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ES-321 Gravity & Magnetic Prospecting
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Brief Overview of Geophysics:
A VERY large discipline that includes:
• Hydrology, Glaciology
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• Atmospheric Science (Meteorology, Climatology)
• Oceanography
• Planetary Science O EE
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• Solid Earth Science (primarily crust
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H O R & Uppermost Mantle)
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Solid Earth Geophysics Includes:
• Geodynamics O
• GeodesyA R
• Seismology
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• Mineral Physics
• Geophysical Imaging
Geophysics is a specialized set of mathematical &
physical tools for measuring and modeling Earth
(or planetary) processes…
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Geophysical imaging provides two main types of
information:
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• Images of Structures
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(e.g., dip of a surface)
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• Physical Properties
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(e.g., density  composition? )
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Recently, it is also being used to track changes in
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subsurface properties through time (e.g. production
monitoring in oilfields).
Gravity & Magnetic Prospecting
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Problem Formulation
Gravitational Field Density
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Magnetic Field O EE Magnetic Susceptibility
A M K and Remanent
Magnetization
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[Lateral Variations]
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I I T Subsurface Geology
Gravity Method / Gravitational Method
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These are among oldest methods for Geoexploration.
Subsurface O EE
Terrestrial
Marine
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Airborne
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Satellite
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Purpose:
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Geologic/ Natural resource/ engineering/ environmental
Cost effective & non-invasive.

Some Conventional Applications
Salt Dome
Structural Uplifts & Depressions
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Faults
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Bedrock H O
topography
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(Buried stream valley)
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Introduction to Gravity
Gravity, Magnetic, (& DC Electrical) methods are all examples
of the Laplace equation of the form:
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2u = f (sources),
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where u is a potential,
K  ˆ ˆ
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 is the gradient operator  x  y  z
H x y z
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Notation: Here, the arrow →
denotes a vector quantity;
A R the carat ^ denotes a unit direction vector.

฀ Hence, the gradient operator
฀ is just a vector form of slope…
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Because Laplace’ eqn always incorporates a potential u,
we call these “Potential Field Methods”.
Gravity
We define the gravitational field g as
u  g
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And by Laplace’ equation, ฀
฀ A M K
 2 u   g  4 GM (1)
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given a single body of total mass M; here
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G is universal gravitational constant = 6.672x10 -11 Nm
2
2
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฀
Integrating equation (1), we have
kg
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g  4 G dV (2)
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HOWEVER,  is not radially symmetric in the Earth…
so g is not constant!
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Gravity methods look for anomalies, or perturbations,
from a reference value of g at the Earth’s surface:
฀
A M K
H O R gobs
gref
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O
A R 1 0
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Anomaly Vs Source
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Last Time: Introduction to Gravity
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Gravity Method / Gravitational Method
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These are among oldest methods for Geoexploration.
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Subsurface O EE
Terrestrial
Marine
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Airborne
H O R
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Satellite
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Purpose:
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Geologic/ Natural resource/ engineering/ environmental
Cost effective & non-invasive germane

Gravity Surveying
• to locate and describe subsurface structures from the
gravity effects caused by their anomalous densities.
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• the quantity measured is variation of acceleration
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due to gravity from one point to another along the
Earth surface.
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• Variation in gravity observed through such
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measurements depends only upon lateral changes in
density of Earth materials
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• Other than the density variation, the observed value
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of gravity variation depends on latitudes, elevation,
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topography and tidal movement.
• the measured gravity values are corrected for these
effects to arrive final vales of gravity variation due to
density variation.
The fundamental physical property of gravity is density
Density = Mass / Volume
Observe the following cases:
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Gravity
Gravity
Gravity
High
Gravity
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Low
Gravity
Constant
Gravity
Distance
H O R Distance Distance
2.1 2.6 3 2.4 2.1
. C O 3.1 2.7 2.3 2.6 3.2 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1
High
density
A R Low
density
Constant
density
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Some Applications
Salt Dome
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Modelling of Complex Salt Structures
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Structural Uplifts & Depressions
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Faults
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Bedrock H O R
topography
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(Buried stream valley)
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Shallow Lithology and Gas Mapping
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Resolution enhancement
-Kimberlite Pipe
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Recent Advancement
Global Free-Air Gravity Field from GRACE
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Image from UT-CSR/NASA
Terrestrial Water Mass Anomalies
Rate of change of terrestrial water storage, in
cm/yr of water thickness, determined from
GRACE gravity solutions.
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Tectonic Studies
-Himalaya
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Depth variation of the Moho
Tectonic Studies –
Delhi Fold Belt
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mid-crustal structure
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Boundaries of Source
formations
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Forward modelling of the gravity data for two profiles
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Structure interpreted
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along Nagaur-Jhalawar
geotransect
(after Tewari et al., 1997)
Assignment 1:
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Submit two page write up on any two
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application/case study having last paragraph
about your understanding/comments?
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Deadline: Next Monday
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CR has to collect the files, compile & send to
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my email on the deadline.
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Last Time:
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Basic Applications
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Introduction to Gravity
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O  EE
• Governed by LaPlace’s equation:  2 u   g  4 GM
M
with solution of the form:
A K g  4 G dV
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฀ mass M and constant (or
• If we have a spherical body with
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radially symmetric) density, this integral becomes:
A R ฀ GM
g  rˆ 2
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• Method looks for anomalies in gravity g (relative to the
gravity expected for a uniform-density ellipsoid) that result
from lateral changes in mass density 
฀
HOWEVER,  is not radially symmetric in the Earth…
so is not constant!
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Gravity methods look for anomalies, or perturbations,
from a reference value of g at the Earth’s surface:
A M K
H O R gobs
gref
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O
A R 1 0
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Gravity Measurements:
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Sensitivity of Fields
Gravity methods require very sensitive recording.
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Only about three parts in one thousand (0.3%) of g are due
to the materials contained within the earth's crust, and of
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this small amount roughly 15 percent (0.05 % g) is
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accounted for by the uppermost 5 km of rock-that region
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of the crust which we generally think of as being the seat
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of "geological" phenomena.
Changes in the densities of rocks within this region will
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produce variations’ in g which generally do not exceed
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0.01 % of its value anywhere. Fluctuations in the value of g
which may be associated with bodies that have a
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commercial mineral value are unlikely to exceed even a
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small fraction of this minute amount-:perhaps 10-5 g
altogether.
(1) the measuring apparatus must be sufficiently sensitive
to detect the effects of geology on g.
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(2) effective methods must be used to compensate the data
for all sources of variation other than the local geology.
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The gravitational field of the earth has a world-wide
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average value of about 980 gals, with a total range of
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variation from equator to pole of about 5 gals, or ±0.5%.
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Mineral ore bodies and geological structures of interest in
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the search for petroleum and other minerals seldom
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produce fluctuations in g exceeding a few milligals, or ~ 1
part in 106 of g.
I. Absolute Gravity / Relative::
Pendulum: Period T:
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T  2
k
g
 2
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g
l
l
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Errors in timing of period T  Accuracy ~ 0.1 mgal
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• Galileo- 1602- the period of a pendulum is nearly
฀independent of the amplitude of its swing -the idea of using
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pendulums as clocks.
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• Christian Huygens-1657- the first successful clock based on
the pendulum.
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• Pierre Bouguer- 1749- First Gravity measurements using a
pendulum. I
• Primary method for measuring absolute gravity for about 200
years.
Free Fall method (1960): Absolute Gravity
Measure the total field  time of a falling body
The time ‘t’ for a mass to travel the distance ‘d’ in the
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gravitational field of acceleration g is √2d/g
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vacuum
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• Must measure time to ~10-11 s;
prism
A M K distance to ~10-9 m
for 1 mgal accuracy!
laser
H O R • Nevertheless this is the most
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~2m accurate ground-based
A R technique (to ~3 mgal)
I I T • Disadvantages: unwieldy; requires

a long occupation time to
measure
Lacoste & Romberg-Scintrex
FG-5 Absolute Gravity Meter
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A M K A freely falling reflective test mass is
H O R dropped in a vacuum. This causes

optical fringes to be detected at the
output of an interferometer. This
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signal is used to determine the local
gravitational acceleration.
A R 1. Upper Chamber
I I T 2. Central interferometer
measurement
3. Lower long period
seismometer (Super spring)
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Laser Interferometer
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Michelson interferometer
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H O R • fringe signal sweeps in frequency as test mass falls
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under influence of gravity
.
A R O • time recorded (w.r.t. rubidium oscillator) at each zero
crossing, creating (t,x) pairs at every /2
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FG5 Mach–Zender interferometer
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• Governed by Laplace’s equation:  2 u   g  4 GM

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g  4 GL dV
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฀ K
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• Method looks for H

anomalies O R 
in gravity g (relative to the
.
฀C massOdensity .
gravity expected for a uniform-density ellipsoid) that result
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from lateral changes in
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• Gravity measurements.
II. Relative Gravity:
Measures difference in g at two locations.
• Mass on a spring:
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See the principles of Stable
Mg = k d

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& unstable/Astatized
฀
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gravimeter
or g = kd/M
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A R spring
constant
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are of this typeT
Worden and Lacoste-Romberg length d
k
(“zero-length” spring of L-R yields mass M

errors around 6 mgal)
Lacoste & Romberg Gravimeter
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A M K
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Clockwise torque
Counter-clockwise torque
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A M K
H
bcos (α)
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dcos (α)
III. Satellite Gravity:
Measure (from space) the height of an equipotential
surface (called the geoid) relative to a reference
ellipsoid
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• Ocean Altimetry: Measure height of the ocean
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surface using radar or laser (e.g., JASON)
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• Satellite Ranging: Satellite orbits follow the geoid
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Measure orbits by ranging from the ground to the
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satellite or ranging between two satellites
(e.g., GRACE)
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Gravity Corrections
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1.
2.
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Drift
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Earth Tide
3.
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Elevation
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4.
.
5.C OLatitude
Terrain
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Reading:
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Blakely…..Ch 7….P 128-136 (See the derivation
of Gravity formula & relation to flattening)
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Look for “Figure of Earth” in other books –
Telford, William Lowrie etc.
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Gravity of the Earth
I. Variation with Latitude:
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Gravitational forces trying to make it spherical and
centrifugal forces tending to flatten it resulting in equatorial
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radius about 21 km greater than polar radius.
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Flattening results in acceleration of gravity 5.17 greater at
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poles than at the equator.
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How ?
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1. Centrifugal acceleration at the equator makes an increase
of 3.39 gals.
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2. A point at Pole is nearer to the center of mass of earth,
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making an increase of 6.63 gals.
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3. Because of the mass-shape factor, the attraction of the
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whole earth is greater at equator than at poles, making a
decrease of 4.85 gals.
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Total change = 5.17 gals.
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Gravity Anomaly:
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g  g obs  gLpredictedE
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International Gravity Formula (IGF)
Several slightly different spheroids and corresponding

