J Food Sci Technol (November 2022) 59(11):4152–4164

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-021-05271-6

REVIEW ARTICLE

Pineapple processing waste (PPW): bioactive compounds, their

extraction, and utilisation: a review
L Meena1 • Animesh Singh Sengar1 • Rooman Neog1 • C. K Sunil1

Revised: 13 July 2021 / Accepted: 13 September 2021 / Published online: 8 October 2021
 Association of Food Scientists & Technologists (India) 2021

Abstract Fruits and vegetable processing industries con-
tribute to the largest portion of food waste. With changing
diet habits, the demand for the production and processing
of fruits and vegetables has increased greatly to fulfil the
rising demand amongst the masses. Waste generation
begins from the harvesting of raw material until it gets
processed. Pineapple processing industries produce pro-
cessing waste (peel, core, pomace, and crown) which are
rich in various bioactive compounds. In most cases, the by-
products contain larger amounts of valuable compounds
which have higher nutritional and therapeutic importance
than its final produce. Researchers have studied the
potential of pineapple wastes primarily for the extraction of
enzymes (bromelain, pectinase, xylanase and cellulase) and
secondarily as a low-cost substrate to produce dietary fibre,
organic acids, and phenolic antioxidants. This review
describes the bioactive compounds in pineapple wastes,
their extraction techniques, and their potential applications
as a polymer material, bio-sorbents, bioethanol and vanillin
production, etc. It focuses primarily on bioactive com-
pounds that have functional and medicinal value and can be
used independently or incorporated with other ingredients
to form the valorised product.

& C. K Sunil
sunil.ck@iifpt.edu.in
1
National Institute of Food Technology, Entrepreneurship and
Management (NIFTEM) - Thanjavur (an Institute of National
Importance; formerly Indian Institute of Food Processing
Technology - IIFPT), Pudukkottai Road, Thanjavur,
Tamilnadu 613005, India

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Graphic abstract
Keywords Pineapple wastes
Low-cost substrate

