SCIENCE 8

QUARTER 4
MODULE 1

LESSON 1: STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION AND FOCUS QUESTIONS:

The dinner table turns into a virtual battleground every time you and your family are having a
meal. Your mother is a nutritionist and would always make sure that there are vegetables with
your meals. As far as you can remember, she has always told you to “Eat your vegetables.
They are good for your health.” You never understood her words, but simply followed her. Do
you think it is possible not to eat vegetables but still be healthy?

In this module, you will find out about the different organs and substances that allow us to
digest food and how diseases affect the role of, or result from, the digestive system. Remember
to search for the answer to the following questions:
How does one maintain a healthy digestive system?
How does one achieve a healthy lifestyle and diet?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Demonstrate understanding of the organs of the digestive system involving ingestion,
absorption, assimilation and excretion.
2. Demonstrate understanding of nutrients as raw materials for energy, growth and maintenance.
3. Demonstrate understanding of diseases that result from nutrient deficiency and ingestion of
harmful substances as well as prevention and treatment.

ACTIVITY #1: The Structure of the Digestive System

Direction: Label the parts of the digestive system.

mouth

esophagus

liver
stomach
pancreas
small intestine
large intestine
rectum
FIRM UP DISCUSSION
Your goal in this section is to learn and understand key concepts of the digestive parts and
functions.

 The Human Digestive Tract

The human digestive tract is around three meters long.
Process Questions:
1. Was the food converted into something else before it entered your cells?
2. What happens as food passes through your digestive tract?
 3 Main Functions of the Digestive System
1. Ingestion of food
2. Breakdown of food so it can be absorbed by the cells.
3. Elimination materials that cannot be digested.
Lets discover the parts and functions of the digestive system:
What is the digestive system?

The digestive system is made up of the gastrointestinal tract—also called the GI tract or digestive
tract—and the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. The GI tract is a series of hollow organs joined in
a long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anus. The hollow organs that make up the GI tract are
the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. The liver, pancreas,
and gallbladder are the solid organs of the digestive system.

The small intestine has three parts. The first

part is called the duodenum. The jejunum is
in the middle and the ileum is at the end. The
large intestine includes the appendix,
cecum, colon, and rectum. The appendix is a
finger-shaped pouch attached to the cecum.
The cecum is the first part of the large
intestine. The colon is next. The rectum is the
end of the large intestine.

Why is digestion important?

Digestion is important because your body

needs nutrients from food and drink to work properly and stay
healthy. Proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins NIH external link, minerals NIH external link,
and water are nutrients. Your digestive system breaks nutrients into parts small enough for your
body to absorb and use for energy, growth, and cell repair.

 Proteins break into amino acids

 Fats break into fatty acids and glycerol
 Carbohydrates break into simple sugars
Your digestive system breaks nutrients into parts that are small enough for your body to absorb.
How does my digestive system work?

Each part of your digestive system helps to move food and liquid through your GI tract, break
food and liquid into smaller parts, or both. Once foods are broken into small enough parts, your
body can absorb and move the nutrients to where they are needed. Your large intestine absorbs
water, and the waste products of digestion become stool. Nerves and hormones help control the
digestive process.

The digestive process

Organ Movement
Mouth Chewing
Organ Movement
Esophagus Peristalsis
Upper muscle in stomach relaxes to let food enter, and lower muscle mixes food with
Stomach
digestive juice
Small intestine Peristalsis
Pancreas None
Liver None
Large intestine Peristalsis
How does food move through my GI tract?

Food moves through your GI tract by a process called peristalsis. The large, hollow organs of
your GI tract contain a layer of muscle that enables their walls to move. The movement pushes
food and liquid through your GI tract and mixes the contents within each organ. The muscle
behind the food contracts and squeezes the food forward, while the muscle in front of the food
relaxes to allow the food to move.

The digestive process starts when you put food

in your mouth.
Mouth. Food starts to move through your GI
tract when you eat. When you swallow, your
tongue pushes the food into your throat. A small
flap of tissue, called the epiglottis, folds over
your windpipe to prevent choking and the food
passes into your esophagus.
Esophagus. Once you begin swallowing, the
process becomes automatic. Your brain signals
the muscles of the esophagus and peristalsis
begins.
Lower esophageal sphincter. When food reaches the end of your esophagus, a ringlike muscle
—called the lower esophageal sphincter —relaxes and lets food pass into your stomach. This
sphincter usually stays closed to keep what’s in your stomach from flowing back into your
esophagus.
Stomach. After food enters your stomach, the stomach muscles mix the food and liquid
with digestive juices. The stomach slowly empties its contents, called chyme, into your small
intestine.
Small intestine. The muscles of the small intestine mix food with digestive juices from the
pancreas, liver, and intestine, and push the mixture forward for further digestion. The walls of
the small intestine absorb water and the digested nutrients into your bloodstream. As peristalsis
continues, the waste products of the digestive process move into the large intestine.
Large intestine. Waste products from the digestive process include undigested parts of food,
fluid, and older cells from the lining of your GI tract. The large intestine absorbs water and
changes the waste from liquid into stool. Peristalsis helps move the stool into your rectum.
Rectum. The lower end of your large intestine, the rectum, stores stool until it pushes stool out
of your anus during a bowel movement.
How does my digestive system break food into small parts my body can use?