gravity formulas are developed with improvement in
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precision of gravity and geodetic information.
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Normal gravity value:
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g  g0 1 A sin 2   Bsin 2 2 
A M K
H O R
฀C
 . O
Geodetic/geographic latitude
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If the earth is assumed as perfect fluid with no lateral
variations in density, its surface would correspond to the ideal
normal spheroid represented by the gravity formula.
Gravity Formula

g  g0 1 A sin 2   Bsin 2 2 
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The first term (978….) is the value at sea level at equator &
depends on relative measurements over the surface and on
absolute value at one fixed place (Potsdam, Germany-
981.274).
Shape of the Earth:
• The exact shape of earth has been a matter of great
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interest and attempted from long past.
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• It is expressed in terms of the dimensions of an ideal
spheroid of reference.
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• The dimensions usually given are the equatorial and
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polar radii a and b respectively
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Equatorial radius together with flattening (f).
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ab I
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f  b is polar radius
a
Shape of the Earth:
Clairaut’s fundamental theorem:
It relates the gravitational acceleration with the Earth size and
shape and thus, spheroid is determined from gravity
measurements.
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f 
5C
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
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2
K
where ƒ is flattening of the earth and given by:
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equator. C
C is ratio of centrifugal to gravitational acceleration at
.C  a O 2
A
g  g 1   sin  
R g e
o e
I I T 2
From IGF
g p  ge
For  =90º β is defined by:
 
ge
go is gravity at geographic latitude 
g p  ge 5
 C f
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ge
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2
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H O R
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The values of ge and β are determined from an adjustment
.
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of gravity values at points widely distributed over the
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surface of the earth. From these values the flattening is
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computed, which defines a spheroid giving the shape of the
earth.
Applications
• Making corrections for the normal northward or southward

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gravity increase. The maximum effect in middle latitudes
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(near 45 north or south) amounts to about 1.4 mgals /
mile. – Latitude correction.
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• If the earth were a perfect fluid with no lateral variations in
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density, its surface would correspond to an ideal
ellipsoid of revolution, earlier called as normal
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spheroid represented by gravity formula. This would be a
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level surface and direction of gravity would be
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perpendicular to the surface.
Gravity Anomaly:
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g  g obs  gLpredictedE
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Reference Surfaces
• Equipotential surfaces
surrounding the earth
are smooth but
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irregular
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• The reference ellipsoid is the equipotential surface of a
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uniform earth, whereas the geoid is the actual equipotential
surface at mean sea level.
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• An equipotential surface of particular interest is the geoid,
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the equipotential surface described by sea level without the
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effects of ocean currents, weather, and tides.
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• Differences in height between these two surfaces rarely
exceed 100 m and generally fall below 50 m and reflect
lateral variations from the uniform-density model.
• The force of gravity at any point on the geoidal surface
must be perpendicular to the surface, thereby defining
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"vertical" and "level" at each point.
• The shape of the geoid is dominated by broad
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undulations, with lateral dimension of continental scale;
convection.
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they apparently are caused by widespread mantle
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• Compared with these broad undulations, the response of
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the geoid to topography and density variations within the
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lithosphere are second-order effects, both low in
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amplitude and short in wavelength
• The shape of the geoid is influenced by underlying
masses; it bulges above mass excesses (e.g.,
mountain ranges or buried high-density bodies) and is
depressed over mass deficiencies (e.g., valleys or
buried low-density bodies).
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• Gravity anomalies are referenced to the reference
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ellipsoid but involve various corrections relative to sea
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level (the geoid). This inconsistency is ignored in most
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crustal studies.
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ESA's Gravity field and steady-state
Ocean Circulation Explorer (GOCE)
A precise model of Earth's geoid is

essential for deriving accurate
measurements
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circulation, sea-level change
and terrestrial ice dynamics.
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The geoid is also used as a
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The geoid
H O R
reference surface from which to map
the topographical features on the
. C O planet. In addition, a better
A R understanding of variations in the
I I Tgravity field will lead to a deeper

understanding of Earth's interior,
such as the physics and dynamics
associated with volcanic activity and
earthquakes.
Write one page note on the GOCE?
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• Governed by Laplace’s equation:  2 u   g  4 GM
L
O  EdVE
g  4 G
A M K Vol
฀ R
• If we have a spherical body with mass M and constant (or
H O
฀
C
radially symmetric) density, this integral becomes:
. O 4 GR 3 d
A R  gz 
3x 2
d
3
2 2
• Method looks for

I I T
anomalies 
in gravity g (relative to the
gravity expected฀ for a uniform-density ellipsoid) that result
from lateral changes in mass density 
Last Time: Introduction to Gravity (Cont’d)
• Measurements may be surface-based (i.e., taken with

instruments placed on the ground surface) or space-
based; absolute or relative.
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• Surface measurements (high precision) accurate to ~3-6
Gals (for absolute gravimeters or relative measurements):
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i.e., nearly one part in 109 of the total
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acceleration!
H O R
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• Time-variable gravity can be useful for understanding
.
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dynamical processes (fluid envelopes & solid Earth)
• Surface-based time-variable g used for environmental/
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hydrologic applications.
• Gravity variations & formula-
Shape / Figure of the Earth .
Gravity & Magnetic Surveying
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1. Geodetic Positioning Survey
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2. Gravity Survey
A M K
3. Magnetic Survey
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Gravity Accuracies & Corrections
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A M K
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How Accurately do we need to know our position
on the Earth’s surface?
Latitude: 50 Normal gravity (mGal): 981068.6407
Latitude: 51 Normal gravity (mGal): 981157.5477
Length of 1 degree of latitude (km):

L I 111
Variation in g per degree (mGal): O EE 88.91
A M K
Meters per milliGal:
H O R 1248.50
Milligal per meter:

. C O 0.000800964
A R
Position (m) for 0.1 mGal accuracy: 125
I I T
Position (m) for 0.05 mGal accuracy: 62
On a map of 1:25,000:
this (125 m) translates to a location within 0.5 cm
Variation of Gravity with Elevation
(FREE-AIR EFFECT)
• A point at higher elevation is farther away from center of

the earth- Lower gravitational acceleration.
L I GM
O EE g 2
A M K
R
H O R
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• Following topography also results in differences in radial
A R
distance to the center of mass. Correction for that change
“free air”:
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in distance due to topography is called
I dg  dg   2GM   2g
dz dR R3 R
More accurately, including the ellipsoid:
dg
 0.3086  0.00023cos2  0.0000002h
dR
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(latter terms are small  ~ – 0.3086 mGal/m)
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฀ O EE
A M
• If a proper correction for this elevation effect were
K not
H O R
made, a gravity map would be strongly affected
differences in elevation between different points
by
of
measurement-
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FREE AIR CORRECTION
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• For every 3 m (or 10 ft) upward from the surface of the
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Earth, the g decreases by about 1 mGal.
I  3 mm height accuracy!)
(1 Gal accuracy
• If the elevation of the observation point is above sea level,
correction will be added and vice versa.
FAC = h x (0.3086 mGal / m)

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Last Time:
• Gravity variation- Elevation effects.

Gravity data Processing
Corrections
1. Drift
2. Earth Tide
3. Elevation
4. Latitude
5. Terrain
The free-air correction is sometimes inaccurately
described as "moving the observation point downward to sea
level”. ----- Not Correct
Contributors to the Observed Gravity:

Attraction of Near-Surface Material
(BOUGUER EFFECT)
Approximate topography as a slab with density ρ & thickness h:

h  
   4 Gdxdydz  2Gh  0.04193h

0   (Check)
For standard  = 2670 kg/m3, simple Bouguer correction is

0.11195 mGal/m.
If the elevation of the observation point is above sea level,

correction will be subtracted and vice versa.
Temporal Variations
Instrumental Drift:
• Gravimeter are subject to temporal variations due to

changes in environment and mechanical and electrical
systems of the instrumentation. - Slow elastic creep
action in the spring, sudden jerk.
• Temperature is critical. The actual response of a gravimeter

to sudden temperature changes can be complex, including
changes in sign of the gradient of the drift.
Correction Procedure:
• Automated drift corrections – Modern instruments

• The assumption is made that the observed gravity at the
base remains constant at an accuracy prescribed by the
survey over the period of the observations.
Earth tides:
• Generally, the period of base return should be shorter than
the diurnal Earth tides (4-6 hrs), so that tides can be
accounted for correctly. Usually, drift behaviour is judged
before survey and return interval is set. Recommended, 1-
2 hours for exploration surveys.
Variations of gravity values due to Tidal effects at middle latitude

• The maximum effect of the Moon is approximately ±0.11
mGal and the Sun is ±0.05 mGal.
• The maximum rate of change can be 0.05 mGal / hour.
• These can be predicted, so computer programs are
available to correct for these [Longman, 1959].
• Repeated reading at 1 hr or continuous base reading is
suggested for compensating with the drift correction.
Atmospheric Variations:
• Local atmospheric variations may cause a change in the

buoyancy of the gravity sensor and affect the gravitation
attraction by opposing the pull of the Earth.
• Generally, incorporated in the drift correction.
• Simplifying the atmosphere to horizontal slab, the microgal
change in gravity Δ gatm due to local atmospheric pressure
variation (within radius of 50 m) Δ p in hPa is
Δ gatm = ̶ 0.43 Δ p
• Short term pressure variations cause an effect of only a few
tenths of microgal (maximum effect ± 20 – 30 μGal over
several days and roughly ± 2 μGal over a season.
Last Time:
• Gravity variation- Elevation effects.