Bioactive compounds
Extraction
Utilisation
Introduction
Fruits and vegetables play an important role to balance
human nutrition needs. Recently, their demand has
increased as people prefer to consume food from vegetar-
ian sources. India, with its wide-ranging distributed cli-
matic condition, supports the growth of various horticulture
produces. Pineapple is the second most ingested and pro-
duced fruit after banana and contributes to around 20% of
tropical fruits total production (Pyar et al. 2014). In 2019,
the total production of pineapple in India was reported to
be 1.71 million tonnes which is nearly 6.07% of total world
production (28.17 million tonnes) (FAO 2019). Pineapple
production (tonnes/ha) in India accounts to be 16.45,
whereas, world production reaches to 25.04. To calculate
the average pineapple waste per ha that would have pro-
duced in 2019, peel (30%) 4.93 tonnes/ha, core (7%) 1.15
tonnes/ha, crown (13%) 2.14 tonnes/ha and Pulp (50%)
8.22 tonnes/ha (pomace 2.47 tonnes/ha and juice 5.76
tonnes/ha) (Banerjee et al. 2018). Processing leads to the
development of food products with balanced nutrients and
enhanced shelf life, increasing acceptability and accessi-
bility with ease of consumption. According to FAO reports,
one- third of the food produced in the world turns into
waste due to improper handling during transportation,
spoilage due to microbes and lack of cold storage facilities.
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Inadequate processing facilities and outdated practices
cause huge losses of by-products and their residues during
processing.
Considering ease of consumption and health safety as a
major concern, humans are shifting preference to consume
processed and packaged foods rather than raw form. Also,
degrading quality on storage and comparatively lesser shelf
life of raw fruits and vegetables made their market shrink.
Products like fruit juices, jam, jelly, marmalade, ketchup,
sausages, purees are the most common consumables.
Moreover, the processing of pineapple creates bio-wastes.
Pineapple wastes could be divided into two categories:
pineapple on-farm waste (POFW), which includes leaves,
roots, stems and other on-field waste which are generated
during harvesting and storage and pineapple processing
waste (PPW) which are wastes produced during industrial
processing of the pineapple as in during pulping, juicing
etc., (Banerjee et al. 2018).
Phytochemicals present in food that attunes metabolic
processes in the body and helps to promote better health are
considered as bioactive food components. They have sev-
eral beneficial effects on human health, like decreasing
enzyme activity, inhibition of receptor activities, induction
and inhibition of gene expression (Correia et al. 2012).
Pineapple wastes produced during processing are enriched
raw material and is mainly composed of DF, pectin, pro-
tein, phenolic compounds, vitamins, and minerals (Diaz-
Vela et al. 2013). Pineapple is also a rich source of
’bromelain’, a proteolytic group of enzymes (Banerjee
et al. 2018). As a result, these components can be extracted
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from the pineapple residues and can be further used for
value addition or product innovation.
Production of pineapple juice yields pomace, which are
potential source of phytochemicals, vitamins, enzymes,
carbohydrates, and other components. Such wastes can be
better utilised by extracting the bioactive compounds pre-
sent in different parts of pineapple. Complete utilisation of
pineapple fruit and by-products in food, cosmetic and
pharmaceutical industries will provide a wide variety of
natural compounds with a lower processing cost and higher
economic importance (Fig. 1). To create a difference in the
present practises of waste handling and tweaking the
interest of people for effective utilisation of biomasses
generated during fruits and vegetable processing. This
article makes an effort to deliver a detailed review on
pineapple processing wastes generated during industrial
process and create an approach for its valorisation. It dis-
cusses about the available nutritional potential, bioactive
compounds, their extraction and utilisation in food and
pharmaceutical industries. This review may help the
researchers and processing experts further utilise the by-
products that are presently considered waste.
Dietary fibre (DF)
They comprise a mixture of polymers of plant carbohy-
drates which includes oligosaccharides and polysaccha-
rides. These include celluloses, hemicelluloses, pectin
substances, gums, resistant starch, and inulin associated
with other non-carbohydrate components (Elleuch et al.
2011). DF is found to have a positive relationship with
human health especially considering they reduce type 2
diabetes and heart diseases. Foods containing DF are
generally low GI (glycemic index) foods and, as a result,
Fig. 1 Biorefinery approach for
pineapple waste utilization
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cause a slower and lesser increase in blood glucose levels
and, therefore insulin as well.
Pineapple peels were found to have higher total dietary
fibre (TDF) content which was estimated to be 70.6% for
dried peel powder. The reported results show pineapple
peel are rich in TDFs in comparison to apple and citrus
fruits which have 55–65% and 50–70%, respectively.
Particularly, insoluble dietary fibre (IDF) made up the
highest of the TDFs, which accounts to have 77% of
neutral sugars such as glucose, xylose, mannose, arabinose,
and galactose (Larrauri et al. 1997). However, Huang et al.
(2011) reported different results according to which TDFs
constituted 42.2% of the pineapple peel out of which
86.02% belonged to the IDF and the rest belonged to sol-
uble dietary fibre (SDF). The differences may be attributed
to various other factors such as differences in geographical
conditions, growing conditions, species used for testing,
etc. (Selani et al. 2014).
Pomace is the waste generated after juice extraction at
the industrial scale and includes left-out portion like seed,
skin and pulp. Selani et al. (2014) reported that the pomace
contain 45.22% of TDFs, to which 98.18% belongs to the
insoluble fraction and results were in agreement with the
results reported by Huang et al. (2011). Pineapple core
which is another important waste product produced while
processing, consists of about 53.59% TDFs, out of which
51.14% are IDF and the rest 2.45% are SDF, by dried
weight (Shiau et al. 2015). It can be concluded that
pineapples are rich in IDFs, which could be helpful in
maintaining good bowel health and insulin sensitivity to
result in lowering the risk of diabetes.
The method used for extraction of DF plays an impor-
tant role in determining the effects that the resulting iso-
lated or extracted DF will have in the food which they are
incorporated into or their general effect on the human
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body. The extraction method varies with the target DF, and
also may vary according to their chemical nature, their
degree of polymerization and structural properties.
Numerous studies have been made in which different parts
of pineapple have been treated to various techniques in
order to isolate the fibre fraction. DF extraction and esti-
mation were done on different portions of pineapple waste,
and the results have been discussed in Table 1.
Previous studies illustrate the application of mechanical
and chemical methods to carry out the DF extraction from
different parts of pineapple waste. The materials were
washed with water or digested either in acids, alkalis,
alcohols or with the help of enzymes, followed by
mechanical techniques like milling and grinding to convert
them into nano or micro-sized particles. The TDF present
in the different parts were mainly IDF with comparatively
smaller amounts of SDF.
Due to the high DF content in pineapple wastes, it has a
huge scope of utilisation. The fibres, whether directly or
indirectly, have been used in the fortification of various
food items to improve the structural and textural properties
of food. Prakongpan et al. (2002) used pineapple core
fibres and incorporated them into various food items such
as doughnuts, beef burgers and golden layered cakes. The
result illustrates that large-sized core fibres had the
potential to increase the volume of the product and oil
reduction, improving emulsifying properties, while the
smaller particles had the potential to reduce shrinkage and
improve the overall texture of the product. Kengkhetkit and
Amornsakchai (2012) used pineapple leaf fibre as a
polypropylene reinforcement to sustain high tensile
strength and modulus. Due to the structural and functional
stability provided by the fibres present in the various parts
of pineapple viz. peel, leaf, pomace, etc., these parts or the
fibre itself have been used in various ways. Pineapple peel
powder has the potential to fortify various integral prop-
erties of a probiotic yoghurt (Sah et al. 2016). Pineapple
DF has also been used along with water in a species of beef
sausage as it not only reduces the fat content of product but
also has propensity to improve the overall consistency of
the sausage (Henning et al. 2016). The fat reducing prop-
erty of pineapple fibres was also used to fortify extruded
Table 1 Extraction of dietary fibre from various parts of pineapple
Method Portion of pineapple
Alcohol hydrolysis Pineapple Pomace and Peel
Chemical treatments Pineapple Pulp and residues
Acidic Extraction Pineapple Core
Enzyme Digestion Pineapple Peel
Steam Explosion Pineapple Leaves
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products that are notoriously fibre deficient (Selani et al.
2014). Considering all the previous studies, the major
reported functions of pineapple fibre include its fat reduc-
ing nature, its ability to provide structural stability and
integrity to the product, and its nutritional properties. As a
result, these fibre-rich wastes from pineapples can be used
to fortify fibre deficient products such as dairy products,
extruded products, etc., as well as can be used to reduce fat
from various animal and plant based products. These fibres
also have the potential to be good packaging materials or as
reinforcement materials.
Enzyme availability
Plant polysaccharides are tightly packed in the cellular
structure and surrounded by lignin, making them highly
resistant to direct enzymatic attacks. Pineapple wastes are
mainly composed of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin
substances converted to simpler sugars by treatment.
Microbial enzymes are known to be the higher-level
enzymes obtained from microorganisms for application in
industry. Microbial enzymes produced from pineapple
wastes are cellulase, xylanase, pectinase (Table 2).
Cellulase
Pineapple peel contains lignocellulosic materials such as
cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, which can be broken
down into simple sugars by chemicals or enzymes. Such
simple sugars synthesised from lignocellulosic materials
can be used for producing bioethanol and other value-
added products. Cellulase is the group of hydrolytic
enzymes that hydrolyse the b-glycosidic bond of cellulose
and produce simple sugars. It is a notable enzyme for
industrial saccharification of cellulosic material (Saravanan
et al. 2013). These are produced by numerous microor-
ganisms (fungi and bacteria) during their growth on cel-
lulosic materials. Some of the common cellulase producers
are Clostridium, Cellulomonas, Thermomonospora, Tri-
choderma, and Aspergillus species; however, among them
SDF (%) IDF (%) TDF (%) Reference
– – 44.90–58.48 Sah et al. (2015)
29.16 43.53 74.69 Elena et al. (2014)
2.45 51.14 53.59 Shiau et al. (2015)
5.90 36.3 42.2 Huang et al. (2011)
– – 99.25 Cherian et al. (2010)
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Table 2 Overview of enzymes and organic acids produced from different microorganisms
Microorganisms Enzyme activity/ Production parameters Reference

