Module 5: Advanced Mechanics

Projectile Motion
Inquiry Question: How can models that are used to explain projectile motion be used to analyse and
make predictions?

Projectiles and Trajectory:

- A projectile is an unpowered object with a launch velocity as a result of an initial force which
provides some initial momentum and energy
- Assume air resistance is negligible, gravity is the only force acting
- Trajectory is determined by initial velocity and the forces that act on it, parabolic
- Gravitational force is constant downwards, acceleration is constant downwards at 9.8 ms-2
- The downward force is calculated by F=mg (m = weight of projectile)
- ax = 0 and ay = -9.8ms-2
- Hence, the horizontal component of velocity doesn’t change
- Projectiles can have a launch angle, initial velocity (u) becomes ux = ucosθ and uy = usinθ
- Use the SUVAT equations to analyse components of motion
- At maximum height, the vertical velocity is 0, horizontal velocity remains unchanged
- Range (horizontal), max height, launch height, launch velocity, launch angle, time of flight, etc.
- Maximum range occurs at a launch angle of 45°

Circular Motion
Inquiry Question: Why do objects move in circles?

Uniform Circular Motion:

- Motion in a circular path at a constant speed
- Variables: radius of path (r), speed (v), period/time for one revolution (T)
- Although the object has a constant speed, its direction is changing, hence its velocity is
changing, hence it is accelerating ← centripetal acceleration (ac)

- Net Force (Fnet) = centripetal force (Fc) → since F=ma and ac = v2/r →
- Note: the centripetal force is NOT an extra force! It is provided by pre-existing forces in the system
e.g. friction for a car, gravity for a satellite, tension for a pendulum
- An object moving in a circular path through a distance (s) has angular displacement Δθ where θ is
in radians → angular velocity (⍵) = Δθ / Δt → 𝑣 = ⍵𝑟

Vertical Circular Motion:

- Since tension always acts away from the mass, its magnitude changes in vertical circular motion
- At the top, Fc is downwards, weight is also downwards ∴Tension is reduced (T = F c - mg)
- At the bottom, Fc is upwards, weight is downwards ∴Tension is increased (T = F c + mg)
- At extreme left/right, Tension is unaffected by mass
- At any other point, resolve tension into its components first, then solve

Horizontal Circular Motion:

- Tension can be resolved into vertical and horizontal components for motion in a horizontal circle
- For cars turning corners, there is a maximum friction force the road can exert on the car’s tyres
 - Slowing down at corners reduces the frictional force required (since Fc decreases with v2)

Turning on Banked Tracks:

- Banked track = sloped road (inclined planes)
- Remember that weight/gravity always acts downwards and the normal force (FN) is always
perpendicular to the plane
→ v=√❑ where v is the ideal speed

Energy and Work in Uniform Circular Motion:

- Since objects in uniform circular motion have a constant speed, their kinetic energy is also constant
- For UCM in a horizontal plane, potential energy is also constant, hence Work (W) = 0

Rotation and Torque:

- Torque is the rotational equivalent of force, it acts on an object at some distance (r) from a pivot
point or axis of rotation
- Torque has units Nm (Newton metres) *note this is the same as Work (J) but torque ≠
energy!!

- Torque is always perpendicular to the ‘arm’ ∴only the perpendicular component of force is
used
- Hence, torque is maximised when θ=90°
- To increase torque, increase force or increase distance from pivot point

Motion in Gravitational Fields

Inquiry Question: How does the force of gravity determine the motion of planets and satellites?

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation (NLUG):

- G is the universal gravitational constant found on the data sheet, M and m are two
masses (kg) exerting forces on each other, r is the distance between them (m)
- The force on each due to the other (F in the equation) is equal and opposite as per N3L
- Each objects exerts an attractive force on the other, so F is directed towards the object exerting the
force

The Gravitational Field:

- All objects with mass are surrounded by a gravitational field, the strength of this
field r metres from its centre (not surface) is given by g in the equation to the right
- Remember that g is a vector, it is always directed towards the centre of the object
- The units of g are Nkg-1 or ms-2 (they are equivalent)
- Because the gravitational field lines are almost parallel at Earth’s surface, g is assumed constant at
9.8ms-2 for things like projectile motion because the field is pretty much uniform

The Orbits of Planets and Satellites:

- The velocity of a mass (M) in its circular orbit is given by the formula at
right → →
- By using our understanding of a period and the circumference of a circle, we
get →

Types of Satellites:
** Note: Orbited body’s radius + Altitude = Orbital Radius !!
 Name Altitude Period Description Uses

Geostationary ～36000 24 Orbits the equator so it always stays Communications and

km hours at the ‘same point’ from an observer Global Positioning
on Earth’s POV (GPS)

Geosynchronous ～36000 24 Orbits a ‘great circle’ (circle on Same as above

km hours Earth’s surface with the same
circumference as Earth, radius must
extend from Earth’s centre)

Low-Earth Orbit <1200 80-130 Fast orbit allows quick function, Weather monitoring,
km minutes proximity to surface allows high military surveillance,
resolution images mapping
** all geostationary satellites are geosynchronous, but not all geosynchronous satellites are geostationary

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion:

1. All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one of two foci
2. The areas swept out by an orbiting body in relation to one of the foci of its elliptical orbit are equal in
equal time intervals
a. This is because, when it is closer to the focus, it speeds up and when it is further away it
slows down
b. Think LoCoE, as GPE decreases (closer to focus) → KPE increases

3. The square of the period of a planet’s orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean radius of its orbit,
meaning the ratio between the two is constant.
a. M is the mass of the orbited body
b. If two objects are orbiting the same body, (T2/r3) of each can be equated

Energy in a Gravitational Fields:

- Our old definition of U = mgh doesn’t work anymore because g is not constant (U = GPE). So:

→ →
Escape Velocity:
- The minimum speed of an object orbiting a body at a radius r to escape into
space and not be pulled back (‘overcome the gravitational pull’) → →
→→→

Module 6: Electromagnetism
Charged Particles, Conductors, and Electric and Magnetic Fields
Inquiry Question: What happens to stationary and moving charged particles when they interact with
an electric or magnetic field?
Charged Particles in Uniform Electric Fields:
- Electric fields are a region around a charged object within which another charged object will
experience a force
- Parallel and equidistant field lines can represent uniform electric fields, for point charges they
radiate outwards (it is best to draw at least 8)
- Two oppositely charged parallel plates will create a strong, uniform electric field between them (it
only becomes non-uniform at the edges, where it bends)
- The electric field strength between two such plates is equal to the potential difference
÷ the distance between them → E = V/d where E is in Vm -1
- Also a particle of charge q will experience a force F when placed in an electric field of strength E
such that F = Eq
- Work done on a charged particle by a uniform electric field: W = qEd = qΔV
- d = displacement in the direction of the field (positive for parallel or negative for anti-parallel)
- REMEMBER: if the particle accelerates (gains KE) the field is doing positive work on it
- A particle’s trajectory within a uniform electric field can be analysed similarly to projectile motion
- Resolve velocity vectors to be parallel and perpendicular to the field, use SUVATs, etc.

Charged Particles in Uniform Magnetic Fields:

- Magnetic fields are created by moving charged particles / currents / changing electric fields
- F = qvBsinθ → force on a particle of charge q moving at velocity v in a magnetic field of
strength B at θ° from the field
- For direction, use the right-hand rule: thumb = velocity, fingers = mag. field, palm = force
- Note: use back of the hand for force if particle is negatively charged

- For any path a charged particle takes in a magnetic field, the force is always perpendicular to the
velocity so no work is done
The Motor Effect
Inquiry Question: Under what circumstances is a force produced on a current-carrying conductor in
a magnetic field?

The Motor Effect:

- A current-carrying conductor in an external magnetic field experiences a force due to the interaction
of the magnetic fields
- F = BILsinθ where B = magnetic field strength, I = current in the conductor, L = length of conductor
- θ is the angle between the current in the wire and the field
- Can use Right Hand Palm rule to figure out the direction of the force, given velocity
- The motor effect is used to convert electrical potential energy into kinetic energy
- Applications: Parallel Current-Carrying Conductors and DC Motors

Forces on Parallel Current-Carrying Conductors:

- Both current-carrying conductors will create their own magnetic field, meaning they both experience
a force due to the other’s magnetic field (as per motor effect)
- Like currents attract and unlike currents repel
- When wires are different lengths, use the shortest length (common length) for F=BILsinθ
- As per Newton’s 3rd law, the forces these wires exert on each other are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction

- F= (note: in the data sheet this formula has L on the LHS as F/𝑙)
- So, in exams write “force per unit length on each wire due to the interactions of the magnetic fields
produced by the current-carrying wires” NOT “force between the wires”
- You could be given a scenario with multiple parallel current-carrying wires, find the net force

Electromagnetic Induction
Inquiry Question: How are electric and magnetic fields related?