As food moves through your GI tract, your digestive organs break the food into smaller parts
using:

 motion, such as chewing, squeezing, and mixing

 digestive juices, such as stomach acid, bile, and enzymes

Mouth. The digestive process starts in your mouth when you chew. Your salivary glands
make saliva, a digestive juice, which moistens food so it moves more easily through your
esophagus into your stomach. Saliva also has an enzyme that begins to break down starches in
your food.

Esophagus. After you swallow, peristalsis pushes the food down your esophagus into your
stomach.

Stomach. Glands in your stomach lining make stomach acid and enzymes that break down food.
Muscles of your stomach mix the food with these digestive juices.

Pancreas. Your pancreas makes a digestive juice that has enzymes that break down
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The pancreas delivers the digestive juice to the small intestine
through small tubes called ducts.

Liver. Your liver makes a digestive juice called bile that helps digest fats and some vitamins.
Bile ducts carry bile from your liver to your gallbladder for storage, or to the small intestine for
use.

Gallbladder. Your gallbladder stores bile between meals. When you eat, your gallbladder
squeezes bile through the bile ducts into your small intestine.

Small intestine. Your small intestine makes digestive juice, which mixes with bile and
pancreatic juice to complete the breakdown of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Bacteria in your
small intestine make some of the enzymes you need to digest carbohydrates. Your small intestine
moves water from your bloodstream into your GI tract to help break down food. Your small
intestine also absorbs water with other nutrients.

Large intestine. In your large intestine, more water moves from your GI tract into your
bloodstream. Bacteria in your large intestine help break down remaining nutrients and
make vitamin K . Waste products of digestion, including parts of food that are still too large,
become stool.

What happens to the digested food?

The small intestine absorbs most of the nutrients in your food, and your circulatory system
passes them on to other parts of your body to store or use. Special cells help absorbed nutrients
cross the intestinal lining into your bloodstream. Your blood carries simple sugars, amino acids,
glycerol, and some vitamins and salts to the liver. Your liver stores, processes, and delivers
nutrients to the rest of your body when needed.

Your body uses sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol to build substances you need for
energy, growth, and cell repair.

ACTIVITY 2. HOW IMPORTANT ARE THE NUTRIENTS?

Symptoms and manifestations of nutrient deficiency differ from nutrient to nutrient.

Nutrients have their specific function; thus any deficiency will result to certain unwanted
manifestations.
Complete the table below. (You may refer from the internet)
https://www.healthgrades.com/right-care/digestive-health/10-common-digestive-disorders

Deficient Disease Symptoms Prevention

bloated,constipated,or pain
Nutrient Diverticular Disease (lower abdomen) balanced high-fiber diet
Gallstones nausea,vomiting,fever avoid unhealthy fats
Inflammatory Bowel Irritation,swelling, Avoid foods that may
Disease diarrhea, abdominal increase stool and avoid
pain, loss of appetite, fever, caffeinated drinks
 weight loss

Exercise #1:
Use the words in the box to complete the spaces in the text.
fats bile nutrients chyme large
blood gastric waste anus Intestine
The stomach contains acid called gastric juices. Muscles contract to mix food with this acid. This
makes a thick liquid called chyme.

Chyme from the stomach passes into the small intestine. Here, the chime mixes with a liquid
from the liver called bile and pancreatic juices from the pancreas. These liquids break the chime
into nutrients: proteins, carbohydrates, fats , vitamins and minerals can now pass through the
wall of the small intestine and into the blood.

Any food left in the small intestine is now waste. This material passes into the large intestine
where any extra water is absorbed into the blood. Dry waste passes into the rectum and waits to
leave the body through the anus.

Exercise #2: Order the stages of digestion from numbers 1-6.

3 The food is mixed with gastric juices in the stomach.
6 The feces are expelled through the rectum.
1 In the mouth, the teeth crush the food, and it is mixed with saliva.
4 In the small intestine, the food mixes with bile from the liver and the nutrients and vitamins are
absorbed.
2 The food passes down the esophagus and into the stomach.
5 The remains of the food are transformed into feces in the large intestine.

PERFORMANCE TASK:
A. Travel Brochure

The Body System Travel Agency has just hired the class to give tours through the various body
systems, BUT THEIR MAIN FOCUS IS THE digestive system. Their first task is to create a
travel brochure to highlight the imports and exports of each area -- as well as the "trendy" spots
and exciting activities the digestive system contain. Also mention any dangers or precautions

that tourists should be aware of when visiting the digestive system. During this activity,
students will not only visit the digestive system and show how it works, but they will also see
how food is used to nourish the other body systems as well.

B. Make an eye catching poster that will show at least three healthful practices that will
maintain the normal functioning of your digestive system. Use long bond paper for your
output.
Standards/Criteria:

1. Accuracy of content
2. Organization of idea
3. Clarity of message
4. Creativity

SCIENCE 8
QUARTER 4
MODULE 2-3

LESSON 2: HEREDITY: INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

INTRODUCTION AND FOCUS QUESTIONS

Your grandfather has just celebrated his 100 th birthday; this is a real feat
considering his 3 other siblings have already passed on at least 2 decades ago.
During his birthday celebration, you noticed the tall grasses in the nearby
vacant lot. Compared to other plants, the grasses seems to grow quickly even after it
has just been cut or burned by the village maintenance staff.
Have you ever wondered why these things happen? What could your
grandfather have that his other siblings don’t that made him live longer? Why does
the grass seem to grow relentlessly despite the efforts to get rid of them?
In this module, you will find out about variation that occurs in organisms
and what implications it could bring to species. Remember to search for the answer
to the following questions: How do plants and animals adapt to changing
environmental conditions? Why are there differences among organisms of the
same species? Why is it important and necessary to have varied plants and
animals? Why must cells divide?