Enzymes Cellulase Aspergillus niger : with substrate conc. (up to 3%) Amaeze et al.
Saccharomyces (2015)
cerevisiae
Xylanase Bacillus pumilus SV- Xylanase activity was optimum at 50 8C, pH 6 and metal ions KCl, MnCl2 Nagar et al.
85S and CaCl2 enhanced the activity (2012)
Pectinase Penicillium Highest at incubation period of 48 h (220.30 mg-1 protein) and further Okafor et al.
chrysogenum decreased with increasing incubation period (2010)
Organic Citric Aspergillus foetidus 16.1 g/100 g (62.4%) yield under conditions, 70% initial moisture, 30 8C, Tran and
acids acid ACM 3996 incubation 4 days and 3% methanol Mitchell
(1995)
Citric Yarrowia lipolytica 202.35 g/kg under conditions, 70.71% initial moisture content, KH2PO4 Imandi et al.
acid NCIM 3589 0.64% (w/w), Na2HPO4 0.69% (w/w) and 0.34% (w/w) yeast extract (2008)
L ( ?) Rhizopus oryzae 103.69 mg/g yield under optimized conditions (67.53% w/w moisture Zain et al.
Lactic NRRL 395 content, 32.2 8C, pH 5.6, inoculation size 1 9 107 spores/g and 3 days (2021)
acid incubation period)
Lactic Lactobacillus 54.97 g/L (79%) yield under optimized conditions, 40 8C, pH 6, Abdullah and
acid delbrueckii inoculation size 5%, initial sugar concentration 70 g/L and 5% yeast Winaningsih
extract (nitrogen source) (2020)
Succinic Escherichia coli AFP 6.26 g/L yield under conditions, 37 8C, pH 6.6–6.7, inoculation size 5 mL, Jusoh et al.
acid 184 incubation for 24 h at 200 rpm (2014)

fungus, Trichoderma reesei is an efficient producer of Xylanase

cellulase enzymes (Amaeze et al. 2015).
For the saccharification process, the synergistic action of
three principal enzymes, namely endo-1,4-b-glucanase,
Exo-b-glucanase and b-D-glucosidase, are needed.
Because of these principal enzymes synergistic effect, the
crystalline and amorphous structure of cellulase is created
and hydrolyses cellulose to cellobiose, glucose, and
oligosaccharides. Firstly, the enzyme endoglucanase acts
on amorphous cellulose fibres, that randomly attacks the
glucose polymer chain and releases small fibres consisting
of free reducing and non-reducing ends. