges can be significantly higher than previous measurements with
high energy discharges. In another study Boussetta et al.[69] showed that
PEFE pretreatment allows improving the extraction of polyphenols from
flaxseed hulls. The optimal parameters that result on the higher extraction
yielded a rehydration of hulls for 40 min followed by a PEFE treatment
energy input of 300 kJ/kg at 0 kV/cm and a subsequent diffusion step in
20% ethanol and 0.3 mol/L sodium hydroxide. These studies demonstrate
that PEF extraction stands as an economical and environmentally friendly
alternative to conventional extraction methods.

3.7 Accelerated Solvent Extraction (ASE)

Richter et al.[70] first described Accelerated Solvent Extraction (ASE) for

recoveries of polycyclic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls and total
petroleum hydrocarbons from reference samples. This method is now known
by several names; pressurized fluid extraction (PFE), accelerated fluid
extraction (ASE), enhanced solvent extraction (ESE) and high pressure
solvent extraction (HPSE). In this technique elevated temperature and
pressure are applied to accelerate extraction of compounds from solid and
semi-solid samples. Pressure is used to increase the contact between the
extracting fluid and sample and temperature is used to break the analyte-
matrix bonds. Elevated pressure allows the extraction cell to be filled faster
and helps to force liquid into the solid matrix and increased temperature
accelerates the extraction process, thus results in safe and rapid
extraction[2,71]. A typical schematic diagram of an accelerated solvent
extraction system is given in Fig. 6.

Applications of PLE or ASE technique for plant phenolics extraction

are frequently available in literature. Alonso-Salces et al.[72] investigated
various experimental parameters, such as solvent composition,
temperature, pressure and static extraction time for polyphenol extraction
from apple peel and pulp using PLE. They reported that the efficiency of
pressurized liquid extraction is comparable to conventional techniques to
extract polyphenols and the solvent volume required in PLE is similar or
even smaller, but this extraction procedure is less time-consuming and the
handling of the sample is reduced. Rostagno et al.[71] used several extraction
solvents (methanol and ethanol in water and water), temperatures (60–
200°C), pressures (100–200 atm), as well as the sample size (0.5–0.05 g)
and cycle length (5–10 min) for the optimization of the extraction of
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Plant Phenolics: A Review on Modern Extraction Techniques 15

Fig. 6: Schematic model of accelerated solvent extraction

isoflavones from soyabeans by PLE method. Hossain et al73 optimized the

accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) of polyphenolic antioxidants by using
response surface methodology to maximise the antioxidant capacity of the
extracts from three spices of Lamiaceae family (rosemary, oregano and
marjoram). Barros et al.[74] demonstrated that ASE showed is an efficient
method for the extraction of phenolic compounds from sorghum brans. They
reported that polyphenols from black and tannin sorghum bran were
extracted using an accelerated solvent extractor (ASE) at 60, 120 and 150°C.
ASE at 120 and 150°C using 50 and 70% ethanol/water (v/v) was efficient
in extracting similar amount of phenols (45 mg GAE/g) and 12% more
antioxidants (628 ìmol TE/g) from black sorghum compared to traditional
methods using aqueous acetone and acidified methanol.

Abdel-Aal et al.[75] compared extraction efficiency of accelerated solvent

extraction (ACE) and microwave assisted extraction (MAE) and commonly
used solvent extraction (CSE) for anthocyanin extraction from blue wheat,
purple corn, and black rice. Their results suggested that the ASE extraction
method is more appropriate in the extraction of anthocyanins from colored
grains as being comparable with the CSE method and caused lower changes
in anthocyanin content and composition compared with the MAE method.
Benefits of ASE technique include requirement of minor sample handling,
which allows a faster and accurate response, and the smaller demand of
organic solvents. Due to small amount organic solvent, the use of ASE
technique gets broad reorganization as a green extraction technique for
plant based materials [76]. Overall, ACE could overcome some of the
drawbacks of the extraction methods currently in use for phenolic extraction
process.
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16 RPMP Vol. 41—Analytical and Processing Techniques

3.8 Sub-critical Water Extraction (SCWE)

Sub-critical water extraction (SCWE) technique, also known as super-heated

water, pressurized water extraction or hot liquid water extraction, is another
environmentally friendly technique that has been getting increased
attention as a move to reduce or eliminate the use of organic solvent and
improve the extraction processes for plant phenolic extraction. Water, a
non-flammable, non-toxic, readily available and an environmentally
acceptable solvent, has not yet received much attention as an analytical
extraction solvent for plant materials because water is too polar to efficiently
dissolve most organics that are associated with botanicals[77,78]. Subcritical
water is hot water at temperatures ranging between 100 and 374°C under
high pressure to maintain water in the liquid state. Dielectric constant,
which can be changed by temperature, is the most important factor when
using water as an extraction solvent. Under subcritical conditions the
dielectric constant of water reduces due to the breakdown of intermolecular
hydrogen bonds. Dielectric constant of water decreases from 80 (at room
temperature) to 27 (at 250°C), which is almost equal to that of ethanol at
ambient temperature[79]. Recently growing attention has led to extensive
research activities using SCWE technique for plant phenolics extraction.