 LESSON COVERAGE
A. Cell Cycle
B. Cell Division
a. Mitosis
b. Meiosis
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Identify the organelles involved in cell division.
2. Describe and compare the processes of mitosis and meiosis, and their role in the cell
division.

EXPLORE
ACTIVITY 1: TOUR OF THE BASICS: NUCLEUS, CHROMOSOMES AND DNA
https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/basics/chromosome/
https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/3-3-the-nucleus-and-dna-replication/
#:~:text=The%20nucleus%20houses%20the%20genetic,and%20condenses%20to%20form
%20chromosomes

PROCESS QUESTIONS:
1. Why is the nucleus referred to as the control center of the cell?
2. Not all cells are the same. Each has a different function within an organism, and for different
kinds of organism. How do these cells “know” what their role is?
3. From your answer in number 2, can you relate why organisms are different from each other?

FIRM UP DISCUSSIONS
All living things are composed of cells, and all cells arise from previously
 existing ones. This statement is the cell theory , which connotes that old cells give rise to
new ones, a process generally called cell division.

Cell division involves two processes: division in the nucleus and division in the
cytoplasm. The process whereby the nucleus divides to produce two nuclei, each with
the same number of chromosomes as the parental nucleus, is called mitosis. It occurs in
all cells of the body except the sex cells. Meiosis occurs during the formation of the egg
and the sperm cells, a division that reduces the number of chromosomes by half so that
when the egg and sperm unite in fertilization the normal diploid number is restored.

This module is prepared to provide information about the events occurring in

each stage of mitosis and meiosis ,emphasizing the behaviour of chromosomes. It also
allow the students to identify the stages in the cell cycle and describe the main events of
each.

The cell cycle

Actively dividing eukaryote cells pass through a series of stages known collectively as the cell
cycle: two gap phases (G1 and G2); an S (for synthesis) phase, in which the genetic material is
duplicated; and an M phase, in which mitosis partitions the genetic material and the cell divides.

 G1 phase. Metabolic changes prepare the cell for division. At a certain point - the restriction
point - the cell is committed to division and moves into the S phase.
 S phase. DNA synthesis replicates the genetic material. Each chromosome now consists of two
sister chromatids.
 G2 phase. Metabolic changes assemble the cytoplasmic materials necessary for mitosis and
cytokinesis.
 M phase. A nuclear division (mitosis) followed by a cell division (cytokinesis).
The period between mitotic divisions - that is, G1, S and G2 - is known as interphase.
 Mitosis

Mitosis is a form of eukaryotic cell division that produces two daughter cells with the same
genetic component as the parent cell. Chromosomes replicated during the S phase are divided in
such a way as to ensure that each daughter cell receives a copy of every chromosome. In actively
dividing animal cells, the whole process takes about one hour.

The replicated chromosomes are attached to a 'mitotic apparatus' that aligns them and then
separates the sister chromatids to produce an even partitioning of the genetic material. This
separation of the genetic material in a mitotic nuclear division (or karyokinesis) is followed by a
separation of the cell cytoplasm in a cellular division (or cytokinesis) to produce two daughter
cells.
In some single-celled organisms mitosis forms the basis of asexual reproduction. In diploid
multicellular organisms sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two haploid gametes to
produce a diploid zygote. Mitotic divisions of the zygote and daughter cells are then responsible
for the subsequent growth and development of the organism. In the adult organism, mitosis plays
a role in cell replacement, wound healing and tumour formation.

Mitosis, although a continuous process, is conventionally divided into five stages: prophase,
prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

The phases of mitosis

Prophase

Prophase occupies over half of mitosis. The nuclear membrane breaks down to form a number of
small vesicles and the nucleolus disintegrates. A structure known as the centrosome duplicates
itself to form two daughter centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of the cell. The
centrosomes organise the production of microtubules that form the spindle fibres that constitute
the mitotic spindle. The chromosomes condense into compact structures. Each replicated
chromosome can now be seen to consist of two identical chromatids (or sister chromatids) held
together by a structure known as the centromere.
Prometaphase

The chromosomes, led by their centromeres, migrate to the equatorial plane in the mid-line of the
cell - at right-angles to the axis formed by the centrosomes. This region of the mitotic spindle is
known as the metaphase plate. The spindle fibres bind to a structure associated with the
centromere of each chromosome called a kinetochore. Individual spindle fibres bind to
a kinetochore structure on each side of the centromere. The chromosomes continue to condense.
Metaphase

The chromosomes align themselves along the metaphase plate of the spindle apparatus.

Anaphase

The shortest stage of mitosis. The centromeres divide, and the sister chromatids of each
chromosome are pulled apart - or 'disjoin' - and move to the opposite ends of the cell, pulled by
spindle fibres attached to the kinetochore regions. The separated sister chromatids are now
referred to as daughter chromosomes. (It is the alignment and separation in metaphase and
anaphase that is important in ensuring that each daughter cell receives a copy of every
chromosome.)
Telophase

The final stage of mitosis, and a reversal of many of the processes observed during prophase.
The nuclear membrane reforms around the chromosomes grouped at either pole of the cell, the
chromosomes uncoil and become diffuse, and the spindle fibres disappear.