• Gravity Corrections
Gravity data Processing
Corrections
1. Drift
2. Earth Tide
3. Latitude
4. Elevation
5. Terrain
Latitude correction:

gl  A 1  B sin 2 l  C sin 2 2l 
The horizontal gradient K or rate of change of gravity with the
north-south component of distance:
dg l dg l A
K   ( B sin 2l  2C sin 4l )
dx Rdl R
For A= 978.049, B = 0.0052884, C = 0.0000059,
R = 6,368,000 m
K  0.8122 sin 2l mGal / km

Latitude Correction (For local surveys):
gl  0.0008122sin(2l ). ys
ys is station distance north of the grid origin in

metre.
Subtracted or Added ?
The free-air correction is sometimes inaccurately
described as "moving the observation point downward to sea
level”. ----- Not Correct

Read P136-152- Blakely
CRUST
MANTLE
The large negative anomaly is caused primarily by increasing
distance between the gravity meter and the reference
ellipsoid as the profile rises over the topographic edifice.
FAC = h x (- 0.3086 mGal / m)
• The free-air correction is sometimes referred to as

moving the observation point to sea level, but this
description is misleading.
• More accurately, the free-air correction adjusts measured
gravity for one factor not accounted for by the reference
ellipsoid: the elevation of the gravity measurement above
the reference ellipsoid.
• Although the free-air correction accounts for the elevation
of the observation point, the observation point still
remains fixed in space with respect to all causative
masses
The free-air anomaly is strongly influenced by terrain.
Ignoring tidal and Eotvos corrections, the simple Bouguer
anomaly is given by
For gravity measurements over water, the Bouguer

correction amounts to replacing the water (density = 1000
kg.m-3) with a slab of density 2670 kg.m-3 and thickness
equal to bathymetric depth & sign of equation is opposite.
Note that the anomaly now reflects the density contrast of

the anomalous masses with respect to normal density,
rather than their total densities.
• The simple Bouguer anomaly ignores the shape of the
topography.
• Mountains that rise above the observation level "pull up“ on
the gravity meter but are not accounted for in the slab
approximation.
• Valleys that lie below the observation level form cavities
within the slab approximation. In either case, a simple
Bouguer correction tends to overcompensate
measurements made near topographic features.
• The terrain correction gt adjusts for this overcompensation
and is an essential step in reducing measurements made in
places of moderate to extreme topographic relief. The result
is the complete Bouguer anomaly:
gt (terrain effect) is always negative
[without final signs]

Terrain Corrections
• The Bouguer correction is somewhat crude (infinite

slab).
• Bouguer slab for a gravity station at B.
For x, overcorrection as no mass exist (Bouguer slab effect
subtracted)
=> add a small amount
For y, an attraction which reduces the observed gravity
=> add a small amount
Both cases, addition of correction if station is above sea
level.
Hammer’s Approach (1939) :
[Gravity effect of a ring]
 
   R 
1 1
g ring  2 G  R0  Ri  Ri2  z 2 2 2
o z 2 2

 
• For n equal sectors, attraction due to each = gring / n
• Hammer calculated the sizes of the ring radii and sectors
that give the most accurate results at increasing distances
from the gravity observation point.
• A template consisting of concentric circles is drawn on clear
overlay. The overlay is placed on a topographic map so that
the center of the circles is located on observation point.
Difference between elevation of the station and average
elevation of sector in noted and table is used for correction.
• The procedure is usually automatic as the digitized versions
of the topographic maps are available. Triangular, Prismatic,
ring type sectors are used from center to far.
• For flat regions elevation range tens of metres, TC is of the
order of 0.1 to 1 mGal. For hilly region, elevation range in
few hundred metres, TC are of the order of 1 to 10 mGal.
The simple Bouguer correction approximates all mass above
sea level with a homogeneous, infinitely extended slab of
thickness equal to the height of the observation point above
sea level.
• Bouguer anomalies typically show a strong inverse
correlation with long-wavelength topography. Although the
Bouguer correction has accounted for the direct effects of
the topographic edifice, it has not accounted for the low-
density root that isostatically supports the topography.
Hence, the Bouguer anomaly in this figure is strongly
negative because the gravitational effects of the
compensating root remain in the anomaly.
• For similar reasons, Bouguer anomalies are negative over
continental areas and positive over ocean basins because of
the different crustal thicknesses between the two regimes.
• The Bouguer correction is sometimes referred to as a
stripping away of all material down to sea level. More
accurately, it accounts for normal crust (i.e., density =
2670 kg.m-3) above sea level, specifically that part of the
"normal" earth not accounted for by theoretical gravity.
• The Bouguer correction, like the free-air correction,
should not be thought of as physically
translating the observation point to sea level.
Last Time:
• Gravity Corrections
Isostasy
The extra mass of large topographic features is generally
compensated at depth by mass deficiencies, whereas large
topographic depressions are matched at depth by mass
excesses.- Isostatic Compensation
Below mountain ranges, low- Density varies laterally in
density crustal roots extend into the crust in order that every
higher-density mantle, whereas vertical crustal section have
below deep ocean basins, high- identical mass
density mantle warps upward into
the lower-density crust.
Airy Model
Pratt Model
The anomalies caused by the compensating masses are
generally long in wavelength and approximately negatively
correlated with long-wavelength attributes of topography.
The isostatic regional is negative over continents and positive
over oceans.
Example:
Less Denser
rocks
High Density
rocks
Strong Correlation
• The simple Bouguer map includes short-wavelength anomalies related to
topography, whereas these effects are largely missing from the complete
Bouguer map.
• The isostatic residual anomaly most closely represents
lateral variations in density of the middle and upper crust.
Last Time:
• Anomalies
Problem:
Observed gravity at a station is 5.382 mGal greater than at

the base which is 980.465322 Gal.
Ellipsoid/ Sea level gravity is 980.502130 Gal.

Elevation = 100 m.
Density of earth material between datum station
= 2,000 kg / m3.
Terrain Correction = 1.023 mGal (out to 166.7 km)
gCBA= gobs- gTh+ (0.3086 - 2π Gσ ) x h + gter

EÖtvÖs effect (Baron Roland von EÖtvÖs)
The gravity measurements made from a moving platform
such as a ship or a aircraft are altered by the vertical
components of centrifugal (Eotvos) and horizontal
component (Coriolis force).
Shipborne observations ----------- tens of mGals

Airborne platforms ----------------- hundreds of mGals.
See applications in Climatology: Wind patterns

EÖtvÖs effect
R cos  Centrifugal acceleration at

the surface:
a  R cos 
2
The vertical component
av  R cos  2 2
The change in component due to change in angular velocity:
av …(A)
 2 R cos 
2

For the platform with velocity V,
Vew  V cos
The change in angular velocity due
to this motion,
  V cos  R cos 
The change in vertical acceleration,
av  2 R cos2  (V cos ) R cos  2V cos cos

Adding the centrifugal acceleration of platform independent
of Earth’s rotation,
g etv  2V cos cos  V 2 R  

Neglecting elevation of the platform and expressing vel. in
km/hr and gravity correction in mGals, the EÖtvÖs
correction:
g etv  4.040V cos cos  0.00121 V 2
The correction is subtracted from measurements

on westward-direction platform and added to
measurements on an eastward moving platform.
Field Procedures
Purpose of survey
Minimal amplitude
Areal size
Configuration of anomalies of interest
Access to the survey area
Nature of noise in the gravity field
Available instrumentation
Financial resources
Reconnaissance survey – station interval in kms
[Most data are now available with Government organization]
Detailed Survey- Near surface & upper crustal mapping

Station interval in meters to hundred of meters.
Size of area is based on:
i) The maximum depth of anticipated sources
ii) The areal size and amplitude of the regional anomalies
Rules of Thumb:
The gravity surveying should extend a minimum three times

the maximum depth of sources beyond the limits of the area of
interest.
Station interval---Three stations per anomaly.

Establishing the Bases
International Gravity Standardization Net 1971 (IGSN71)-
Primary Bases- for proper comparison with other surveys.
Elevations & Horizontal positioning
• Elevations must be known to within 25-30 cm to maintain
BA values accurate to better than 0.1 mGal.
• The maximum result of an error of ±5m in the north
south position of a station will give rise to an error of ±4
μGals at mid-latitudes, and less elsewhere.
GPS
Reduction Density
2.67 g/c.c. if interested in regional aspects and comparison
with other surveys, may not be suitable for specific
purposes.
Nettleton (1942) – the density (from 1.8 to 2.8) is chosen for
final Bouguer correction that produces the least correlation
of gravity profile with topography. (assuming no subsurface
control of topography)
Magnetics:
• Like gravity, a potential field method governed by
Laplace’s equation:  2u = f (sources)
• Unlike gravity, source term is a vector rather than a scalar
Gm
Gravity: g  rˆ
r2
Monopole source  field is always
directed radially toward a “sink” location
฀
S
Magnetics:
Dipole source  field direction & strength
N depend on one “source”, one “sink”
Coulomb’s Law describes the force of attraction
exerted between two magnetic poles:
p1 p2 p2
F  rˆ 2 r
r
p1
where r is the distance & direction between two poles
p1 & p2 are pole strengths
฀
 is magnetic permeability,
฀ of the medium (usually a~1)property
฀
Magnetic Field Strength is the force that would be
exerted on a hypothetical “unit monopole” p2 due to p1:
F p1 (MKS units of Tesla;
H ˆ
r 2 magnetic anomalies
p2 r
usually given in nT or s)
Definitions:
Magnetic Dipole Moment: Two poles +p and –p
separated by a distance l have moment m  rˆlp
m
Intensity of Magnetization: I 
V
(where V is volume) is a material property of the
magnetic source. ฀
฀
*** If a material that can produce a magnetic field ( > 1)
is placed within an external magnetic field H
H, then
฀
intensity of the induced magnetization is
I  kH
where k = – 1 is ฀
magnetic HE
susceptibility
of the material.
฀ (e.g., magnetite-rich body)
Gravity Anomaly
Magnetic Anomaly
HE
Magnetic Prospecting: Measure magnitude H of the total

field, subtract out magnitude HE of the Earth’s (core dynamo-
derived) main field to get a magnetic anomaly
• Induced magnetization I  kH E is always in the direction
of the ambient field
 Must know
฀ strength & direction of the Earth’s
ambient field H E to determine location and
magnetic susceptibility k of a source body!
• Magnetic field strength falls off proportional to 1/r3

฀
• Total intensity of magnetization I T  kH E  I R
where remanent magnetization IR
is in the direction of HE at the time of magnetization…
฀
Geomagnetic Elements
[Task : See the conditions for magnetic

dip poles, magnetic equator &
intensity variation from pole to
equator.]
To completely describe it we need three quantities.
• three orthogonal strength components (X, Y, and Z);
• the total field strength and two angles (F, D, I); or
• two strength components and an angle (H, Z, D)
Magnetic properties of materials of interest
• Basement: tends to be igneous or metamorphic, thus

greater magnetic properties.
• Soils and other weathered products: because magnetic
minerals tend to weather rather rapidly compared to
quartz, will get reduction of magnetic materials with
weathering.
• Man-made objects: iron and steel
• Ore deposits: many economic ores are either magnetic, or
associated with magnetic minerals.
HW: See other applications.

Most Earth materials are diamagnetic:
 very small negative k ~ –10-5 (e.g., quartz)
Fe-Mg silicates(pyroxene, amphibole, olivine) are

paramagnetic (moments can align within small magnetic
domains)  k ~ 0.02 to 0.2
Crystalline iron, nickel,
cobalt are ferromagnetic:
domains align parallel (not
common in crust, but
common in the core)
Hematite (“rust” in aeolian

soils) is
antiferromagnetic:
domains align, equal
amounts parallel &
antiparallel
 k ~ 0.05 positive and
non-negligible, but still small
Magnetite is ferrimagnetic: domains align
parallel & antiparallel but one dominates: k ~
0.5 to 10 (Also titanomagnetite, ilmenite,
pyrrhotite). [IMP. To exploration]
How rocks acquire Remanent
Magnetization
• Thermal remanent magnetization

• Chemical remanent magnetization
• Depositional remanent magnetization
• Viscous remanent magnetization
Task: Read different mechanisms by which rocks

acquire magnetism
Last Time:
• Calculation of Bouguer Anomaly for a station.