Pongnaravane et al.[80] applied SCWE for extraction of anthraquinones

from Morinda citrifolia and demonstrated the superiority of SCWE to that
of other extraction methods, such as ethanol extraction in a stirred vessel,
Soxhlet extraction and ultrasound-assisted extraction. Luque-Rodríguez
et al.[81] described treatment with SCWE as a sufficiently powerful to extract
phenolic compounds from grape skin. Singh and Saldaña[82] showed that
subcritical water at 160 to 180°C, 6 MPa and 60 min is a good substitute to
organic solvents such as methanol and ethanol to obtain phenolic compounds
from potato peel. Subcritical water extraction of sea buckthorn (Hippophae
rhamnoides) leaves is reported to be a better approach than Soxhlet and
maceration because the use of subcritical water imparted higher antioxidant
and cytoprotective activities to the extracts besides ensuring low solvent
consumption, ease, and rapidity of the overall method than Soxhlet and
maceration extraction methods[83]. Cheigh et al.[84] reported enhanced
extraction yield of flavanones, hesperidin and narirutin from Citrus unshiu
peel by using SCWE technique. The main advantages of SCWE over
conventional methods are its simplicity, high extract quality, low extraction
time and environmental friendliness as water being used as a solvent. It
could be good alternative industrial plant phenolics extraction methods
without toxic organic solvent residues. Lee et al.[85] extracted antioxidant
phenolics from onion (Allium cepa L.) peels by ethanol, hot water and
subcritical water (SW) extraction. Extraction yields of subcrictical water
extraction were 4-fold higher than ethanol extraction. Xu et al.[86] applied
SWE for phenolics extraction from marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) flower
residues. They found that optimum SWE time was 45 min, solid-to-liquid
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Plant Phenolics: A Review on Modern Extraction Techniques 17

ratio was 1:50, and the highest TPC and TFC were obtained at 220°C
respectively. Cheigh et al.[87] compared the efficiencies of using subcritical
water, hot water, and organic solvents to extract flavonols from black tea,
celery, and ginseng leaf. There results showed that the yields of flavonols
by subcritical water extraction were 2.0- to 22.7- and 1.8- to 23.6-fold higher
than those obtained using the ethanol and methanol as traditional
extraction methods, respectively.

3.9. High Hydrostatic Pressure Extraction (HHPE)

High Hydrostatic Pressure Extraction is a recently developed technique to

extract bioactive ingredients from plant materials. This method works on
the basis of mass transport phenomena by utilizing non-thermal super-
high hydraulic pressure (1000–8000 bars). The pressure applied increases
plant cell permeability, leading to cell component diffusivity according to
mass transfer and phase behavior theories[88,89]. The createion a huge
pressure difference between the cell membrane interior and exterior allows
solvent to penetrate into the cell causing leakage of cell components. In
addition, cell deformation and protein denaturation reduces cell selectivity
and increase extraction yield[90]. The use of HHP enhances mass transfer
rates, increasing cell permeability as well as increasing secondary
metabolite diffusion due to changes in phase transitions[91]. Associated
advantages such as reduced extraction time, higher extraction yields, fewer
impurities in the extraction solution, minimal heat and thermal degradation
are clearly demonstrated in some studies. HHPE is reported to be suitable
for the extraction of phenolic compounds from apple juice[92]. Several studies
showed that HHPP could be successfully applied for extraction of
anthocyanins and flonols from berry fruits and berry juices and preserve
phenolic compounds after food processing[93]. Huang et al.[94] reported a
comparative account of the effects of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) at
300–500 MPa for 5–20 min and high temperature short time (HTST) at
110 °C for 8.6 s on enzymes, phenolics, carotenoids and color of apricot
nectars. Kim et al.[91] investigated the effect of polysaccharide-degrading
enzymes treatment under high hydrostatic pressure to improve the
extraction and recovery of bioactive materials from cactus. They found that
HHP extraction and enzyme-assisted extraction using HHP showed an
increase of anti-complementary activity of cactus phenolics compared with
the heat and enzyme controls, respectively. Vega-Gálvez et al.[95] evaluated
the effects of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) at 300, 400 and 500 MPa/1,
3 and 5 min on nutritional and antioxidant properties of Cape gooseberry
pulp after immediate application and after 60 days of storage. The maximum
levels of total phenolic content as well as antioxidant capacity were observed
at 500 MPa/5 min. Overall, high hydrostatic pressure extraction (HHPE)
is one of the most economically viable among non-thermal plant phenolics
extraction methods.
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18 RPMP Vol. 41—Analytical and Processing Techniques

4. CONCLUSIONS

Due to countless beneficial characteristics of plant phenolics, researches have

been intensified aiming develop simple, rapid, sophisticated, efficient and
commercially viable extraction for high recoveries of these compounds from
a number of plant sources. This chapter has presented a comparative account
of recent technical developments in plant phenolics extraction techniques.
Numerous new methods have been developed and applied to a range of plant
sources for phenolics extraction. These methods offer advantages over
conventional extraction methods such as short extraction time, low solvent
consumption and decreased release of toxic pollutants, high extraction yields
and reproducibility. Proper selection of appropriate extraction procedure
that allows obtaining different bioactive phenolic compounds is important
for enhancing extraction yield of bioactive plant products. This area has great
potential to expand and promising advances in modern plant phenolics
extraction procedures may find wider application due to the increased demand
for plant derived products. Recent upsurge in refinement of existing extraction
techniques and development of greener extraction technologies might lead
to enhanced cost efficiency, high product yield and quality, and eco-
friendliness of plant phenolics extraction methodologies.

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