Chapter Four: Focus on Side-wards and Outwards Stakeholders

4.1. Side-wards and Outwards Stakeholders

Managing side-wards involves managing the project manager's peers (internal stakeholders)
to ensure collaboration, rather than competition. Managing outwards involves addressing the
needs and impacts of a large group of stakeholders external to the project (external
stakeholders), and often external to the performing organisation.

4.1.1. Stewards Stakeholders

Stewards-stakeholders are the peers of the project manager within the organization and
external to it (the specific project under operation), but are still stakeholders of the project
and have the capability to affect or may be affected by the work of the project. Steward-
stakeholders are in competition for the resources. These stakeholders can include other
project managers.

4.1.2. Outwards Stakeholders

These stakeholders are usually external people to the project. They have different requests
and needs from the project. There may not have many opportunities to build direct
relationships between the project team and each outwards group or individual. Often, the
relationships will be indirect, carried out through a third party: the government contact. Few
of the outwards – stakeholders are end users, government, unions, and shareholders.

4.2. Networks / project schedule network diagram

Networks are an arrangement of intersecting horizontal and vertical lines. It is like "a spider
constructs a complex network of several different kinds of threads". It is interacting with
others to exchange information and develop professional or social contacts. It is so important
to network when starting a new business. The typical characteristics of project network
diagrams are:

 it is a graph that shows the activities, duration, and interdependencies of tasks within
your project, and
 it is an important tool because it helps teams visualize the activities that need to be
completed over the duration of a project. It also gives crucial context like task
duration, sequence, and dependency.

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 4.2.1. Different Types of Networks

There are two main types of network diagrams in project management. They are:

 the arrow diagramming method (ADM), also known as “activity network diagram” or
“activity on arrow”; and
 the precedence diagramming method (PDM), also known as “node network” or
“activity on node.”

Importances of network diagrams are:

 a network diagram serves as a visual representation of project tasks, their

relationships, and the flow of activities;
 network diagrams provide a visual roadmap, highlighting critical paths and allowing
project teams to identify dependencies, analyse project timelines, and optimize
resource allocation for successful project execution;
 a project schedule network diagram, also known as a network diagram in project
management, is a visual representation of the sequential and logical relationships
between tasks within a project; and
 it serves as a project network, presenting activities, their durations, and
interdependencies in a graphical format.

By mapping out the relationships between tasks, a project schedule network diagram helps
project teams identify critical paths, determine project timelines, and assess the impact of
changes on the overall project plan. It provides a comprehensive overview of the project’s
structure, facilitating effective communication and coordination among team members and
stakeholders.

Types of network diagrams

There are two main types of network diagrams commonly used in project management. They
are:

 the Arrow Diagram Method (ADM), and

 the Precedence Diagram Method (PDM).

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Arrow diagram method (ADM)

The Arrow Diagram Method (ADM), also known as the Activity Network Diagram or
Activity on Arrow, is a graphical technique that represents activities as arrows and nodes to
depict their relationships and dependencies. In ADM, the arrows represent activities, and the
nodes represent events or milestones. The length of the arrows indicates the duration of each
activity, and the arrows’ connections show the logical sequence of activities.

ADM aims to visualize the critical path, identify project constraints, and facilitate project
scheduling and resource allocation. It provides a straightforward representation of project
activities and their interdependencies. It is important to note that, due to the ADM’s
limitations, it is no longer widely used in project management. However, it’s still useful to
understand ADMs, so that you can recognize these diagrams if they arise in your work
environment.

In ADM:

 The tail of the arrow represents the start of the activity and the head represents the
finish.
 The length of the arrow typically denotes the duration of the activity.
 Each arrow connects two boxes, known as “nodes.” The nodes are used to represent
the start or end of an activity in a sequence. The starting node of an activity is
sometimes called the “i-node,” with the final node of a sequence sometimes called the
“j-node.”
 The only relationship between the nodes and activity that an ADM chart can represent
is “finish to start” or FS.

Occasionally, “dummy activities”—arrows that do not represent a direct relationship—need

to be included in ADM network diagrams. In the diagram below, activity C can only occur
once activities A and B are complete; in the network diagram, you have connected activity A
to activity C. Perhaps we are talking about tiling a floor (activity C): It can only begin once
the concrete is poured (activity A) and the permits are obtained (activity B). Since activities
A and B are not directly related—A doesn’t lead to B, and B doesn’t lead to A—you need to
draw a dummy activity between B and C to show that C is dependent on B being completed.
An ADM chart also does not have a way to encapsulate lead and lag times without
introducing new nodes and activities.

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 Arrow diagram method (ADM)

Precedence diagram method (PDM)

PDM network diagrams are frequently used in project management today and are a more
efficient alternative to ADMs. In the precedence diagramming method for creating
network diagrams, each box, or node, represents an activity—with the arrows
representing relationships between the different activities. The arrows can therefore
represent all four possible relationships:

 “Finish to Start” (FS): When an activity cannot start before another activity
finishes;
 “Start to Start” (SS): When two activities are able to start simultaneously;
 “Finish to Finish” (FF): When two tasks need to finish together; and
 “Start to Finish” (SF): This is an uncommon dependency and only used when one
activity cannot finish until another activity starts.
In PDM, lead times and lag times can be written alongside the arrows. If a particular
activity is going to require 10 days to elapse until the next activity can occur, for example,
you can simply write “10 days” over the arrow representing the relationship between the
connected nodes.