Magnetic Flux (ɸ):

- Electromagnetic induction is the production of an electric field by a changing magnetic
- Magnetic Flux (ɸ) is the measure of the amount of magnetic field passing through an area = BAcosθ
where A = area, B = magnetic field strength and θ = the angle between the magnetic field and the
normal to the plane of the area
- Magnetic Flux Unit: Webers (Wb), maximum value when θ=0° (when plane is perp. to field)
- Flux is a scalar quantity, no direction

Faraday’s Law (ε = -nΔɸ/Δt):

- ε = emf = electromotive force = potential difference = voltage (V)
- Note: it’s not actually a force
- Directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
- n = number of coils / loops

Lenz’s Law:
- The negative sign in Faraday’s Law is because of Lenz’s law
- If a closed circuit exists and emf is induced (Faraday), then a current will also be induced (Ohm)
- Lenz’s Law states that this induced current produces a magnetic field that opposes the magnetic
field that caused it and is an application of the Law of Conservation of Energy
- If Lenz’s law was the other way around, the magnetic field produced by the
induced current would encourage motion, causing objects to accelerate without
 any input energy and hence without any work being done ← breaks physics so it
can’t happen
- So, think of the system as trying to minimise the rate of change of flux because it is resistant to
change (inertia)
- Hence, when a North pole is moved towards a solenoid in a closed circuit, a North pole is created at
the end of the solenoid closest to the magnet in an attempt to repel it
- Remember that eddy currents can also form in sheets of metal / free charge carriers
- Eddy currents are put to use in magnetic braking, their direction can be determined by the RHG rule

Transformers:
- Consists of 2 solenoids placed near each other, not touching, preferably with a soft iron core in
between. One solenoid is connected to an input voltage supply (AC) and the other is connected to
whatever device needs the output voltage
- If a DC input is used, there would only be output voltage/current when the supply is turned on/off
- The graphs for current vs time, flux vs time, magnetic field strength vs time, are identical
- The negative derivative of these is the emf vs time graph
- Root mean square = Vpeak / √2
- Generally, flux linkage should be maximised and energy losses minimised to ensure efficiency
- Soft iron core conducts the changing magnetic field produced by the primary coil, then Faraday and
Lenz to induce emf and current in secondary coil
- If the transformer is not 100% efficient, work with a decreased version of its input voltage in
equations (e.g. if input voltage is 100V but only 20% efficiency, use 20V as input voltage)
- Step-up transformers increase voltage and step-down transformers decrease it
- How to reduce inefficiencies:
- Reduce the resistance of wires, reduces power loss (P=I2R)
- Laminate the soft iron core to reduce eddy currents
- Stack the coils on top of one another, increases flux linkage
- Transformers can be multi-tapped to get multiple output voltages from the one transformer

Applications of the Motor Effect

Inquiry Question: How has knowledge about the Motor Effect been applied to technological
advances?

DC Motor:
- A current-carrying coil in a magnetic field experiences a torque due to the interaction of
the field with the current, making the coil rotate → electric potential to kinetic energy
- The two sides of the coil perpendicular to the magnetic field have currents flowing in opposite
directions and hence experience a force of equal magnitude in opposite directions, so net force is
zero but torque causes it to rotate
- Split ring commutator reverses the current going IN every 180°
- τ = nBIAsinθ where θ = angle between the magnetic field and the normal of the plane of the coil
- Stator: Casing + magnets, input wires and brushes are usually attached
- Rotor: Armature (holds the coils), the coils themselves and the split ring commutator
- Real DC motors use radial magnetic fields with multiple coils to maximise the torque acting on the
coils at any given point, 3 phases allows a more consistent Torque and smooths out the rotation of
the motor
- But, as the coil rotates in the magnetic field at a changing velocity, back emf is induced
(Faraday/Lenz) which decreases net voltage and hence decreased current (the faster the coil spins,
the more back emf, the less current), this limits the speed of the motor