Cytokinesis

The final cellular division to form two new cells. In plants a cell plate forms along the line of the
metaphase plate; in animals there is a constriction of the cytoplasm. The cell then enters
interphase - the interval between mitotic divisions.

Meiosis

Meiosis is the form of eukaryotic cell division that produces haploid sex cells or gametes (which
contain a single copy of each chromosome) from diploid cells (which contain two copies of each
chromosome). The process takes the form of one DNA replication followed by two successive
 nuclear and cellular divisions (Meiosis I and Meiosis II). As in mitosis, meiosis is preceded by a
process of DNA replication that
converts each chromosome into
two sister chromatids.

Meiosis I

Meiosis I separates the pairs of

homologous chromosomes.

In Meiosis I a special cell division

reduces the cell from diploid to
haploid.

Prophase I

The homologous chromosomes

pair and exchange DNA to form
recombinant chromosomes.
Prophase I is divided into five
phases:

 chromosomes start to condense.

 homologous chromosomes become closely associated (synapsis) to form pairs of chromosomes
(bivalents) consisting of four chromatids (tetrads).
 crossing over between pairs of homologous chromosomes to form chiasmata (sing. chiasma).
 homologous chromosomes start to separate but remain attached by chiasmata.
 homologous chromosomes continue to separate, and chiasmata move to the ends of the
chromosomes.
Prometaphase I

Spindle apparatus formed, and chromosomes attached to spindle fibres by kinetochores.

Metaphase I

Homologous pairs of chromosomes (bivalents) arranged as a double row along the metaphase
plate. The arrangement of the paired chromosomes with respect to the poles of the spindle
apparatus is random along the metaphase plate. (This is a source of genetic variation through
random assortment, as the paternal and maternal chromosomes in a homologous pair are similar
but not identical. The number of possible arrangements is 2 n, where n is the number of
chromosomes in a haploid set. Human beings have 23 different chromosomes, so the number of
possible combinations is 223, which is over 8 million.)
Anaphase I

The homologous chromosomes in each bivalent are separated and move to the opposite poles of
the cell
 Telophase I

The chromosomes become diffuse and the nuclear membrane reforms.

Cytokinesis

The final cellular division to form two new cells, followed by Meiosis II. Meiosis I is a reduction
division: the original diploid cell had two copies of each chromosome; the newly formed haploid
cells have one copy of each chromosome.

Meiosis II

Meiosis II separates each chromosome into

two chromatids.

The events of Meiosis II are analogous to

those of a mitotic division, although the
number of chromosomes involved has been
halved.

Meiosis generates genetic diversity through:

 the exchange of genetic material between
homologous chromosomes during Meiosis I

 the random alignment of maternal and

paternal chromosomes in Meiosis I

 the random alignment of the sister chromatids at Meiosis II

Exercises 1:
Cell Cycle & Mitosis

Using the labeled Cell Cycle diagram to the right do the

following:
Left column: place the corresponding letter for the correct
stage
Right column: Complete the description of the stage in the

1. A ____________________: Consists of G1, S and

G2 phases in the Cell Cycle.
 2. __ Cytokinesis – division of the cytoplasm resulting
_ in two identical d_______________ cells.

3. __ G1 – growth phase: Makes organelles and proteins needed for replication of DNA. Also
_ contains a G1 checkpoint. If everything is correct, cell will proceed to S phase.

4. __
S phase: DNA is replicated or synthesized.
_

5. D G2 - growth phase: Cell gets ready to undergo M_____________. Also contains a G 2

checkpoint. If DNA replication is correct, checkpoint allows cell to enter M phase.

6. __ Prophase: chromatin condenses to become chromatin, nuclear envelopes breaks down, and
_ centrioles migrate to opposite poles in animal cells. Nucleolus disappears.

7. __
M____________: sister chromatids line up along the metaphase plate in the middle.
_ Spindle apparatus attaches at the centromere of the chromosomes.

A______________: sister chromatids separate and move to opposite sides of the cell. The
8. G s___________ F______________ pulls them apart. This phase ends when the chromatids
stop moving.

Telophase: two nuclear envelopes begin reforming. Chromatids relax, uncoil & are now
9. __ chromatin. Cytokinesis is occurring during Telophase but it is NOT considered a part of
_ mitosis because it does not involve the nucleus of the cell. In plant cells, a cell plate begins
to form while a c_____________ f_____________ is visible in animal cells.

10. __ Mitosis: division of a cell’s nucleus. Occurs in this order: prophase, _________________,
_ _______________, and telophase.

Label the phases of Mitosis below:

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Complete the table by checking the correct column for each statement.
Statement Interphase Mitosis
16. Cell growth occurs
17. Nuclear division occurs
18. Chromosomes are finishing moving into separate daughter
cells.
19. Chromosomes are duplicated
20. DNA synthesis occurs
21. Where cells spend most of their life
22. Mitochondria and other organelles are made.

Use the following illustrations for questions 23 – 25.

23. In cell A, what is the structure labeled X? ___________________

24. In cell F, what is the structure labeled Y? __________________
25. Which cell is not in a phase of mitosis? ______________________

Identify the stage of mitosis each A E

lettered plant cell is in:
B
26. A
27. B
28. C D
C
29. D
30. E

ACTIVITY 2: Mitosis in Whitefish & Onion

Roots
http://www.biologycorner.com/projects/mitosis.html. Click on the Whitefish embryo and the
onion root tip.
For each organism, identify the stage of mitosis. Follow the instruction on the link you open to
be able to complete the table below.
View 1 View 2 View 3 View 4 View 5

Whitefish

Onion

Exercise 2: Venn-diagram
Compare and contast mitosis and meiosis using the venn diagram.