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 4.2.2. Degrees of Separation

The separation of two or more things or groups is the fact that they are separate or become
separate, and are not linked.

What is six degrees of separation?

Six degrees of separation is the theory that any person on the planet can be connected to any
other person on the planet through a chain of acquaintances that has no more than five
intermediaries.

How does six degrees of separation work?

Example: Person A would get a message to Person K by taking the following six steps:

1. Person A to Person B
2. Person B to Person C
3. Person C to Person E
4. Person E to Person F
5. Person F to Person J
6. Person J to Person K

With the help of five intermediaries, the mission is accomplished.

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In this example of how six degrees of separation works, the number of people in between
two individuals is never more than five.

4.2.3. The Power of Networks

Networking is the lifeblood of a thriving project management career. It is more than just a
collection of business cards; it is about forging meaningful connections, sharing insights,
and creating opportunities. The Power of Networks unifies these ideas through six
fundamental principles of networking. These principles explain the difficulties in sharing
network resources efficiently, how crowds can be wise or not so wise depending on the
nature of their connections, why there are many layers in a network, and more.

In the project management landscape, networking transcends traditional boundaries. It is

the catalyst that propels careers forward. Through networking, professionals gain access
to a wealth of knowledge, diverse perspectives, and a supportive community.
The benefits of networking for project management are:
1. Knowledge Sharing
Networking provides a platform to exchange insights and best practices.
2. Professional Growth
Attending events of networking provide opportunities to expand your skill set and
contribute to your professional growth.

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 3. Collaboration Opportunities
Collaborative projects are often the result of successful networking. Building
relationships with professionals from various sectors can lead to collaborative endeavours
that benefit both parties.
4. Career Advancement
Networking can uncover job opportunities, whether you are seeking a new challenge or
looking to advance within your current organization. The connections you establish may
lead to mentorship or career-changing introductions.

4.2.4. Emotions and Networks

Strong emotional intelligence allows project managers to navigate these transitions

effectively. We manage our own stress levels, remain calm under pressure, and make sound
decisions without being overwhelmed by emotions, whether it's our own or those of the team.

Project managers/leaders bring into the network seem to influence its functioning: positive
emotions seem to propel its activities and outcomes; negative emotions appear to curb them.
Emotions seem also to interact with network identity and trust in affecting network success.

4.2.5. Applying the Theories of Networks to Managing the Expectations of

Stakeholders

The first step to network with stakeholders and clients is to identify who they are and what
they expect from you. Stakeholders are anyone who has an interest or influence in your work,
such as your boss, colleagues, suppliers, partners, or regulators. Since shareholders are
primarily concerned with monetary growth, shareholder theory essentially translates to a
“make more profit at all costs” approach to business. From a project management
perspective, stakeholder theory means considering the needs of all parties with a vested
interest in a particular project.

The earlier you engage stakeholders, the more likely you are to realize key benefits. Inform,
consult, and involve partners so that you have better planned, informed, and accountable
policies, projects, programs, and services.

4.3. Social Media

Social media refers to the means of interactions among people in which they create, share,
and/or exchange information and ideas in virtual communities and networks. Social media

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are websites and applications that enable users to create and share content or to participate in
social networking.
4.3.1. Using Social Media Effectively in Projects
How social media is used in project management?
For example, lessons learned can be shared in a social media platform that allows for us to be
part of a discussion or forum group (i.e., LinkedIn groups). By doing this, as a project
manager, you are collaborating with other project managers as well as increasing your
network. We can streamline social media project management by realizing the following:

 set clear social media goals with click up goals;

 plan your campaigns and create a social media calendar;
 create your content;
 establish a clear feedback loop and approval processes;
 schedule your content across platforms; and
 monitor results and revise the plan as needed.
Here are eight tips on how to use social media effectively in projects:

 know who your audience is;

 know which social media platforms to use;
 have a personality;
 maintain a singular voice;
 be active;
 know when to post;
 don not just share your content; and
 always respond.
4.4. Negotiation
4.4.1. Concepts of Negotiation
The term negotiation refers to a strategic discussion intended to resolve an issue in a way that
both parties find acceptable. Negotiations involve give and take, which means one or both
parties will usually need to make some concessions.
4.4.2. The Negotiation Process
The negotiation process consists of five steps, each of which must consider elements of
negotiation such as communication, party relationships, alternatives or options, legitimacy of
the conflict, the interests of each party, and the commitment of each party to resolving the
conflict. The negotiation process contains five stages, each involving certain characteristics
that progressively enhance the potential for agreement between all involved parties. They are:

 Preparation and planning;

 Definition of ground rules;
 Clarification and justification;
 Bargaining and problem-solving; and
 Closure and implementation.