AC Generator:
 - Two slip ring commutators attached to a coil in a magnetic field, the coil is rotated and a current is
induced
- Spinning 50 times a seconds
means a frequency of 50Hz
- Emf vs. time is sinusoidal, as
it is directly proportional to
output current which is
alternating

DC Generator:
- Same structure as DC motor
but function is reversed,
multiple coils possible too
- DC output (|sinx| graph)
- The current in the coil
automatically reverses
- All generators have an AC
current in the coil, the
commutator determines how it comes out

AC Induction Motor:
- Three sets of opposing coils in the stator with an iron core in each coil so the magnetic field is the
cylindrical space inside the stator and it apparently rotates when an AC is input
- The squirrel cage rotor consists of conducting bars forming a cylinder, connected in
loops/pairs so current can flow → Faraday + Ohm + Lenz → the squirrel cage rotates in
the same direction as the magnetic field
- No commutators or brushes are required

(Electro)Magnetic Braking:
- When eddy currents are created in a conductor which oppose its motion
- Note: if the magnet is stationary, the eddy currents will be formed on the metal such that they
oppose motion but if the magnet is moving and the metal is stationary, eddy currents will form on
the metal to follow the movement of the magnet
- Cutting slits in metal reduces electromagnetic braking

Module 7: The Nature of Light

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Inquiry Question: What is light?

Maxwell’s Contributions (1865):

- Unification of electricity and magnetism:
- Gauss’s Law: Electric flux passing through a closed surface is proportional to charge
- Gauss’s Law for Magnetism: No magnetic Monopoles
- Maxwell-Faraday Equation: Voltage induced in a closed circuit is proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux experienced by the circuit
- Ampere’s Circuital Law (+ Maxwell’s displacement current): Magnetic field about an area is
proportional to the current through and changes in electric field about the area
- These 4 major equations suggests EMR were self-propagating and came in a continuous range
- After solving Maxwell’s equations, the result v= 1/√ ❑ (gives approx 3x108 when solved)
- Accelerating charged particle → changing E→ changing B → changing E, etc.
 - Frequency of produced EMR is determined by the rate of change of the electric field

Determining the Speed of Light:

- Historical Method 1: James Bradley’s Stellar Aberration (1725) → used the known speed
of the Earth around the Sun and aberration angle (stars changing position as the Earth
orbits the Sun) to get 301,000km/s (quite close!)
- Historical Method 2: Fizeau + Cornu’s Toothed Wheel and Mirror (1849-72) →
298,500km/s
- Historical Method 3: Foucalt’s Rotating Mirror (1862) → light source to rotating mirror to
stationary mirror back to rotating mirror to detector, angle between incident and
returning light ray is used to get 298,000km/s
- Contemporary Method 1: Froome (1958) → used a radio wave interferometer, analysed interference
patterns of radio waves to determine wavelength, then used v = f𝛌 (known f of radio waves)
- Contemporary Method 2: Bergstand’s Geodimeter (1947) → used s = d/t after
measuring metres

Spectroscopy:
- Continuous Blackbody Spectrum (incandescent light bulb): Wien’s Law - b = Tλmax (T=surface temp)
- Emission Spectrum (excited gas): Bright lines on a dark background, electrons jump an energy level
so in order to get back down they need to release that energy as a photon (E = hf)
- Absorption Spectrum (stars): Dark lines on a bright background, atoms in the photosphere absorb
photons, electron energy jumps up then back down, a photon is released but in a random direction
so the intensity at that wavelength drops drastically
- Surface Temperature: The absorption spectrum with the most dark bands is the coldest
- Translational Velocity: Red shift = going away from us, blue shift = coming closer
- Rotational Velocity: light emitted from the receding side will be red-shifted and vice versa, the dark
bands will be broadened (doppler broadening effect)
- Density: Denser stars have broader spectral lines (pressure broadening effect)
- Chemical Composition: Compare absorption spectrum to known emission lines of elements,
intensity of absorption lines indicates abundance of the element

Light: Wave Model

Inquiry Question: What evidence supports the classical wave model of light and what predictions
can be made using this model?