MITOSIS
MEIOSIS

QUARTER 4
Grade 8: Lesson 3: Biodiversity
WEEK 4-5

INTRODUCTION AND FOCUS QUESTION(S):

Have you ever wondered how many organisms are living on Earth? Or
how scientists are able to identify each of these organisms? This dilemma is
answered by Taxonomy– the science of naming and classification of organisms.

In this module, you will find out the relationship between Taxonomy and
Biodiversity. In particular, you will explore on the importance of classifying
organisms in promoting biodiversity in your locality. You will also look at the
different roles organisms are playing in maintaining balance in the ecosystem
where they are dwelling. Remember to search for the answer to this question as
you go through this learning module: Why is classification of species important
in the study of biodiversity and conservation?
In these topics, you will learn the following:
 Explains the concept of species as a reproductively distinct
3.1 group of organisms.
 Classifies organisms using the hierarchical taxonomic system
(domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species)
based on structure and function.
 Explains the advantage of high biodiversity over low
biodiversity.

EXPECTED SKILLS:
1. To do well in this module, you need to remember and do the following:
Read the instructions carefully before starting anything.
2. Complete all the activities and worksheets. Follow instructions on how
to submit them.
 3. Look up the meaning of words that you do not know.
4. You will frequently come across process questions as you go through
different lessons. Keep a notebook (or use the Notepad) where you can write
(and revise) your answers to these questions. Use also the notebook to jot
down short notes, draw diagrams, and summarize what you have just read.
5. For worksheets and reports that need to be submitted, use the provided
checklist and rubric to evaluate your work before submission.
6. Allow time for relaxation and recreation when you are mentally tired. Make
a time table to schedule your study and recreation.

Scientists believe that over the course of Earth’s history, 1 to 4 billion species
have already gone extinct. They hypothesize that the possible reasons could be over
predation, genetic obsolescence, disease, and failure to adapt to the environment.
To illustrate the degree of biodiversity loss we are facing, experts suggest that
0.01% of all species become extinct each year. Is it possible to stop this? What can
you do to stop this? Let’s find out as we start with this module.

Answer Activity 1

Lesson 3.1: Biodiversity

Now that you are aware of role of Taxonomy in making the study of life easier
despite of the presence of huge number of species, we will discover something that is
common to all species on Earth.
All living things, whether plants, animals, or microorganisms are characterized
by cells. Before, you have learned that cells are the building blocks of life. Living
organisms can be classified as unicellular or multicellular. Unicellular (“uni” means
one) are organisms consisting of only one cell. On the other hand, most organisms
that we are familiar with are multicellular. These are living things that are made of
millions to trillions of cells.
Taxonomists use their knowledge about cells to be accurate in classifying and
identifying species. To know more about how taxonomists do these tasks, let us
proceed to the next activities.

ACTIVITY 1. Video Clip Viewing

Descriptions: Let’s start this module by watching these videos about the journey
of sea turtles.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=01BsvQsS8J0

Process Questions:
1. Why is a single species of sea turtle considered a
miracle?
2. The video says, “Sea turtles (except for egg-
laying females) spend their entire lives in the water
which accounts to how little we know about their
lives
and natural history. Only now that they are fast disappearing are we beginning to
unravel their mysteries.” Based on this statement from the video, why is
classification of species important in the study of biodiversity and conservation?

ACTIVITY 2. Why Classify? – Importance of Taxonomy

Description: Before you proceed to this activity, think of this: How many
 species of living things do you think are found on or perhaps, in Earth? This
question would help you understand why there is a need to have a system by
which diverse kinds of organisms are classified and organized. Now, to expound
on this, click on the links below and watch the following video clips about the
importance of taxonomy.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6BWoLObDvcY – Taxonomy: Why

It’s Important?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7pzA26imK1Q – How many species

are there?
Process Questions:
1. According to the videos, how does taxonomy help improve the ‘search
and browse’ of knowledge about living things?
2. Do you agree with the statement, “Taxonomy is the key to the door
of biology”? Why or why not?

3. How can taxonomy help in assessing biodiversity within an ecosystem.

ACTIVITY 3. Venn Diagram: General Classification of Cells

Description: Go back to your list of distinguishing features of Prokaryotic and

Eukaryotic cells, and then organize these terms/phrases inside
the Venn diagram. Click ‘SUBMIT’ after accomplishing this
task.

Prokaryote Eukaryotes
Present
in Both

Process Question: Why is there are need for cells to be classified as prokaryotes and
eukaryotes? What information can we derive from this?

Activity 4: Article Analysis

News Article 3: Feature: Critically endangered tamaraws on the rebound
October 16, 2014

Manila (PNA) — As the

Philippines celebrates
Tamaraw Month this October,
good news is in the offing as
conservation efforts have
indicated that the country’s
largest and rarest endemic land
animal is on a comeback.

Rodel Boyles, head of the

Tamaraw Conservation
PROGRAM (TCP), and Mts. Tamaraw family photographed in the
Iglit-Baco Park superintendent, Iglit-Baco Mountain Range in Occidental
Mindoro. Photo courtesy Gregg Yan /
said that the latest tamaraw
WWF
population stands at 382 – the
highest ever recorded since
conservation efforts began.