• EÖtvÖs correction – Imp. for moving platforms & depends
on (α, θ, V).
• Magnetic prospecting- Intro
Applications
ETC…..
The Earth’s Magnetic Field
The Main Dipole Field
• First order approximation is due to

a dipolar electromagnet placed at
11.5 deg. from rotational axis-
important for different studies.
• The geomagnetic
poles are points where the axis of
a best-fitting dipole intersects
the Earth's surface.
• In practice the geomagnetic poles
does not point at dip or magnetic
poles.
The Earth’s Magnetic Field
The Earth’s Main Field (Core Field):
Earth’s main field is generated by
convection of Earth’s fluid Ni-Fe
outer core. As the solid inner core
cools & grows, released heat drives
thermo-chemical convection. Motion of
the electrically-conductive molten iron
produces electric currents which in turn
generate a magnetic field.
Rotation of the Earth  Coriolis forces which cause a
Magnetohydrodynamic Dynamo Effect, in which
magnetic fields organize in a way that amplifies the current
flow. Positive feedbacks are self-stabilizing & produce a very
large, predominantly dipolar magnetic field (with smaller
higher-order terms).
Core-generated magnetic field is a vector quantity so has
magnitude and direction. Most often described by:
intensity HE (i.e., magnitude)
inclination i ( from horiz)
declination d ( from true N)
These vary depending on location on Earth’s surface, and
also change nonlinearly with time!
Intensity HE varies from ~25k nT at equator to ~65k nT at
poles.
• Palaeomagnetism is the study of change of Earth’s
magnetic field through geological time.
•Magnetostratigraphy is the use of magnetic
reversals to provide global chronometric calibration of
geological eveents.
Locations of currently operating geomagnetic
observatories
World magnetic model 2015
HE
i d
Predicted annual rate of change for 2015-2020
HE
i d
Present Scenario 2020-2025
Total intensity at 2020.0 Predicted annual rate of

change of total intensity for
2020.0-2025.0
Predicted annual rate of
Map of declination
change of declination
(degrees East or West of
(degrees/year East or West)
true north) at 2020.0
for 2020.0-2025.0
Inclination (angle in degrees Predicted annual rate of change
up or down that magnetic of inclination (degrees/year up
field vector is from the or down) for 2020.0-2025.0
horizontal) at 2020.0
Secular variations:
The gravity field of the earth is largely time invariant, except
for relatively minor or long-term changes due to redistribution
of mass (tides, moving magma, glacial rebound, erosion,
mountain building, and so forth), the geomagnetic field varies
in both direction and intensity over time scales ranging from
milliseconds to millennia.
Analyses of the secular variation (long time) show that most

of it can be described in terms of three processes:
1.a decrease in the strength of the dipole part of the
magnetic field
2.a westward drift in the non-dipole part of the magnetic
field
3.changes in the non-drifting part of the non-dipole field
(Task: see evidences)

Positions of the north
dip pole (red) and the
geomagnetic pole
(blue) 1900.0-2020.0
estimated from the
12th Generation IGRF
Positions of the south

dip pole (red) and the
geomagnetic pole
(blue) 1900.0-2020.0
estimated from the
12th Generation IGRF
Intensity of Earth’s total dipole
field also changes through time
Geodynamo
• Paleomagnetic records indicate that the geomagnetic field

has existed for at least three billion years. However, based
on the size and electrical conductivity of the Earth's core,
would decay away in only about 20,000 years since the
temperature of the core is too high to sustain permanent
magnetism.
• Paleomagnetic records show that the dipole polarity of the
geomagnetic field has reversed many times in the past.
• These observations argue for a mechanism within the
Earth's interior that continually generates the geomagnetic
field.
• It has long been speculated that this mechanism is a
convective dynamo operating in the Earth's fluid outer core,
which surrounds its solid inner core, both being mainly
composed of iron.
• The convection in the fluid outer core is thought to be
driven by both thermal and compositional buoyancy
sources at the inner core boundary that are produced as
the Earth slowly cools and iron in the iron-rich fluid alloy
solidifies onto the inner core giving off latent heat and the
light constituent of the alloy. These buoyancy forces cause
fluid to rise and the Coriolis forces, due to the Earth's
rotation, cause the fluid flows to be helical.
• Presumably this fluid motion twists and shears magnetic
field, generating new magnetic field to replace that which
diffuses away.
• The first self-consistent numerical model, the Glatzmaier-
Roberts model (1995), was developed that simulates
convection and magnetic field generation in a fluid outer
core surrounding a solid inner core with the dimensions,
rotation rate, heat flow and (as much as possible) the
material properties of the Earth's core.
• The magnetohydrodynamic equations that describe this
problem are solved using a spectral method (spherical
harmonic and Chebyshev polynomial expansions) that
treats all linear terms implicitly and nonlinear terms
explicitly.
500 yrs before mid-reversal 500 yrs after
reversal reversal
Glatzmaier modeling revealed:
• Solid inner core magnetized opposite main
field; forced to rotate by applied torque
 precession (~ 0.2°/yr for real Earth)
• Inner core stabilizes field dipole.
Corrections for magnetic variations
Secular Variation:
The need to tie different surveys, observed at different
times, together and so compare individual magnetic
responses in different areas has led to the development of
models of the estimated value and the annual change of
the main magnetic field of the earth. One such model is the
International Geomagnetic Reference Field
(IGRF).
The International Association of Geomagnetism and
Aeronomy (IAGA) has released the 13th Generation
International Geomagnetic Reference Field — the latest
version (Dec., 2019) of a standard mathematical
description of the Earth's main magnetic field that is used
widely in studies of the Earth's deep interior, its
crust and its ionosphere and magnetosphere.
The IGRF is a series of mathematical models of the internal
geomagnetic field and its annual rate of change (secular
variation).
IGRF is subtracted from the observed values of the total
magnetic intensity.
Geomagnetic field:
Spherical polar co-ordinates V is approximated by the

finite series
Diurnal Variation:
• Repeated or continuous reading at base station.
• Variations in the magnetic field due to magnetic storms

can be so rapid, unpredictable, and of such large
amplitude, that normally no corrections can be made.
Magnetic surveying is therefore generally discontinued
under these conditions.
Field Procedures
• Generally, gravity and magnetic surveys are carried out

side by side.
• Observation points should be away from unwanted
magnetic effects such as high voltage extension cables,
magnetic materials (railway lines, iron pieces etc).
• Base readings are repeated or separate magnetometer
can be engaged for compensating diurnal variations.
• The survey modes can be land, marine or airborne.
Nowadays, airborne magnetic surveys are used for
good coverage.
Diurnal Variation:
Micropulsation:
May be related
to soil features-
Archaeological
sources
Magnetic storm:
Magnetic Instruments
Instrument used to measure magnetic fields or its

components.
Type of magnetometer:
Fluxgate magnetometer
Nuclear
Proton precision magnetometer Resonance
Optical pump magnetometer Magnetometer
(NMR)
Magnetic Instruments
Flux gate magnetometer
Material used in magnetometer

which have high magnetic
susceptibility and very low remanent
magnetisation.
Nickel-iron alloy
- Mumetal (77% Ni, 16% Fe, 5% Cu,
2% Cr)
- Permalloy (78.5% Ni, 21.5% Fe)
A pair of identical, but oppositely wound inductive coils with cores of the
same high magnetic permeability material along their axes.
The cores are magnetized to saturation by the induced fields from an

alternating current passed through the windings of the coils in opposite
directions
Output voltage is
produced in the
secondary coil
that is
proportional to the
strength of the
component of the
Earth’s magnetic
field along the
axis of the sensor.
The flux-gate magnetometer is a vector magnetometer,
because it measures the strength of the magnetic field in
a particular direction.
Instrument provides a continuous record of field strength.
Sensitivity of about 1 nT.

Proton Precession Magnetometer
• Based on quantum mechanical property.

• The ratio of the magnetic moment to the spin angular
momentum is called the gyromagnetic ratio(p) of the
proton.
• Instrument consists of a flask
containing a proton-rich liquid, such
as water.
• Magnetizing field aligns the
magnetic moments of the protons
along the axis of the solenoid
• Based on Larmer precision.
• Proton magnetic moments precess
about the direction of the ambient
magnetic field.
   pB
2
B
p
Optical Pump Magnetometer
Assignment: Explore & Write in few pages

Last Time:
• The Main Dipole Field.

• Corrections for Magnetic method.
• Field procedures
The Potential Field A body of mathematics called
Theory potential theory that
describes:
Universal Law of Gravitation • gravitational attraction
(1687) • magnetostatic and electrostatic
fields
• fields generated by uniform
electrical currents
Gravitational attraction • steady transfer of heat through
obeys a simple differential homogeneous media
equation (Laplace) • steady flow of ideal fluids
• the behaviour of elastic solids
• probability density in random-
walk problems
• unsteady water-wave motion
Fields: A field is a set of functions of space and time.
Material fields
describe some physical property of a material at each
point of the material and at a given time, e.g., density,
magnetization etc.
Force fields
describes the forces that act at each point of space at a
given time, e.g., gravitational attraction of the Earth.
A scalar field is a single function of space and time
--------- displacement of a stretched string.
A vector field must be characterized by three functions of

space and time, namely, the components of the field in three
orthogonal directions
---------Velocity, Gravitational acceleration.
Potential:
A vector field is said to be conservative in the special
case that work is independent of the path of the particle.
The derivative of the work in any direction is equal to the

component of force in that direction.
The vector force field F is completely specified by the

scalar field W, which we call the work function of F.
Any vector field that has a work function with continuous

derivatives as in above equation is conservative.
The potential Φ of vector field F is the work function.
[Φ  -ve Potential Energy]
The potential equals the work done by the field- If

particles of like sign attract each other (e.g., gravity
fields).
[Φ  Potential Energy]
The potential equals the work done against the field

by the particle- If particles of like sign repel each other
(e.g., electrostatic fields).
Equipotential Surfaces:
The field lines at any point are always perpendicular to

their equipotential surfaces and, conversely, any surface
that is everywhere perpendicular to all field lines must be
an equipotential surface. Hence, no work is done in
moving a test particle along an equipotential surface.
Harmonic Functions (Properties):
Laplace’s eqn. (at points not occupied by sources of F).
Minima / maxima At edges

