Human and

Sociall Biology
Socia
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The immune system

Section Living organisms and If microorganisms do manage to get through the body’s defence system, we

A
have more ways of protecting ourselves from attack. Our white blood cells help

the environment to defend us against pathogens and protect us from the worst effects of disease.
They make up the immune system. (See Chapter 8 for details of how the
white blood cells are produced in the lymph glands.)

Learning outcomes Natural immunity

At the end of Section A, you will: Every cell has protein markers on the outside of it – including bacteria and
viruses. These proteins are called antigens. This is how cells recognise each
l understand the processes that govern the interactions of
other – and also recognise ‘strangers’. As you can see in Table 16.1, our white
organisms in the environment, and the processes by which life
blood cells make antibodies against any ‘stranger’ antigens such as those
is perpetuated Figure 16.9 A scanning
on bacterial or viral pathogens (see Figure 16.9). When the antibodies stick to the electron micrograph (SEM) of
l understand the nature of the interdependence of the processes, antigens, they disable or destroy the pathogen, which is then removed by the a white blood cell antibody
structures and functions of the major systems within an organism phagocytes. (purple) surrounding and
destroying a tuberculosis
in the maintenance of health. bacterium (pink).
Table 16.1 The different types of white blood cells, their roles and how they defend the body
against disease

Role of the white blood cell How it defends against disease

Lymphocytes – produce antibodies Some types of these white blood cells produce special chemicals
called antibodies. The antibody attaches to a special marker
antigen
protein (antigen) on the surface of the microorganism. Each type
antibody of microorganism has unique markers, so unique antibodies are
bacterium
needed for each different type of pathogen. Once they have
produced antibodies against a particular bacterium or virus, the
white blood cells can produce them again very rapidly so the
antibody attached
person is immune to that particular disease.
to bacterium
white blood cell

Phagocytes – ingest microorganisms These white blood cells ingest (take in) microorganisms once
antibodies have bound to their antigens. They digest the
white blood microorganisms within the cell, destroying them and preventing
cells them from causing disease.

bacterium

Including the Lymphocytes – produce antitoxins

antitoxin toxin
Some types of these white blood cells produce antitoxins
that counteract the toxins (poisons) released by some
microorganisms.
environment.
molecule molecule

random movement of
water molecules due
partially permeable
membrane
larger sucrose molecules cannot
white blood cell bacterium

pass through membrane

And topical
4 Living organisms and the environment to their kinetic energy information on
The immune system 361

9781398379152 Human and Social Biology.indb 4 10/24/22 11:20 PM 9781398379152 Human and Social Biology.indb 361 diseases and 10/24/22 11:28 PM

pandemics.
…with a full focus on their impact in the Caribbean.

water molecules attracted

to sucrose molecules

Meet course objectives with ‘The Biologist’s Toolkit’ throughout, interlinking and
strengthening Maths, Science and Language skills.
Figure 2.9 This model shows
how osmosis works – with
The biologist’s toolkit: Asking questions a net movement of water
molecules from an area
where they are in a high
water
Scientists ask a lot of questions! This is how we find out more about the living world around us. sucrose solution
concentration to an area
where they are in a lower
There are many different types of questions. Some of them are answered by science. A scientific arrows show amount of water
concentration through
movement in each direction
question is one we answer by collecting and thinking about data. Data is information. It may be a partially permeable
numbers from measurements, or words or drawings describing observations. membrane.

Most science investigations start with a question. HereCell

are membranes
some examples of questions
are not that science
the only partially permeable membranes. There are
can answer: artificial partially permeable membranes too, and these can be used to make a
l Which flowers do copper-rumped model cell (see Activity 2.3 on page 32). By changing the concentration of the
hummingbirds like best? solutions inside and outside your model cell, you can see exactly why osmosis is
l Which Caribbean island uses the most fossil fuels?so important in living organisms – and what happens if things go wrong!
l Does being obese increase your risk of heart disease?
The biologist’s toolkit: Using models
However, science cannot answer all questions, for example:
l What is my favourite food?
Sometimes what we want to investigate as scientists may be too big
l Will I get into the school cricket team?
to work with – like the universe – or too small to see, like atoms and
When you plan an investigation, choose the question molecules. Sometimes it is just too dangerous, like some poisonous
you are going to answer carefully. Make sure it can be organisms or radioactive materials.
answered by science. Copper-rumped
Scientists hummingbird
make models to help us understand what is going on and to
answer scientific questions. We also use models to predict what might