Newton’s Corpuscular Theory:

- Suggested light consisted of tiny corpuscles with different colours have different sizes/masses
- The particles were perfectly elastic, obey all laws of physics, so small that they don’t scatter
- Could explain reflection, refraction (reverse). Couldn’t explain diffraction, polarisation, interference

Huygen’s Wave Model:

- Huygen’s Principle: Every wavefront can be considered its own point source
- Can explain reflection, refraction, diffraction, polarisation and interference
- Young’s Double-Slit Experiment: a monochromatic light was passed through two minute slits spaced
slightly apart, a diffraction pattern was observed on the receiving screen (bright bands at
constructive interference and dark at destructive, symmetrical, decreasing in intensity, etc.)
- A diffraction grating can also be used for this

Diffraction:
- Single-Slit Diffraction: Alternating bright and dark bands with decreasing intensity, a central max.
- Qualitatively: The longer the wavelength, the narrower the slit, the larger the diffraction effect (i.e.
thicker bands, more spaced out)
Plane Polarisation of Light:
- Polarisation = direction of oscillation of the electric field in EMR
- The intensity of unpolarised light halves when it is first polarised
- Every polarisation thereafter follows Malus’ Law: I = I0cos2θ
- Obviously supports the wave model because particles can’t be polarised
- Long chain molecules perpendicular to the plane of polarisation absorb components of the
transverse wave not parallel to the plane of polarisation

Light: Quantum Model

Inquiry Question: What evidence supports the particle model of light and what are the implications
of this evidence for the development of the quantum model of light?

Blackbody Radiation and the UV Catastrophe:

- Blackbody = perfect absorber and emitter of EMR, doesn’t reflect any light
- Classical wave theory predicted that radiation intensity would increase indefinitely as
peak wavelength decreased → violate of LoCoE as it suggests infinite energy
- Planck discovered the E=hf relationship and posed a more suitable curve

Photoelectric Effect:
- Heinrich Hertz shone light on X and the ammeter A gave a reading (it detected a photocurrent),
suggesting photoelectrons had been ejected from metal X and received at metal Y
- Work Function (ɸ) = energy required in one photon to detach one electron from a metal
- Different metals have different work functions (ɸ = hfo where f0 = threshold frequency)
- Maximum KE of emitted electron = hf - ɸ
Graph Features:
- X-int = f0
- Y-int = ɸ
- m=h

Intensity:
- If f > f0, more
intensity means
more photocurrent
- If f < f0, intensity
has no effect
because no
photoelectrons are
being released
Light and Special Relativity
Inquiry Question: How does the behaviour of light affect concepts of time, space and matter?

Aether:
- Around 1800s, scientists believed light required a medium to pass through
- They named the absolute rest frame, all encompassing medium, the luminiferous aether:
- Fills all of space, low density, perfectly transparent, permeates all matter, great elasticity
- Proposed because after Young’s double-slit experiment, light was found to be a wave

Michelson-Morley Experiment:
- Attempted to find the relative velocity of Earth through the aether
- Interferometer floated on liquid mercury to allow rotation
- Expected result: interference pattern changes as the system rotates like a sine wave because the
aether wind comes in different direction
- Actual observation: No change ← Absence of Evidence ≠ Evidence of Absence! ← Null
Result
- Conclusion: No motion of Earth relative to the aether → eventually led to ‘Aether does
not exist’

Einstein’s Postulates:
1. The speed of light in a vacuum is an absolute constant
2. All inertial frames of reference are equivalent (i.e. frames of reference that aren’t accelerating)

Evidence for Special Relativity:

- Hafele-Keating Experiment (1971):
- 4 synced atomic clocks → 2 on earth, 1 on a plane flying East, 1 on a plane flying
West
- East clock (-60ns), West clock (+270ns) because the Earth spins to the East
- Observations of cosmic-origins muons at Earth’s surface (1941):
- 2 detectors 2km apart (vertically)
- Expected ratio of muon flux was 22 but observed 1.4 → suggested significantly
less decay
- Half life went from 2μs to 60μs when muons were accelerated to 0.9994c

At relativistic speeds…
- Time dilates
- Time is less inside the frame than observed out of the frame (distance is greater outside)
- Length contracts (only in the direction of motion)
- Direct consequence of time dilation
- Length measured by the object in relative motion will always be less than the proper length
(distance between two points as measured by an observer at rest relative to those 2 points)
- Mass / Momentum dilates
- Direct consequence of time and length alterations
- t0 , l0 and m0 are rest values (observer is at rest relative to object being measured)

Einstein’s Mass-Energy Equivalence:

- E = mc2 (note m could dilate for relativistic energy)
- Nuclear Fusion: Energy released = mdefectc2
- E.g. production of energy by the sun → 4H = He4 (mdefect = 0.029 u ∴ E = 4.34 x 10-
12
J)
 - Electron-Positron Annihilation: matter and antimatter collision = annihilation → produces
two equal energy gamma rays in opposite directions to conserve momentum
- Combustion: Far smaller energies than in a nuclear reaction, hence smaller mass defect too
- Useful relation for these questions: E = P.t = mc2

Module 8: From the Universe to the Atom

Origins of the Elements
Inquiry Question: What evidence is there for the origins of the elements?

Big Bang:
- Universe was once a singularity (small, infinite density)
- Expand + cool
- Gravity → strong nuclear force / electroweak force + Higgs Boson (allows mass) →
Elementary particles (quarks, electrons, neutrinos, leptons) → hadrons → Nuclei upto
mass 4 formed (too hot for electrons to stay bound to nuclei) → atoms → stars /
galaxies / elements

Hubble:
- Hubble’s constant: v = H0d (v = velocity in km/s and d = distance in Mpc)
- Analysed spectroscopy of celestial bodies and noticed red shift, suggesting the body is
moving away → trend in red shift: the further away the body, the faster it was moving ∴
universe expanding
- 1/H0 = Age of the universe

Spectra: (same as mod 7)

Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram:
- Hotter = heavier = shorter life span
- PP-chain for lighter stars, CNO for
heavier, Triple Alpha after MS
- Absolute magnitude = apparent
magnitude from a distance of 10
parsecs (about 3.26 light years)
- Notice lower luminosity = higher
brightness / absolute magnitude
- MS stars are fusing hydrogen into
helium in their cores
- White dwarfs are not true stars (not
fusing any elements in their cores),
they are the collapsed inner portion of
an older star, very hot and dense

Stellar Nucleosynthesis:
- Proton-Proton (PP) chain:

- CNO Cycle: +𝜸
 - Triple Alpha Process: occurs in the core of a red-giant where helium is plentiful

Structure of the Atom

Inquiry Question: How is it known that atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and electrons?

Early Cathode Ray (Electron) Experiments:

1. Magnetic Field: Cathode ray in a vacuum deflected when a magnetic field was introduced
a. Suggests particle (charged particle in a magnetic field experiences a force)
2. Maltese Cross: Hard edges of shadow suggest particle (wave would imply diffraction)
3. Paddle Wheel: Cathode rays rotate the paddle wheel suggesting particle (collision, transfer of
energy and momentum, cathode ray has mass)
4. Electric Field: Initially no deflection!
- Initial evidence was contradictory! Then they fixed the E-field experiment and confirmed particle

Thomson’s Charge to Mass Experiment: C

A
- Electric and Magnetic Field acting perpendicular to each other in the
evacuated tube → electrons going from cathode to anode (anode is
positively charged so it attracts the electrons)
- Thomson figured out the required potential difference to balance out the forces on
the electrons due to the magnetic and electric fields so they pass through
undeflected (i.e. qE = qvB)
- Used this to find velocity
- Switched off the electric field so only the magnetic field is acting, electrons move in circular motion
- Use Fc = mv2 / r = qvB to find the charge to mass ratio (not the actual charge or mass!)
- Found that the charge to mass ratio was quite high in comparison to alpha particles

+ + + + + +
X X X X X X X
e v X Actual
path

X X X X X X X
X
- - - - - -
X X X X X X X
X
Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment:
- Oil droplets introduced into an electric field (gaining charge because of friction along the way)
- Adjusted the electric field so the oil drops were suspended
(i.e. mg = qE)
- Calculated charge by realising that all values of q were multiples of 1.6 x 10-12 C ← hence charge
quantised
- Then worked out mass

Geiger-Marsden Experiment (Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment):