If Φ(x) in this example is to satisfy Laplace's equation, the
maximum and minimum displacements must occur at the two
end points of the rubber band
The differential operator  2
as a means to determine the
variations in the concentration of a distribution; if
 2  0 throughout a region, then Φ at each point of the
region is never more (or less) concentrated than all
surrounding parts of the region.
Harmonic Function:
(1) satisfies Laplace's equation;
(2) has continuous, single valued first derivatives;
(3) has second derivatives.
A function that is harmonic throughout a region R must have
all maxima and minima on the boundary of R and none within
R itself. The converse is not necessarily true, the function
may not satisfy the three criteria listed.
A scalar field is a single function of space and time
--------- displacement of a stretched string.
A vector field must be characterized by three functions of

space and time, namely, the components of the field in three
orthogonal directions
---------Velocity, Gravitational acceleration.
Small displacements along a field lines (tangent along the

vector field) must have x, y, and z components proportional
to the corresponding x, y, and z components of the field at
the point of its displacement.
If F is a continuous vector field, its field lines are described by
integration of the differential equation:
See Steady State heat flow example in Blakely’s book.
Complex Harmonic Functions

The real and imaginary parts of a complex function are
harmonic in regions where the complex function is analytic.
If a complex function is analytic in domain T, it has a real part

that is harmonic in T. Likewise, it can be shown that the
imaginary part of an analytic complex function also is
harmonic in domains of analyticity.
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Harmonic Function:
(1) satisfies Laplace's equation;
(2) has continuous, single valued first derivatives;
(3) has second derivatives.
A function that is harmonic throughout a region R must have
all maxima and minima on the boundary of R and none within
R itself. [Laplace’s equation].
Keep in mind that all these definitions are useful for

understanding the Boundary values problems of potential
field.
Green’s First Identity:
Let
U and V be continuous functions with continuous partial
derivatives of first order throughout a closed, regular region R,
U have continuous partial derivatives of second order in R.
The boundary of R is surface S, and n̂ is the outward normal
to S.
If , then
dv dS
Divergence theorem
….(1)
Green’s First Identity
if U is harmonic and continuously differentiate in R, and if V = 1,

then,
….(2)
The normal derivative of a harmonic function

must average to zero on any closed boundary
surrounding a region throughout which the
function is harmonic and continuously
differentiable & vice versa.
Equation 2 gives necessary & sufficient condition
for U to be harmonic in the region.
Equation 2- an important boundary condition for many
geophysical problems. Suppose that vector field F has a
potential U which is harmonic throughout some region.
Because on the surface of the region, equation
1 can be written as:
Using Divergence
theorem
….(3)
Gauss Law
The normal component of a conservative field

must average to zero on the closed boundary of a
region in which its potential is harmonic. Hence,
the flux of F into the region exactly equals the
flux leaving the region, implying that no sources
of F exist in the region.
Let U be harmonic in region R and let V = U
Consequences:
If U is harmonic and continuously differentiate
in R and if U vanishes at all points of S, U also
must vanish at all points of R.
A function that is harmonic and continuously
differentiate in R is uniquely determined by its
values on S.
[ See details in Blakely]

Green’s Second Identity:
If we interchange U and V in equation 1 and subtract the

result from equation 1, we obtain Green's second identity.
U and V continuously differentiate and have continuous

partial derivatives of first and second order in R.
Green’s Third Identity:
Derived from second identity. See Blakely’s book for
derivation.
We will see that any function with

sufficient differentiability can be
expressed as the sum of three potentials:
1. the potential of a volume distribution
with density proportional to
2. the potential of a surface distribution
with density proportional to
3. the potential of a surface of
magnetization proportional to
Any function with sufficient differentiability is a
potential.
When U is Harmonic,
This shows that a harmonic function can be calculated at any
point of a region in which it is harmonic simply from the values
of the function and its normal derivatives over the region's
boundary. This equation is called the representation
formula.
If U is harmonic in a region R, it also must be harmonic in
each subregion of R. Likewise above equation must apply to
the boundary of each subregion. Thus, the potential within any
subregion of R can be related to an infinite variety of surface
distributions. It gives an important limitation that faces any
interpretation of a measured potential field in terms of its
causative sources. No unique boundary conditions
exist for a given harmonic function.
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Green’s First Identity:
Equation 1 gives necessary & sufficient condition

for U to be harmonic in the region.
Green’s Second Identity:

Green’s Third Identity:
No unique boundary conditions exist for a given harmonic

function.
Gauss's Theorem of the Arithmetic Mean
When U is harmonic, the boundary S is the surface of a
sphere, and point P is at the center of the sphere. If a is the
radius of the sphere:
The value of a harmonic function at any point is simply the

average of the harmonic function over any sphere concentric
about the point, so long as the function is harmonic
throughout the sphere. This relationship is called Gauss's
theorem of the arithmetic mean.
Helmholtz Theorem
Any vector field F that is continuous and zero at infinity can

be expressed as the gradient of a scalar and the curl of a
vector, that is,
The quantity Φ is the scalar potential

of F, and A is the vector potential.
[See proofs in Blakely]
Solution using Helmholz thm. &
Green third identity
Poisson's equation
Taking Divergence of H. Thm.
From above two equation,
Taking Curl of H. Thm.

Hint:
Defining A with no divergence
The Helmholtz theorem shows that a vector field vanishing
at infinity is completely specified by its divergence and its
curl if they are known throughout space. If both the
divergence and curl vanish at all points, then the field itself
must vanish or be constant everywhere. [Corollary]
Irrotational Fields
A vector field is irrotational in a region if its curl vanishes at
each point of the region [e.g., gravitational field]
at every point of a
region is a necessary and sufficient condition
for the existence of a scalar
potential
Solenoidal Fields
If its divergence vanishes at each point of the region.
Using Div. Thm.

If the divergence of F vanishes in a region, the normal
component of the field vanishes when integrated over any
closed surface within the region. The "number" of field lines
entering a region equals the number that exit the region,
and sources or sinks of F do not exist in the region. For
example, gravitational attraction is solenoidal in regions not
occupied by mass.
If the divergence of a conservative field vanishes in a

region, the potential of the field is harmonic in the region.
Necessary & sufficient condition
[Check it]
Magnetic Potential
Maxwell's equations describes the spatial and temporal
relationships of electromagnetic fields and their sources. One
of Maxwell's equations relates magnetic induction B and
magnetization M in the absence of macroscopic currents:
H (Magnetic field intensity) is related to magnetic induction

and magnetization by the equation:
…..(A)
=>
Thus, magnetic field intensity is irrotational. It follows from
the Helmholtz theorem that it can be expressed in terms of
a scalar potential,
We have seen, …..(B)
Another Maxwell's
equation: …..(C)
From (A) & (C):
Substituting in (B):
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Helmholtz Theorem:
Poisson's equation
Green’s Function
If the Green's function is known for a particular linear system,
then the state of the linear system due to any forcing function
can be derived for any time. The Green's function, therefore,
satisfies the initial conditions and is the solution to the
differential equation subject to the initial conditions when the
forcing function is an impulse.

The function  1  r is analogous to the Green's function. It
satisfies the required boundary condition, that Ψ1 is zero at
infinity, and is the solution to Poisson's differential equation
when the density is an "impulse."
Green Function for Potential field :
…..(1)
It describes the Newtonian potential U throughout space

due to a mass distribution with density ρ.
& U is harmonic in regions where ρ = 0.
We need a solution for U that satisfies the differential

equation and the boundary condition that U is zero at
infinity.
The response to an impulsive forcing function f(t) = δ(t) is

the Green's function, so we could try representing the
density distribution in R as an "impulse"
An impulsive source in three dimensions can be written as
δ(P, Q), where
==>
[See Helmholz
theorem for
derivation]
The solution to Poisson's equation when ρ is an

"impulsive" density distribution located at Q.
γ/r is the "impulse response" for Poisson's relation; with
it, the potential due to any density distribution:
The function Ψ1 = γ/r is analogous to the

Green's function : It satisfies the required
boundary condition, that Ψ1 is zero at infinity,
and is the solution to Poisson's differential
equation when the density is an "impulse."
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Helmholtz Theorem:
Poisson's equation
Green Function:
The solution to Poisson's equation when ρ is an
"impulsive" density distribution located at Q.
Gravitational Attraction and Potential
The magnitude of the gravitational force between two
masses is proportional to each mass and inversely
proportional to the square of their separation.
Gravitational attraction by mass m,

g is irrotational,
Gravitational acceleration is a conservative field and can
be represented as the gradient of a scalar potential
[Potential Field]
U(p) is Gravitational potential or Newtonian potential

Potential of distribution of masses:
Principle of superposition: The gravitational potential of
a collection of masses is the sum of the gravitational
attractions of the individual masses.
Application:
It is applied to find the gravitational attraction in the limit of
a continuous distribution of matter.
A continuous distribution of mass m is simply a collection
of very small masses dm = ρ(x, y, z) dv, where ρ(x, y, z) is
the density distribution.
Applying the principle of superposition yields:
The first order partial derivative of U with respect to x is,
The second order derivative:

[Check]
Poisson's equation:
g  U
[Previous slides]
[Helmholtz theorem]
(Q)
Poisson's equation, which describes the

potential at all points, even inside the mass
distribution.
Laplace's equation is simply a special case of
Poisson's equation, valid for mass-free regions
of space.
Surface and line distributions:
σ is the surface density with units of mass per unit area
λ is the line density with units of mass per unit length

Models:
2D Masses that are infinitely extended in one

dimension are said to be two dimensional.
Masses that are finitely extended in one

2.5 D
3D Masses that are finitely extended in three

dimension.
Gravity anomaly due to spherical shell &
sphere: [IMP.]
[Refer practical notes & proof in books]

Straight Wire of Infinite Length
If P is moved to an arbitrary point of the
x, y plane as a  ∞:
λ is mass per unit length of the wire

r
[See proof]
The gravitational attraction of an infinite wire is

straightforward, the potential of an infinite wire is something of
a problem.
As , the potential also approaches infinity and
obviously violates that the potential should vanish at infinity.
This inconvenience is handled by redefining the meaning of
the potential for infinitely extended bodies. The potential of
an infinite wire is defined so that it vanishes at a unit
distance from the wire. Adding a constant to the previous
equation
logarithmic potentials
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Poisson's equation, which describes the

potential at all points, even inside the mass
distribution.
Laplace's equation is simply a special case of
Poisson's equation, valid for mass-free regions
of space.
Models:
2D Masses that are infinitely extended in one

Masses that are finitely extended in one

2.5 D
dimension.
3D Masses that are finitely extended in three

dimension.
Extended Sources:
logarithmic potentials
Gauss's Law for Gravity Fields
The total mass in a region is

proportional to the normal
component of gravitational
attraction integrated over the
closed boundary of the region.
A well-known geophysical application of Gauss's law is

the estimation of total excess mass below a surface on
which the normal component of gravity is known.
Limitations:
1. The vertical component of gravity integrated over an

infinite plane is proportional to the total mass below the
plane, so long as the mass is bounded in volume.
Surveys over infinite planes [limitation]. The survey can
only extend well beyond the localized sources of
interest.
2. It provides a way to estimate the total excess mass
causing an anomaly in measured gravity, if we can
successfully isolate the field of the anomalous mass
from all other gravitational sources. Isolated sources
never exist in nature.
Green's Equivalent Layer
A gravitational potential caused by a three-
dimensional density distribution is identical to
the potential caused by a surface density spread
over any of its equipotential surfaces.
Let
Se be a closed equipotential surface resulting from a
distribution of mass with density ρ,
R represent the region inside Se.
The gravitational potential is observed at point P outside of
Se.
[G.S.I.]
let U be the potential of the mass and let V = 1/r, where r
represents the distance away from P. Because P is located
outside the region, the second identity reduces to
Us is the constant
potential of the
equipotential surface
Se.
GFI
Using Poisson’s equation:

The potential of
the density The potential at P of a
distribution surface distribution
observed at P. spread over Se
The potential caused by a three-dimensional

density distribution is indistinguishable from a
thin layer of mass spread over any of its
equipotential surfaces.
NON-UNIQUENESS
The total mass of the body is equivalent to
the total mass of the equivalent layer.
Magnetic Potential
Gauss's Law for Magnetic Fields
The normal component of all flux entering any region equals

the normal component of flux leaving the region.
• The normal component of B
integrates to zero over any
closed surface. Hence, the net
normal magnetic flux through
any region is zero.
• No net sources (or sinks) exist
anywhere in space; or put
another way, magnetic
monopoles do not exist.
Example:
• As the limits of the survey are

extended in the horizontal
directions, surface S2 moves
arbitrarily far from the localized
source, and the integral over S2
vanishes.
• A horizontal survey of the vertical
component of B should average to
zero, if the lateral extent of the
survey is large compared to the size
of the magnetic sources.
If regional scale anomalies are subtracted properly from a large
aeromagnetic survey, then the survey should contain about as
many positive anomalies as negative anomalies. If it does not,
then anomalies of regional extent remain in the data.
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Gauss Law of Gravity field
Green's Equivalent Layer

The potential caused by a three-dimensional density
distribution is indistinguishable from a thin layer of mass
spread over any of its equipotential surfaces
Gauss's Law for Magnetic Fields
The normal component of all flux entering any region equals

the normal component of flux leaving the region.
Magnetic Potential
Magnetic Vector potential (A),
Magnetic Scalar potential (V),

If no currents exist in the region of investigation,
[Maxwell equation; B irrotational]
=>
In practice, outside the magnetic source region
the currents are negligible & assumption is valid.
Then, above equation is a suitable approximation.
In this case, the previous theory of gravity
potential is applicable.
Dipole Field [See proof]
The constant Cm is used to balance units and has a value

that depends on the system in use.
In the emu system Cm = 1 and is dimensionless, whereas in
SI units ,
where is the permeability of free space.
Gravity:
Magnetic (small element can be

considered as single dipole):
In general, magnetization M is a function of position, where
both direction and magnitude can vary from point to point, that
is, M = M(Q), where Q is the position of dv. Integrating
this equation over all of the elemental volumes provides the
potential of a distribution of magnetization:
The subscript of the gradient operator is changed from P to

Q when the operator is inside the volume integral.
This is to indicate that the gradient is to be taken with

respect to the source coordinates rather than with respect
to the observation point.
Dipole Field [See proof]
The magnetic induction of a dipole at points other than the dipole
itself
Cm = 1 and is dimensionless in emu or Cm = μ0 / 4π = 10 -7

henry-meter in SI units.
In cylindrical coordinates,
where θ is the angle between and ,

All flux lines of B emanate from the positive end of m and
ultimately return to the negative end.
Vertical component of B due to vertical dipole
Horizontal component of B due to horizontal dipole

Horizontal component of B due to vertical dipole
Vertical component of B due to horizontal dipole

See Chapter 5 on Magnetization in Blakely
Poisson's Relation
Relationship between gravity and magnetic fields.
Magnetic Potenial
Gravity Potenial
Uniform density and

uniform magnetization.
Poisson's Relation
gm is the component of gravity in the direction of magnetization
If the boundaries of a gravitational and magnetic

source are the same and the magnetization and
density are uniform, then the magnetic potential
is proportional to the component of gravitational
attraction in the direction of magnetization.
Applications
• It can be used to derive expressions for the magnetic

induction of simple bodies when the expression for
gravitational attraction is known.
• The pseudogravity transformation can be used to aid
interpretation of magnetic data
• Magnetic/Gravity surveys are unnecessary in
geophysical investigations, only one should be
sufficient?
In real geologic situations, of course, sources of gravity

anomalies never have magnetization distributions in
exact proportion to their density distributions.
Example: Sphere
Gravitational attraction of the sphere:
Substituting in Poisson relation, the

magnetic potential of a uniformly
magnetized sphere:
Where
The magnetic potential due to a uniformly
magnetized sphere is identical to the magnetic
potential of a dipole located at the center of the
sphere with dipole moment equal to the
magnetization times the volume of the sphere.
Anomaly Enhancement & Isolation
• More or less same procedures can be applied to gravity

and magnetic methods.
• Anomalies – superposition due to different sources.
A= Ar+AR+N
Ar= A - AR+N
Solution:
Residual – Interest (mostly short wavelength,

shallow)
Regional – longer wavelength, deep, large
volume geologic source.
Noise – Shorter wavelength (observation or
data reduction errors)
Regional residual separation

D
I
F
F
I
C
U
L
T
Regional residual separation
Either by isolating the Eliminating that don’t have a

residual anomaly through certain attributes defined by
elimination or attenuation of residual anomalies. Useful in
the regional and noise quantitative analysis.
anomaly
OR
OR
Enhancing the residual Enhancing the attributes of
relative to the interfering desired residual anomaly.
effects. This introduces the distortion,
so, useful only in qualitative
analysis.
• The regional anomaly is broader, so the surveys must be
extended beyond the immediate area of interest to
delineate the regional gravity anomaly.
• These methods are filtering process based on spatial
wavelengths.
• Limitations – subjective (amplitude, phase distortions).
Spatial Filtering:
A. Geological methods:
• Isolating anomalies by calculating regional anomaly from
sources defined by auxillary geological and geophysical
information- Isostatic residual anomaly.
• Gravity stripping (Hammer, 1963):

• Such methods are
useful if some
understanding of
the subsurface
exist.
B. Graphical methods:
Preconditioning- graphical, smoothing,
trend surface analysis (least square, finite
element)
[See Dobrin & Savit]

C. Analytical grid methods:
[Griffin, 1949; Hammer, 1977]
• Such methods use a template centred on the point and
determine the regional value at the location on an
equidimensional grid from the surrounding anomaly values.
• Use analytical expression- Weighting.
• Simplest approach is averaging the data on a circle of fixed
radius & subtract the averaged value to get the residual.
• The approach had been used for deriving filtered output
(high pass/ low pass), upward-downward continuation,
Integral, derivatives.
Eight point regional

Some Magnetic Cases:
• Geological methods of stripping, graphical methods, trend
analysis are of very limited use in case of magnetic.
• The reason is lack of information on magnetic polarization
contrasts, heterogeneous distribution of magnetic minerals
in rocks.
• Trend based approaches remove broad, strong gradients
which are not common in magnetic anomalies.
• Care is also needed to preserve dipolar effect [Gauss Law].
• Visual inspection is more useful.
Shaded relief map (Change of illumination)
Prominent NE-SW direction features Prominent NW direction features

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• Regional Residual Separation

Isolation techniques
Spectral filtering methods
• The spectral analysis can be efficiently done in gridded
data.
• Filtering in wavenumber domain involves multiplying the FT
of the data by the coefficients of a filter or transfer function
that achieves one or more data processing objectives.
(A) Wavelength filters
• Low pass filter ------- remove small shallow sources, errors

etc.
• High pass filter ------- remove large. Deep sources
Narrow band pass filter ( 2 < λ < 4).
band pass filter ( 300 < λ < 1000).
• Depth, geometry and size of source is important factor to
determine the spectrum of anomaly. Thus, extracting only
depth information is impossible.
• Rule of thumb:
Z≈λ/6
Q -- Source Z= 20 m, cut off wavelength ?
Cut off wavelength of filter = 120 m

band-pass filter Composite band-and-strike-pass filter
Example: Delhi Fold
Belt
Dwivedi & Chamoli, 2019, Crustal structure and lateral variations in Moho
beneath the Delhi fold belt, NW India: Insight from Gravity data modeling and
inversion, Physics of Earth & Planetary Interiors.
Long wavelength filtered anomaly Short wavelength filtered anomaly
3D Structural inversion
Depth variation of the Moho
Calculated anomaly
Gravity error
Upwarping of the Moho

(B) Matched filters:
• To match the spectra of anomalies that are desired in the
residual anomaly patterns.
(C) Correlation filters:

• Correlation filtering aids in quantifying gravity anomaly
associations with geologic, topographic, photometric, heat
flow, magnetic, and other geophysical data to help minimize
interpretational ambiguities.
• Anomalies with sources at depths greater than the line or

track spacing of marine, airborne, and satellite surveys are
coherent between two or more neighbouring tracks, and
thus can be extracted from these tracks by correlation
filtering.
Example- Satellite sea surface altimetry for
lithospheric gravity anomalies:
• To separate the spatially and temporally static variations of
lithospheric sources from dynamic variations of non-
lithospheric effects.
The filtered data includes crustal signals that are smaller than the
track spacing and the dynamic signals from temporal and spatial
variations of the ocean currents, waves and ice, measurement
and data reduction errors, and other non-lithospheric effects .
Correlation of Gravity with
Topography
Gravity anomaly variations associated with varying degrees of
isostatic compensation
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• Regional Residual Separation

• Wavelength Filters
• Matched Filters
• Correlation Filters
• Examples
Wavelength Filtering in Magnetic
• The residual magnetic anomalies are considerably more perceptible

than the residual gravity anomalies.
• The elongated, linear anomalies due to intersecting vertical, tabular
bodies paralleling the right and top margins of the map, for example,
are much more discernible in the magnetic anomalies than in the
gravity data.
λ < 1000 m (dashed contour negative)
2000 < λ < 4000 m
λ > 4000 m
• Depth, geometry and size of source is important factor to
determine the spectrum of anomaly. Thus, extracting only
depth information is impossible.
• Rule of thumb:
λ ≥ 4 x Zc
Directional Filtering in Magnetic
Wavenumber Correlation Filtering (WCF)
in Magsat magnetic observations
Only 7 km apart so should be same
Core field removed • Poor correlation due to the

spatially and temporally
dynamic effects of the
Lithospheric components auroral external fields,
measurement errors, and
other nonlithospheric
sources. , So, filtering is
used.
• b) Inversely transform of r
Noise components > 0.5.
Transformation Techniques
• facilitate geologic interpretations by transforming
measured data into some new form.
• provide insights that help to build a general
understanding of the nature of the sources.
Such as:
• Continuation
• Directional Derivative
• Phase Transformations
• Reduction to Pole
• Pseudogravity transformation
• Analytic signal
• Hilbert transforms
• …………………………
Upward Continuation
Transforms the potential Attenuates anomalies

field measured on one with respect to
surface to the field that wavelength; the shorter
would be measured on the wavelength, the
another surface farther greater the attenuation.
from all sources.
Degradation ?
Usefulness
• Merging different aerial surveys.