The characteristics of living organisms happen in a situation, or to explain what we have observed. There are
different types of models:
Mathematical model

All living organisms have specific characteristics, which theyldisplay regardless

Physical of for
models, whether they
example have
our onecells in Figures 2.9, 2.10
model
cell or millions. In some cases, particularly in the larger multicellular
andanimals
2.11 like humans, it is easy to show
that all these processes are taking place. In others, such as microscopic
l Mathematicalorganisms and plants, we have to
models
rely on technology to show us what is happening. l Computer models that rely on computer programs to find the
answers
The seven life processes, described in Table 1.1, are common to most fororganisms.
living us. Computer model

Table 1.1 Life processes

Life process Illustration Description

Osmosis 31
Movement All these flowers The process by which all organisms
have turned to get nearer to things they need or away
View sample material and trial free for 30 days at hoddereducation.com/hsb face the Sun. from problems. Animals move using
9781398379152 Human and Social Biology.indb 31 10/24/22 11:21 PM
muscles; plants move more slowly
using growth (Figure 1.2).
 ures including theiscegood ll at processing information and largely controls your speech, while the right-hand
ell struct
c t i o ns of c s, m i to c h o ndria, vacuside
olesis
, better at special awareness and recognising faces. If the right-hand side of your
e fun l wall, nucleu lasmic reticbrain
ulum is damaged you may be unable to recognise even your closest family. It is often only
e th , cel and endop
stat rane hloroplasts when parts of the brain are damaged that we appreciate just what an amazing organ it is.
e m b , c
m e s
so m
r ib o

Checkpoint questions Consolidate learning

exp
lai
and n the pr 5 Describe the role of a) the cerebrum b) the cerebellum and with ‘Checkpoint
activ oc
e tra esses of diffusion, osmosis c) the medulla oblongata in a human brain. questions’ and end of
imp nsp
ortan ort, and why they are 6 so Compare the structure and function of the spinal cord to that
t in liv
ing system of the brain.
chapter summaries.
s

Voluntary and reflex control

Sense organs such as the eye, which we will look at
in more detail later, respond to changes in the world
Develop further subject
ganisms including around us and to changes inEnd-of-chapter
our internal environment.
questions
ms, both as knowledge with ‘Did youa change in a sense organ alone is simply
However,
need to consider not enough. The information 1 needs to reach
What our
are chromosomes made up of?
p of units called
know?’ feature boxes.
central nervous system, and we needA toRNA process the
ells. Others, such as information and then respond. B Protein
g together. Organisms C DNA
ich means ‘many cells’. Voluntary actions
D Acetic orcein (1)
DID YOU
Many of the activities we carry2 outHow are many
voluntary – we
chromosomes would you expect to find in a normal human body cell?
KNOW? choose to do them. So how do they A come 23 about? For
Human beings example, if we see a mango that looks B 50 at a market
ripe
of cells, but are
contain an stall, we may well pick it up, feel itCand smell
84 it before
ther topics such as
enormous number deciding if it is as good as it looks,Dand buying
46 it. (1)
of cells. Estimates
ween fundamental l When we see the mango, 3 the nerve impulses
Which combination areof chromosomes would result in a male human being?
range from 10
s differences transmitted from our eyes along A sensory
XXX neurons
million million
to our spinal cord. B XY
cells to 100 million
ctions of cells. For million cells – nol From the spinal synapses, theCelectrical XX signal
ons of red blood wonder no one has continues up sensory neuronsD in the YYspinal cord (1)
white blood cells been able to count until it reaches our brain.
4 Which one of the following statements is not true of mitosis?
them accurately!l The information is analysed in our brain to place us
A In the initial stages of cell division, the chromosomes divide to form
in a market and to link back to memories of buying
daughter chromatids.
unripe or overripe mangos in Bthe past as well,
Mitosis as to replace old, worn-out cells.
is used
well as the pleasure of eating Ca ripe Two
mango. Figure 11.12 Buying fresh food from a local stall is just one
identical daughter cells called clones are formed.
of the millions of voluntary actions we carry out each day.
D Genetic variety is introduced during the process. (1)
Chapter
17 Infectious diseases in action 10/27/22 5:22 PM
5 Which of the following processes occurs during meiosis?
i One cell division
Voluntary and reflex control 233
ii Creation of a spindle
iii Production of four haploid cells
list the cause 9781398379152 Human and Social Biology.indb 233 iv Doubling of the chromosomes to form pairs of chromatids 10/24/22 11:25 PM
so
in clu din g a c f a ra n g e o f A i, ii and iv
ute resp infec
i nflu e n za, irato ti o
bronch r y infect us dise B ii, iii and iv spread of these
n which the ay be prevented
ch o ler a a i t is a n d io n s as e C t waivys i
i, iii sand sm
n d gas
troen COVID- uch a ,
s s s ugge nfectious disease
teriti 1 9, s D
named iiii only
i and (1)
s
6 Which one of the following statements is true of meiosis?
Prepare for the SBA A Genetic variation is introduced during the process.
B Meiosis is used to replace old, worn-out cells.
with notes on planning, A sample School-Based Assessment Report
C
discuss p
ossibldaughter
Two identical e treatmecells f a num
nts ocalled ber are formed.
clones
of coisminvolved
formatting, conducting D
Topic
Meiosis mon infein asexual
us disreproduction.
ctio eases (1)