- Thomson’s plum pudding model (positively charged cloud with electrons embedded)
- Geiger and Marsden fired alpha particles at a thin gold foil and set up detectors, found that most
went straight through, 1/8000 deflected at >90°, some deflected only slightly
- Suggested that atoms were mostly made up of empty space with the positive charge concentrated
in the centre
- Rutherford’s Model (negative charge a significant distance away from a positively charged centre)

Left = expectation (as per Thomson’s plum

pudding model) → → → → → → → → → → →
Right = observation (led to Rutherford’s model)
→

Chadwick’s Discovery of the Neutron:

- Initially the radiation was thought to be gamma rays, but the high momentum of the protons
suggested the ‘unknown radiation’ must have mass (the energy of the protons was too much to be
accounted for by photons)
- Using laws of conservation of energy and momentum, he realised that neutrons were similar in
mass to protons, but neutrally charged

Quantum Mechanical Nature of the Atom

Inquiry Question: How is it known that classical physics cannot explain the properties of the atom?

Rutherford’s Model Limitations:

1. Couldn’t explain why atoms didn’t emit EMR given that if electrons are ‘orbiting’ the nucleus, they
are experiencing centripetal acceleration and according to Maxwell EMR should be emitted
2. Couldn’t explain how the electrons are arranged around the nucleus (no concept of discrete energy
levels)

Bohr’s Postulates:
1. Electrons exist in ‘stationary states’ in which they possess an unexplainable stability. Any change in
their motion must consist of a complete transition from one stationary state to another (discrete
energy levels)
2. No radiation emitted from an electron in a stationary state, EMR (a photon) is emitted / absorbed in
transitions (E = hf = Ef - Ei)
Bohr’s Model Limitations:
1. Mixture of classical and quantum physics
2. Works only for atoms with one electron in their outer shell
3. Couldn’t explain hyperfine lines
4. Couldn’t explain Zeeman Effect (emission spectrum of an excited gas while in a magnetic field
shows split spectra lines)
5. Couldn’t explain the difference in spectra line intensity, why some electron
transitions were favoured over others
Balmer Series (nf = 2):
- Emission spectrum of hydrogen in the visible + UV spectrums
- Transition 6 → 2 is in the visible spectrum, 7 → 2 is UV
- Lower energy = longer wavelength ∴ for longest wavelength use n i = 3
- Lyman series has nf = 1

De Broglie:
- Proposed all particles must have both wave and particle
properties, termed them ‘matter waves’
- De Broglie wavelength of matter =
- Experimental Evidence: Davisson and Germer Electron
Scattering Experiment in 1927
- Apparatus was not properly evacuated, air oxidised
the nickel target
- D+G tried to degas it by heating it to a high temperature, allows large crystals to
form (acting as a diffraction grating) ← annealing
- When an electron beam was fired, the detector detected a series of maxima and minima
- Measured the angles of diffraction to find wavelength, corresponded with De Broglie’s
theoretical value
- Supported Bohr’s model of the atom because it supported the idea of ‘stationary states’
- Electrons set up standing waves in fixed orbits, standing waves don’t emit EMR
- Must be quantised (integer multiple of the DB wavelength) and thus discrete

Schrodinger:
- Applied mathematical equations involving
probability to Bohr’s model
- Electron Cloud Model: we cannot know exactly
where an electron is at any given time, but the
electrons are more likely to be in specific areas

Properties of the Nucleus

Inquiry Question: How can the energy of the atomic nucleus be harnessed?

Type What it is Rel. Mass Rel. Charge Effect of B/E Ionising Power Penetrating Power

𝜶 He nucleus Very high 2+ Yes High Low

𝞫 Electron/positron Low 1- or 1+ Yes Medium Medium

𝜸 EMR 0 0 No Low High

Extra Notes on Spontaneous Decay:

- Alpha particle emissions usually occurs with large unstable nuclei
- Beta-Minus decay is the transformation of a neutron into a proton, electron and antineutrino
 - Beta-Plus decay is the transformation of a proton into a neutron, positron and neutrino
- Electron Capture is a type of beta decay in which an electron from the atom’s inner shell is
absorbed into the nucleus and combines with a proton to become a neutron
and neutrino (ejected from nucleus) +
v
- Gamma radiation does not change the makeup of the nucleus