• upward continuation tends to accentuate anomalies
caused by deep sources at the expense of anomalies
caused by shallow sources.
• May be used to generate regional anomaly.
Example: A magnetic survey over young volcanic terrain,

for example, may be dominated by short-wavelength
anomalies due to near-surface volcanic rocks; upward
continuation can be used to attenuate the shallow-source
anomalies in order to emphasize deeper, more profound
sources, such as underlying plutonic rocks.
Derivation
Green's third identity
• A potential field can be calculated at any point within a region

from the behaviour of the field on a surface enclosing the
region.
• No knowledge is required about the sources of the field,
except that none may be located within the region.
• Assume that the potential
field was measured on a
level surface at z = z0 and
that the field is desired at a
single point P(x, y, z0 - Δz )
above the level surface,
where Δz > 0.
• Surface S is composed of
both the level surface plus a
hemisphere of radius a. All
sources lie at z > z0.
• As α becomes large, it is See Blakely for complete
easy to show that derivation
integration of previous
equation over the
hemisphere becomes small.
Hence, as α  ∞.
Upward Continuation Integral
This is a convolution Integral & can be given as:
where
Fourier –Domain Representation
Fourier transform of the upward-continued field
A level-to-level continuation can be achieved,

therefore, by Fourier transforming the measured
data, multiplying by the exponential term and
inverse Fourier transforming the product.
1. the process of upward
continuation attenuates all
wavenumbers except |k| = 0.
2. each wavenumber is attenuated
to a greater degree than all
lower wavenumbers.
3. the degree of attenuation increases with increasing Δz.

Equation is a real function, that is, it has no phase
component, and consequently imparts no phase
changes to the upward continued field.
A smooth, low wavenumber pass filter.

Example
Notice that the shortest
wavelengths of the original
anomalies are essentially
eliminated, whereas the
fundamental anomalies
remain in a smoother form.
Continued upward 5 km.

Continued upward 300 m.
Downward Continuation
Calculation of U(x, y, z0) from U(x, y, z0-Δz),
• Risky proposition.
• Upward continuation is smoothing / averaging operator,
whereas Downward continuation is unsmoothing/
Unstable.
• Small changes to U(x, y, z0-Δz) can cause large and
unrealistic variations in the calculated U(x, y, z0).
• Inverse of previous equation.
A High pass filter.

Continued downward 50 m.
• Inverse of previous equation: The shortest wavelengths
of the measured data will
be greatly amplified by this
procedure to a degree that
The desired field Fourier transform of depends on the value of Δz
continued downward the observed field and the sample interval of
a distance Δz
the data.
Any errors present and perhaps undetected in

the measured data may appear in the calculated
field as large and unrealistic variations.
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Continuation methods
Directional Derivatives
Horizontal derivatives
Differentiation theorem
(ikx )n and (iky )n are filters that transform a function measured

on a horizontal surface into nth-order derivatives with
respect to x or y, respectively.
The second vertical derivative is a direct consequence of
Laplace's equation.
Three-step filtering operation:

• Fourier transform the potential field,
• multiply by |k|2,
• inverse Fourier transform the product
Application:
• Locating Subtle Changes in gravity field.

• Vertical derivative is used in increasing the perceptibility
of anomalies derived from shallow sources - Gravity
• Horizontal derivative are used for locating the edges of
broad anomaly sources- Boundary mapping- Gravity
• Zero second vertical derivative contour approximates the
plan view outline of the margin of magnetic source that is
broad in comparison to height of observation.
Normalised Total
intensity magnetic
anomaly of prismatic
source (Right half).
Second Vertical
derivative (left half).
Zero contour shown

in bold.
Second Vertical derivative.
First Vertical derivative.
Second Vertical derivative after upward
continuation to 300 m (see zero contours).
Phase Transformation
Consider a three-dimensional distribution of magnetization
M(x,y,z) located entirely below the plane of observation at Z0.
the Fourier transform of the magnetization on

one horizontal slice through the body at depth z'.
Unit vectors in the direction of

the magnetization and in the
direction of the ambient field
A filtering operation that transforms a total-
field anomaly with given directions of
magnetization and ambient field into a new
anomaly caused by the same distribution of
magnetization but with new vector directions.
Reduction to Pole
Positive gravity anomalies tend to

be located over mass
concentrations, but the same is
not necessarily true for magnetic
anomalies when the
magnetization and ambient field
are not both directed vertically.
Unless m and f are both vertical, θm

and θf will contribute a phase to the
magnetic anomaly, which can shift
the anomaly laterally, distort its
shape, and even change its sign.
For RTP, new magnetization direction:
To transform a measured total field
anomaly into the vertical component
of the field caused by the same
source distribution magnetized in
the vertical direction.
ΔTr is the anomaly that would be

measured at the north magnetic
pole, where induced magnetization
and ambient field both would be
directed vertically down
• Reduction to the pole removes one level of complexity from
the interpretive process: It shifts anomalies laterally to be
located over their respective sources and alters their shape
so that symmetrical sources cause symmetrical anomalies.
• The direction of magnetization and ambient field are required

in equation, but no other assumptions about the distribution
of magnetization are necessary, except those concerning the
lateral dimensions of the sources described earlier.
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Phase transformation
Reduction to Pole
Analytic signal (see GSP stuff & Blakely)

Interpretation Techniques
1. Data enhancement
and display
2. Forward method
3. Inverse method:
Parameters p1,p2, • • • are

attributes of the source, such
as depth, thickness, density,
or magnetization.
The inverse method looks considerably simpler and more
straightforward than the forward method ?
This is not necessarily the case.
• Grossly simplified models are still required in the inverse

method, and inclusion of independent information may be
more difficult.
• The iterative process inherent in the forward method, on

the other hand, facilitates the incorporation of independent
information in the interpretive process.
Gravity Modeling equation
• The forward method requires the repeated calculation of
g(x, y, z), not so simple in practice.
• The difficulty comes in trying to approximate complicated
geologic situations by geometric shapes where the shapes
are sufficiently simple to make the volume integral
amenable to computers.
• Essentially, we must divide the hypothetical gravitational
sources into N simpler parts and convert the equation into
something like:
where gm is the vertical attraction at the mth observation

point, ρn is the density of part n, and ψmn is the gravitational
attraction at point m due to part n with unit density.
Three-Dimensional Examples
Rectangular Prisms
Vertical attraction due to prism at
origin:
Talwani et al., JGR, 1959, Rapid Gravity Computations for Two-
Dimensional Bodies with Application to the Mendocino Submarine
Fracture Zone
Talwani, M., and Ewing, M., "Rapid computation of gravitational

attraction of three-dimensional bodies of arbitrary shape,"
Geophys., 25 (1960), 203-25.
3D - stack of
polygonal
lamina.
2D - Polygon.
Stack of Laminas
3D - stack of
polygonal
lamina.
M straight line
segments
ym & ym+1 are end
points of side m.
• Easy to program, only z’ and (x,y) of vertices are required.
• Measured gravity anomalies over bodies of unknown shape
can be modeled by trial-and-error adjustment of density and
polygon vertices.
• If the anomalies are caused by known topographic or
bathymetric features, the trial-and-error process is greatly
simplified. The polygonal laminas can be constructed simply by
digitizing contours on topographic or bathymetric maps.
Two-Dimensional Examples
• Geologic structures are often longer than they are wide. If
anomalies are sufficiently "linear," it may be possible to
consider the gravitational or magnetic sources as completely
invariant in the direction parallel to the long direction.
• The y axis is directed parallel to the invariant direction
leaving only the x and z dimensions to consider further; the
body is said to be two dimensional.
2D - Polygon.
Moving the observation point to the origin and require the density
to be constant,
Replace the smooth perimeter with an N-sided polygon
Simplifying,
Last Time:
Gravity Modeling
Gravity Modeling equation
• The forward method requires the repeated calculation of
g(x, y, z), not so simple in practice.
• The difficulty comes in trying to approximate complicated
geologic situations by geometric shapes where the shapes
are sufficiently simple to make the volume integral
amenable to computers.
• Essentially, we must divide the hypothetical gravitational
sources into N simpler parts and convert the equation into
something like:
where gm is the vertical attraction at the mth observation

point, ρn is the density of part n, and ψmn is the gravitational
attraction at point m due to part n with unit density.
Talwani et al., JGR, 1959, Rapid Gravity Computations for Two-
Dimensional Bodies with Application to the Mendocino Submarine
Fracture Zone
Talwani, M., and Ewing, M., "Rapid computation of gravitational

attraction of three-dimensional bodies of arbitrary shape,"
Geophys., 25 (1960), 203-25.
3D - stack of
polygonal
lamina.
2D - Polygon.
• Geologic structures are often longer than they are wide. If
anomalies are sufficiently "linear," it may be possible to
consider the gravitational or magnetic sources as completely
invariant in the direction parallel to the long direction.
• The y axis is directed parallel to the invariant direction
leaving only the x and z dimensions to consider further; the
body is said to be two dimensional.
2D - Polygon.
Moving the observation point to the origin and require the density
to be constant,
Replace the smooth perimeter with an N-sided polygon
Simplifying,
Magnetic Case:
Bhattacharyya, B. K., Magnetic anomalies due to prism-shaped

bodies with arbitrary polarization, Geophysics 29 (1964), 517-31.
Bhattacharyya, B. K., Continuous spectrum of the total-magnetic-

field anomaly due to a rectangular prismatic body, Geophysics 31
(1966), 97-121
Models (distributions of magnetization):
The body is approximated by collections of much simpler

bodies, such as magnetic dipoles, rectangular prisms, or
polygonal laminas.
Volume of magnetization:
N magnetic cells
Bj is the magnetic field at the jth observation point,