research, data collection d and Thedimpact of the COVID-19 pandemic on my community.

ame esc
presentation, of these nconclusions e th rib
ea ch
pread Background
e sig
explain how s are s com ns a
inand
fectioureflections,
s disease with on in ndstarted
The COVID-19mepidemic
f tio
symp in late November 2019 and quickly developed into a pandemic in early
toms of so
included sample reports. 2020. This was due toecthe uhigh mrate
s distransmission e of the virus by airborne droplets by both symptomatic
eas
and asymptomatic carriers. In orderesto avoid large numbers of persons contracting and transmitting
298 Cell reproduction and variation
the disease, countries asked their populations to stay at home, exercise social or more precisely
physical distancing, wash and sanitise hands frequently and wear masks.

What the examiners say The COVID-19 pandemic Revision tip social and economic consequences. Sectors that rely
has had far-reaching
9781398379152 Human and Social Biology.indb 298
heavily on physical presence, including passenger transportation, the arts, entertainment, cinemas, 10/24/22 11:26 PM

➜ Candidates are unable to accurately identify the microorganisms that tourism, education
restaurants, Revise forandset sports
periodswere closed.
cause the various infectious diseases or explain how these diseases can of time and then
The result of the restrictions resulted in the closure of many companies, a reduction in staff and
be treated. take a break to rest
decreased spending capacity, particularly for lower-income families. Many individuals temporarily
➜ Candidates are unfamiliar with the causative agents of mostorinfectious and refresh. You’ll
permanently lost employment. Reductions in social gatherings such as family get-togethers,
remember better
diseases, their signs and symptoms, as well as effective treatment methods.
weddings, attending religious events, funerals and other functions resulted in social isolation due to
if you are relaxed!
In some instances, candidates repeat home remedies as treatments for
social-distancing guidelines. Students were unable to attend physical classes but were given classes
Planning your own
infectious diseases rather than the scientifically proven ones.
online. Some students were unable
revision to attend online classes since they had neither electronic devices
timetable
➜ Candidates continue to misspell key terms. such as personal computers, smartphones
can really help. or tablets, nor reliable internet connectivity.

Problem statement
How did the COVID-19 pandemic impact families in my community in relation to health and finances?
There are hundreds of different bacterial and viral infections. As you
Avoidin common
learned Chapters 15 anderrors and focusthat cause an
16, the microorganisms Research objective
on problem
infection topics with
are called pathogens. ‘What
Bacterial infections can usually be treated
To investigate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the physical and mental health, and financial
using antibiotics, but we don’t have many effective drugs against viruses
the examiners say’ sections.
yet. When you are studying any disease in detail, keep in mind the
situation of families in my community

Methodology
general principles of infectious diseases you learnt in the last chapter.
In this chapter, we will consider some common infectious diseasesI did a survey using a questionnaire on how COVID-19 affected the health and financial status of
that affect two body systems you have already studied in detail –30 families. I Figure
our asked 17.1
a fewA transmission electron
of my classmates to fill it out before I gave it to one member of each of 30
micrograph (TEM) of virus particles
respiratory system and our digestive system. See Figure 17.1. families in my community. The families were randomly selected and they agreed verbally to take
(green) infecting epithelial cells.
View sample material and trial free for 30 days at hoddereducation.com/hsb
part in the research. Through a combined letter and questionnaire (see Appendix A), the families
were informed formally of the research project and given assurances that their anonymity and
confidentiality of responses would be kept. They373 were asked to complete the questionnaire honestly.
 £24.99
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