Radioactive Decay:
- Recall concepts of half life and isotopes from previous years
- The rate of radioactive decay is unaffected by changes in physical conditions
such as temperature or pressure or any chemical reactions

Mass Defect and Binding Energy:

- Actual mass of a nucleus is always more than the combined mass of nucleons → energy
- Binding energy = energy required to bind nucleons in the nucleus (NOT a measure of stability)
- Work out mass defect (mass of nucleus - mass of protons - mass of neutrons) and use E = mc2
- B.E per nucleon is a measure of stability, higher the better

Nuclear Fission:
- When a heavy nucleus (Z > 56) splits into two fragments, triggered by the absorption of a neutron
- Neutrons are released and any binding energy
- Slower neutrons are more likely to be caught by the nucleus as they spend more time near it
- Controlled Nuclear Chain Fission: Critical mass (smallest amount of fissile material needed
for a sustained nuclear chain reaction) → only one resultant neutron is allowed to hit
another nucleus (the rest are absorbed by control rods)
- Control rods are made of boron (absorbs neutrons without becoming unstable)
- Uncontrolled … : Supercritical mass, each resultant neutron is allowed to hit another nucleus, rapid
release of energy, increasing rate of fission
- Coolant (heavy water) slows own fast neutrons to increase their De Broglie wavelength

Deep Inside the Atom

Inquiry Question: How is it known that human understanding of matter is still incomplete?

Evidence for Subatomic Particles:

- Other than protons / neutrons / electrons, there are positrons, muons, etc.
- Paul Dirac developed a relativistic version of the Schrodinger equation and found it had
more than one solution → one matched the properties of an electron but the other was
for a positron
- Carl Anderson found and confirmed the existence of a positron using cloud chambers + cosmic rays
- Thus antimatter was proven to exist (not just for electrons) and pions/muons were discovered

Fundamental Particles:
- Neutrons have no charge, but have their own intrinsic magnetic fields → suggests they
are made up of smaller particles with charges adding up to 0
- Proton can be converted into a neutron and vice versa in beta decay → proton made of
quarks too
Standard Model of Matter:
- Leptons have integer charge, can exist individually, no strong nuclear force
- Quarks cannot exist individually, experience SNF
- Bosons carry forces
- Gluons carry strong nuclear force
- Photons carry electromagnetic force
- W, Z bosons carry weak nuclear force
- Gravitons (?) carry gravity
- Baryons are combinations of 3 quarks (e.g. proton is up-up-down, neutron is down-up-up)
- Mesons are combinations of one quark and one antiquark (e.g. pion is down-antidown)
- Fermions have half integer spin, bosons have integer spin
- Muons and Taus are much more massive than electrons
- Higgs Boson: SMOM suggests the Higgs field penetrates through the entire universe, slowing down
particles and causing elementary particles to interact with each other
- SNF is very strong, short range → attractive to overcome electrostatic repulsion,
repulsive at distances <5 x 10-16 m to prevent nucleons from fusing together)

Limitations of SMOM:
- Graviton remains undiscovered, hence the force of gravity is not incorporated
- Predicts neutrinos have zero mass, but they do have a very small mass
- It does not explain why the particles have the masses they do (e.g. why the top quark is about 190
times the mass of a proton)
- Mass of the Higgs boson has to be corrected for each different particle it interacts with,
the heavier the interacting particle → the larger the correction

Particle Accelerators:
- Used to accelerate particles to relativistic speeds such that mass dilates (momentum and energy
increases), facilitating collision with other particles to form highly unstable products
- These products are detected and analysed to determine the structure of matter in
terms of fundamental particles and their interactions → forms the basis of SMOM
- Linear Accelerator: Requires no magnetic fields, good for stationary targets BUT long tubes
required
- Tubes connected to an alternating potential difference, as the particle leaves one tube the
polarity will change so it is repelled by the previous tube and attracted to the next
- Cyclotron: A constant magnetic field exerts a force
perpendicular to the particle’s motion, an electric field is set
up such that the dees have alternating charge
- Radius increases due to speed increase between the
dees (linear acceleration due to electric field)
- Synchrotron: Same as cyclotron but it’s just one tube (fixed
radius, varying magnetic field)
- Requires less energy to run, but only one batch of
particles can be accelerated at a time
- Radio frequency electric field used to accelerate
particles around a circuit of constant diameter