“We counted 382 during our annual survey last April – a big improvement from
the 345 recorded in 2013, and the 327 we saw in 2012. We are also seeing more
 juveniles – a sure sign that population recovery is underway,” he said.

Differentiated from the larger and more docile carabao (Bubalus bubalis
carabanesis), the tamaraw (Bubalis mindorensis) bears distinctive V-shaped
horns, a shorter tail, and a scraggly coat of chocolate to ebony fur.

Adult tamaraws stand only four feet tall and average 300 kilograms – about half as
much as a typical carabao – but are known for their toughness and ferocity.

Cornered or threatened, they can be very aggressive, chasing their foes up to a

kilometer.

And hunters have long claimed to have emptied rifle clips into charging bulls, to no
avail.

Experts have estimated that about 10,000 tamaraws thrived in Mindoro in the early
1900s.

However, their population was decimated by widespread logging, hunting, and an

outbreak of cattle-killing rinder pest in the 1930s.

In 1969, the tamaraw population was thought to have dropped to less than 100,
threatening the species with extinction.

The tamaraw is classified as critically endangered – the highest risk rating for any
animal species – with just a few hundred surviving atop the grassy slopes and
forest patches of Mounts Iglit, Baco, Aruyan, Bongabong, Calavite, and Halcon in
Mindoro.

Conservation efforts date back nearly 40 years with four national laws having passed
to protect it from poaching – Commonwealth Act 73 plus Republic Acts 1086,
7586, and 9147.

The latest conservation effort is the Tamaraw Times Two project which aims to
double the number of wild tamaraw from 300 to 600 by 2020.

It is a collaboration between the TCP, the Department of Environment and Natural

Resources (DENR), Far Eastern University (FEU), the World Wide Fund for
Nature (WWF), and Mindoro’s indigenous Tau Buid tribes folk.

The Tamaraw Times Two project also aims to revitalize much of Mindoro’s
deforested mountain habitats, promoting a holistic ‘Ridge-to-Reef’ approach.

The WWF said that healthy peaks and forests translate to a better-managed source of
water so essential for the vast rice-lands of Mindoro’s western floodplains; and
healthy mountains are conducive to productive coasts and coral reefs, a source of
seafood for millions.

In the meantime, Joel Palma, head of the WWF-Philippines Conservation Programs,

said that they aim to synthesize improved PARK MANAGEMENT with enhanced
population survey methods since, except for calving cows, adult tamaraws are
mostly solitary.

“Adding new SURVEY SITES and deploying motion-activated camera traps for
example, shall give us a clearer picture of tamaraw numbers – especially in areas
too remote to study effectively,” he said.
“Empowering adjacent communities for the protection of tamaraw breeding, grazing,
and wallowing areas is also crucial in boosting numbers,” Palma added.

These efforts have also turned in additional benefits.

State-of-the-art camera traps deployed by WWF and TCP in Mindoro’s Iglit-Baco

Natural Park have revealed new images of Mindoro’s rarely seen fauna –
suggesting that enhanced PARK MANAGEMENT has buoyed tamaraw numbers.

The cameras have captured images of Philippine brown deer (Cervus mariannus),
Philippine warty pigs (Sus philippensis), and red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), the
wild form of the domestic chicken.

Meanwhile, news of the tamaraw’s recovery was met with elation by the school and
conservation partner whose emblem bears the horned visage of the tamaraw
– FEU.

FEU President Dr. Michael Alba lauded the latest REPORTS of the animal’s
comeback, saying that conservation efforts are on the right track.

“That our allies have counted 37 more heads from last year proves we are on the
right track. The tamaraw, more than any other animal, is a symbol of Filipino
pride and ferocity,” Alba said.

Process Questions:
1. What are the distinguishing features of a typical carabao and a tamaraw that
classify them as different species?
2. What are the human efforts that have changed the fate of this
critically endangered species of mammal?
3. How did Taxonomy help in the conservation of tamaraw?
SCIENCE 8
WEEK 6-7

An ecosystem is a living system. It includes sunlight- its source of energy. It also includes other non-living things or
abiotic components, such as landmasses and bodies of water. An ecosystem is also composed of the living things or
the biotic components, such as microorganisms, plants, animals, and us- humans.
We are just part of an ecosystem. And yet, we have extremely altered it, not just through our livelihood like
farming and fishing but also through the technology and infrastructures we have invented and built. We have
constructed dams and hydroelectric plants, cars and roads, and buildings and cities to name a few. These contribute
to either the destruction or sustainability of our environment or both. How do we strike a balance between protecting
the environment and sustaining economic development?

Lesson 1: Food Chains

An ecosystem consists of a community of organisms and its non-living environment. Matter cycles
and energy flows in an ecosystem. The term ecosystem may be applied to areas of all sizes from the smallest puddle
of water to the largest forest on Earth.
Ecosystems differ from one another in terms of composition, i.e., number and kinds of species. What is
common to all ecosystems is not the physical features but the dynamic occurrences of two vital processes- the flow
of energy and the cycling of chemical elements.