Mi is the magnitude of the magnetization of the ith cell,
bij is the magnetic field at the jth observation point due to the
ith cell with unit magnetization.
Three-Dimensional Examples
(Dipole / Rectangular Prisms)
The total-field anomaly observed at the origin due to prism with

top at z1 and bottom at infinity:
If this equation is evaluated twice, once for z1 = zt and M = M0
and once for z1 = zb and M = —M0, then according to the
superposition principle, the sum of the two calculations will
provide the magnetic field of a prism with magnetization M0,
top at zt, and bottom at zb.
Approximation of a two-dimensional body with infinitely

extended ribbons of magnetic charge.
[See Blakely for derivation]

Last Time:
Interpretation: Forward Modeling

Inversion (Gravity & Magnetic)
R- the volume occupied by the causative source,
P - the observation point located at (x,y,z) and always outside
of R,
Q- the point of integration (x’,y',z') within R,
r- is a vector directed from Q to P:
Fredholm equation of first kind
f(P) is the potential field at P,

s(Q) describes the physical quantity (density or magnetization)
at Q,
ψ(P,Q) is a function that depends on the geometric placement of
observation point P and source point Q.
Calculation of s(Q) is known as the linear inverse problem,
Calculation of some property of Ψ or R is the nonlinear

inverse problem.
if L > N use least squares to find the N values of Sj.
Problems: Nonuniqueness
• simplifying assumptions about the source.
[Magnetization is uniform throughout the body/ infinitely
extended- 2D assumption]- reduces number of possible
solns. & provide simpler solutions.
• Constraints from available geological/ geophysical
information.
Instability
• f(P) is a linear functional of s(Q). For all P ≠ Q, ψ(P,Q) is a

smoothly varying function. Hence, f(P) is always "smoother"
than s(Q) as long as P is outside the body.
• Consequently, the inverse problem of deriving s(Q) amounts
to an "unsmoothing" of f(P). Small changes to f(P) cause large
and unrealistic variations in s(Q), and the solution is said to
be unstable. Potential field inversion is notoriously
unstable.
Construction
• Simple geometry.
• Geology is never so simple.
Linear Inverse Problem- Example
Cells are uniformly
magnetized with
magnetization Mj
oceanic magnetic layer
Mj is the intensity of magnetization of cell j ,

ψij is the total field anomaly at field point i due to cell j with unit
magnetization.
If N < L, these can be calculated by least-squares methods.

ILL conditioning
Note that a 0.1 % change in the coefﬁcient of y produced

a 100 % change in the solution.
Ill conditioning
If two lines are nearly parallel, small errors in z1 or z2 will

greatly affect the solution.
The two lines will be nearly parallel if a11/a12 ≈ a21/a22.
• In terms of the magnetic layer, this kind of situation would
occur if the field at point i due to cell j is similar to the field
at point i due to cell j + 1 and if the field at point i due to
cell j is similar to the field at point i + 1 due to cell j .
• The deeper the layer is relative to cell width, the smoother

is the matrix ψij . If cell width is too small relative to the
depth to the layer, the matrix ψij becomes ill-conditioned,
and small changes will cause unrealistic values in the
calculated Mj.
Last Time:
Interpretation: Forward & Inverse Modeling

Anomaly Interpretation
• Anomaly interpretation is never unique, owing to presence
of data errors and the inherent source ambiguity and
complexity.
• Pre-existing information should be incorporated as early
as possible.
Qualitative Analysis:
Only identifying the anomalous zone.
Using different type of maps.
Quantitative Analysis:
Detail modeling of source parameters,
Forward modeling / Inversion
Ambiguity
Look for constraints in such cases.

Three consistent model
with gravity and seismic
constraints [Hutchinson
et al., 1983]
2D Vs 3D Interpretation
3D / 2.75 / 2.5 D
Flexure -2D / 2.5 D

Flowchart of
Interpretation
Interpretation
Parameters
Amplitude & Character of

Anomaly
Not much change
Overlap: Separation
atleast twice depth for
horizontal resolution
Key Geophysical Variables
1. Inverse distance function (Amplitude sensitivity towards

depth): 1 / rN
N = 2 Concentrated mass (ore body)
N = 1 long concentrated source (buried bed rock ridge / tubular

solution)
N = 0 Long wide mass (buried bedrock plateau / Horizontal

lithology
2. Sharpness: 1 / r N+1 (estimation of depth)
3. Shape
Anomalous prisms
Dipping
prism
Last Time:
Interpretation: Important aspects

Source Depth
Graphical ways:
(A) Half width method
(B) Straight slope method
(C) Smith rules
Semi-automated approaches:
(A) Euler deconvolution
(B) Werner deconvolution
(C) Statistical spectral techniques
Straight Slope method
(zc ≈ 2 x XSSL)
Smith Rules
zt ≤ K x (gmax / g’max)
K = 0.65 for 2D source
0.86 for 3D source
Euler’s Deconvolution [Thomson, 1982]:
• A technique that can estimate the location of a simple
body (monopole, dipole, thin sheet, etc.) from only a few
measurements of the magnetic or gravity field could be
applied to a long profile of measurements by dividing the
profile into windows of consecutive measurements, each
window providing a single estimate of source location.
• When all such determinations are plotted in cross section,
they may tend to cluster around magnetization or density
contrasts of geologic interest.
A function V is said to be homogeneous of degree n if it

satisfies Euler's equation.
If f also satisfy Laplace's equation, they can be represented in
spherical coordinates as a sum of spherical surface
harmonics. Any spatial derivative of a homogeneous function
is also homogeneous.
Let ΔTi be the ith point of a magnetic survey over a simple body,
such as a sphere or cylinder, with the point of measurement
at (x,y,z), and the center of the body at (xo, yo, zo).
Assuming we have some way of measuring or calculating

horizontal and vertical gradients of the total-field anomaly,
This equation has only four unknowns: xo, yo, zo, and n, the
first three of which provide the location of the body. For
different measurement locations:
Werner Deconvolution [Werner, 1953]:
• The magnetic field of a thin

sheet-like body has a simple
form that directly depends in
part on its location and depth.
• It is possible in principle to estimate the location of the top of
the body and its magnetization from only four
measurements of the total-field anomaly.
• A profile of total-field measurements over the body could be
divided into groups of four or more measurements, each
group providing an estimate of the source location.
• When locations are plotted in cross section, individual depth
estimates tend to cluster around the true location of the
sheet-like body.
• Groups of consecutive points are treated as a "window"
sliding along the profile.
Assignment – Why these are termed as deconvolution ?
The general equation for the total-field anomaly over a

semi-infinite sheet of dipoles:
For any given dip ϕ, equation has four unknowns, A, B, x’ and

d, and these can be determined from four or more
measurements of the total-field anomaly.
Four consecutive measurements of the total-field anomaly
provide four equations:
Four unknowns concerning the sheet, namely, x’, d, A, and B.

If the geologic section can be modeled appropriately by many
such sheets, a four-point operator such as above can be
moved through the anomaly profile, each operation potentially
yielding the location of a hypothetical sheet.
The resulting locations when plotted in cross section may
assist the interpreter in identifying geologic structure.
Last Time:
Interpretation techniques
Source Depth
Graphical ways:
(A) Half width method
(B) Straight slope method
(C) Smith rules
Semi-automated approaches:
(A) Euler deconvolution
(B) Werner deconvolution
(C) Statistical spectral techniques
Fourier transforms of anomalies
caused by simple sources
II. Random property in the layer
I. Random Interface [Naidu, 1998] – like Mid oceanic ridge
III. Lateral distribution of sources

Methods to estimate depth to sources from Potential
field data (Gravity and Magnetic )
Spector and Grant method (1970)

ln P(k )  2kd
The slope of log

power spectrum is
directly proportional
to the depth to top of
the source (assuming
random distribution
of property).
[Chamoli et al., 2011]

Scaling Spectrum approach
(Maus and Dimri, 1995, 1996; Bansal and Dimri, 2001)
Power spectrum of (a)

Density (b) Susceptibility
data from KTB bore hole
Germany
PS(k) = A k- e-2kd  is scaling exponent of

the field
The method incorporates the scaling behaviour of sources

and thus, the depth values are more reliable than the
simple power spectrum method.

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ES-321 Gravity & Magnetic Prospecting

Gravitational Field Density

Cost effective & non-invasive.

A R the carat ^ denotes a unit direction vector.

Cost effective & non-invasive germane

2.1 2.6 3 2.4 2.1

H O R • Nevertheless this is the most

A R technique (to ~3 mgal)

I I T • Disadvantages: unwieldy; requires

H O R dropped in a vacuum. This causes

• Governed by Laplace’s equation:  2 u   g  4 GM

• Method looks for H

(“zero-length” spring of L-R yields mass M

I. Variation with Latitude:

Several slightly different spheroids and corresponding

• The exact shape of earth has been a matter of great

• Making corrections for the normal northward or southward

A precise model of Earth's geoid is

I I Tgravity field will lead to a deeper

• Method looks for

• Measurements may be surface-based (i.e., taken with

Length of 1 degree of latitude (km):

Variation in g per degree (mGal): O EE 88.91

Milligal per meter:

• A point at higher elevation is farther away from center of

FAC = h x (0.3086 mGal / m)

• Gravity variation- Elevation effects.

Contributors to the Observed Gravity:

Approximate topography as a slab with density ρ & thickness h:

   4 Gdxdydz  2Gh  0.04193h

For standard  = 2670 kg/m3, simple Bouguer correction is

If the elevation of the observation point is above sea level,

• Gravimeter are subject to temporal variations due to

• Temperature is critical. The actual response of a gravimeter

• Automated drift corrections – Modern instruments

Variations of gravity values due to Tidal effects at middle latitude

• Local atmospheric variations may cause a change in the

• Gravity variation- Elevation effects.

K  0.8122 sin 2l mGal / km

ys is station distance north of the grid origin in

Contributors to the Observed Gravity:

• The free-air correction is sometimes referred to as

For gravity measurements over water, the Bouguer

Note that the anomaly now reflects the density contrast of

gt (terrain effect) is always negative

[without final signs]

• The Bouguer correction is somewhat crude (infinite

Observed gravity at a station is 5.382 mGal greater than at

Ellipsoid/ Sea level gravity is 980.502130 Gal.

Terrain Correction = 1.023 mGal (out to 166.7 km)

gCBA= gobs- gTh+ (0.3086 - 2π Gσ ) x h + gter

Shipborne observations ----------- tens of mGals

See applications in Climatology: Wind patterns

R cos  Centrifugal acceleration at

The vertical component

The change in component due to change in angular velocity:

av  2 R cos2  (V cos ) R cos  2V cos cos