Energy Flow and Chemical Cycling

Living things require energy and nutrients or materials. In
the biosphere, energy is received from the sun. It is used and
given off as nutrients are recycled. For life to persist, there must
be several species that transport energy and nutrients within the
environment.
Light energy that enters the biological system is transformed
into chemical energy in organic molecules through the process of
photosynthesis and ultimately converted to heat energy
through the process of respiration. Heat is dissipated and lost in the system and, therefore, can no longer be
recycled. Without the continued supply of solar energy, the biological system would collapse. Since the Earth
receives energy from the sun, it is an open system in terms of energy flow.
Chemical elements such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus from inorganic parts of the environment- air,
water, and soil – enter living organisms through nutrition. These materials are transformed to reusable substances
within the bodies of organisms, but are returned to inorganic state through the processes of decomposition and
excretion.
The materials that are decomposed are not lost or destroyed on Earth but are cycled endlessly. Thus, with
respect to elements, the Earth is said to be a closed system. The elements whose supply has limiting effects on
biological activity are referred to as nutrients.

Feeding Relationships in an Ecosystem

An ecosystem is made up of communities. Communities are made up of individuals interacting with one
another. Ecology is a branch of science deals with the interrelationships among organisms and their environment.
One way by which individuals in a community interact is by feeding on one another. Energy, chemical
elements, and compounds are transferred from organism to organism along the food chains or through food webs in
more complex cases.
Organisms in a food web are grouped into trophic levels. A trophic level consists of all organisms that have
the same mode of nutrition and the same number of feeding levels away from the original source of energy which is
the sun.
Green plants, algae, and
photosynthetic bacteria produce sugars through the
process of photosysthesis, using direct energy from
the Sun and CO2 from the air. They belong to the first
trophic level and are called producers or autotrphs.
Herbivores or organisms that feed on plants are grouped
in the second trophic level. They are referred to
as primary consumers. Grasshoppers and mny other
insects, snails, grazing mammals, and birds are
examples of primary consumers. Carnivores
or those that feed directly on the herbivores are in the
third level. They are called secondary consumers.
Small mammals such as mice, a great variety of
birds, fishes, and humans. Some ecosystems have top
predators such as hawks, owls, dolphins, and killer
whales. What are top predators?
When plants and animals die, scavengers and detritivores feed on their dead remains and wastes.
Scavengers are those animals that feed on the carcasses of other animals. Examples of scavengers are hyenas,
vultures, crayfish, catfish and lions. Decomposers such as bacteria and fungi, break down organic materials into
inorganic materials. These organisms play a vital role for without them, nutrients will remian locked up in dead
tissues and the producers will not be able to supply adequate food due to a limited source of nutrents. This will
eventually lead to the collapse of the ecosystem.
 Compared to a food chain, a food web
represents a more realistic view of the trophic
levels in an ecosystem. An actual food web
involves more organisms that are more diverse
in their diet. The interconnecting arrows
indicate the connections among organisms
based on the flow of chemical nutrients and
energy.
Energy Flow and Productivity
Biomass is increased through growth or
biological production, and the change in
biomass over a given period of time is called
net production. Biological production is equal to the capture of usable energy and the production of organic matter
where energy is stored.
2 Kinds of Biological Production
a. Primary production the autotrophs (self feeders) make their own organic material from sunlight, carbon
dioxide, and water through the process of photosynthesis.
b. Secondary production other groups of organisms cannot make their own organic compounds from
inorganic ones, and must, therefore, feed on other organisms. They depend on the production of autotrophic
organisms.

EXERCISE 1.1
Identify the following.
1. It consists of a community of organisms and its non-living environment.
2. It is a branch of science deals with the interrelationships among organisms and their environment.
3. These organisms belong to the first trophic level.
4. It is the change in biomass over a period of time.
5. It refers to the production of organic matter before it is utilized by the organism.
Lesson 2:
 ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS AND NUTRIENT CYCLES
Ecological Pyramids
An ecological pyramid depicts a typical food chain or food web. It represents the amount ad distribution of
energy, the number of organisms, and the biomass from the producers to the tertiary or quaternary order of
consumers. The decrease in numbers and in the biomass indicates energy loss. Thus, fewer organisms can be
supported at each successive higher trophic level.
a. Pyramid of energy
The transfer of energy from one organism to another in a food chain is often shown by an energy
pyramid. Energy content decreases at each higher level of the food chain.

b. Pyramid
of

Numbers
 As energy is released at each trophic level, the
number of organisms becomes fewer at each higher trophic
level. This is why it is not very common to have an
ecosystem with quaternary level of consumers.

c. Pyramid of biomass

The biomass decreases from the producers going up to the topmost consumer level.
Biomass is related to the abundance of food available from the first level to the higher trophic
level.

Nutrient Cycles
To sustain life indefinitely within an ecosystem, energy must be continuously supplied and the essential
chemical elements must be cycled between abiotic (nonliving) and biotic (living) components. The movement of
chemicals within an ecosystem can be summed up as a network of linked reservoirs. It begins with the initial flux
(transfer) of materials from the environment to living things. When living things die, the organic materials from
their bodies are acted upon by decomposers to form inorganic compounds that are released into the environment.
From the environment, these materials can be recycled back to the organisms. The elements in various forms flow
from the nonliving to the living components of the biosphere and back to the nonliving components.
Water Cycle
Water is one of the most vital substances on Earth. It moves continually by means of the water cycle
(H2O cycle), also known as the hydrologic cycle. Water can change phases from liquid to vapor and ice different
places in the water cycle. Although the balance of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time, it moves from
one reservoir to another, such as form one body of water to another or from the ocean to the atmosphere. This
movement occurs through physical processes, namely, evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff
and subsurface flow.
 Activity 1: Rubrics:
Draw the water cycle in a short Creativity – 10%
bond paper. Concept - 5%
Relevance – 5%
Carbon Cycle Total = 20%
Carbon is abundant on Earth, whether in the atmosphere or the oceans. It is the building block of life and
the main component of all organic substances. Carbon exists from the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the compound
that carries the hereditary materials, to the coal and oil found in the Earth’s crust. Although carbon is vital to life, it
is not abundantly found in the Earth’s crust. Carbon is only 0.032% of the weight of the crust, ranking far behind
oxygen, which is 45.2% by weight in the crust.
Carbon enters the atmosphere through the respiration of living things, from the soil, decomposing
animals, waste products, burning organic compounds, and through events like volcanic eruptions. It is removed from
the atmosphere by photosynthesis of green plants, phytoplanktons in the ocean, algae and photosynthetic bacteria.
Plants and other photosynthetic organisms then release oxygen, the gas most living things need to breathing. When
land animals or aquatic organisms feed on plants or phytoplanktons, they consume the carbon compounds stored
from photosynthesis. Then they release carbon when they breathe, in their wastes, or when they die and decompose.
The carbon cycle then continues.

Activity 2
What is the biological significance of the carbon cycle?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
________________________

What are the human activities and the carbon cycle?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
________________________

Nitrogen Cycle
Air in the atmosphere is approximately 78% nitrogen. Nitrogen is essential for many processes. It is vital to
life on Earth. Proteins, the most abundant organic compounds in living systems, are composed of building blocks
called amino acids. These amino acids are made up of the fundamental elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen. The element nitrogen is also present in the bases that make up the nucleic acids DNA and RNA.
Processes in the Nitrogen Cycle
a. Nitrogen Fixation
In this process, atmospheric nitrogen must be “fixed” for plant use either by lightning or bacteria to
transform it to nitrate (NO-3) or ammonia (NH3). However, since most soil is slightly acidic, NH 3
picks up hydrogen ion (H+) to form ammonium (NH+4). A large amount of atmospheric nitrogen is
 converted by biological activity. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium), commonly found in the root
nodules of leguminous plants, such as peas or beans, contribute to this biological activity.
b. Assimilation
Plants absorb nitrate and ammonia from the soil through their root hairs. The nitrate absorbed is first
reduced to nitrite (NO-2) ions then to ammonium ions (NH +4) for incorporation into amino acids,
nucleic acids, and chlorophyll. Animals can only assimilate organic nitrogen by eating plants or other
animals.
c. Ammonification
When plants and animals die, the nitrogen in their bodies are acted upon by decomposers such as
bacteria or fungi to convert it back into ammonium (NH+4) ions in a process called ammonification.
d. Nitrification
In this process, ammonia is converted to nitrite (NO -2), then nitrate (NO-3). Most of the ammonium in
soil is used as energy source by certain soil-living bacteria in the species group of Nitrosomonas,
oxidizing ammonium to nitrite. Other groups of bacterial species such as Nitrobacter then oxidize
nitrite to nitrate. This is an important process that prevents accumulation of nitrites in the soil.
Nitrites are toxic to plant life.
e. Denitrification
Some bacteria in the soil belonging to the species Pseudomonas and Clostridium obtain to nitrogen gas
(N2), returning it into the atmosphere, and completing the cycle.

Exercise #1:
Directions. Write TRUE if the statement is correct. Otherwise, FALSE..
_______1. The oxygen-carbon dioxide cycle is very important to all ecosystems, and ultimately give life on earth.
_______2. Plants produce excess oxygen during photosynthesis which is released into the atmosphere.
_______3. Oxygen is a living element that humans and animals require to live.
_______4. Oxygen released by plants causes an increase in the oxygen level in the Atmosphere
_______5. Plants release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere which animals inhale. Animals exhale oxygen into the
atmosphere which is breathed in by plants.
_______6. Plants use the Sun's energy and carbon dioxide to make glucose, and release oxygen that animals breathe.
_______7. Animals provide oxygen for plants and plants provide carbon dioxide. for the animals.
_______8. There is a continuous exchange of gases in the oxygen-carbon dioxide cycle.
_______ 9. Carbon dioxide is absorbed by consumers to make carbohydrates in photosynthesis.
_______10. Animals breathe in oxygen in a process known as photosynthesis.

Exercise #2:
Directions: Arrange the bold letters in ea
ch number. Use the image below and the descriptions as your reference to identify the correct words.
_______1. Every H L I G T N I G N strike breaks apart, or fixes, pure nitrogen, changing it into a form that plants
can use.
_______2. Z R H I A B O I are bacteria that are found in the soil that form root nodules by settling in the roots of
legumes
_______3. F D R E N I T I Y G I N means to remove nitrogen or a nitrogen compound from a substance.
_______ 4. The excreted matter converts into N S I A T R T E after complex bacteria acts on it.
_______5. Almost four-fifths of the air you breathe is clear, colorless T N I G R O N E gas.
_______6. All animals must get nitrogen from SLPANTS.
7. ASPIRANTRIONT is the process by which plants release water
through the pores in
their leaves.
8. Another source of nitrogen is NEGORINT GINIFX which live in the oceans as well as the soil.
9. FILINTRIOANT is the process of water passing into, or through land by filtering.
10. GENOTRIN cannot be absorbed by living things on its own for use, and we breathe it in and back out again.

References:
Breaking Through Science second edition 8
https://youmatter.world/en/definition/ecosystem-definition-example/
https://www.labxchange.org/library/pathway/lx-pathway:21101ffb-bf2f-3012-8ef1-5eaf501856eb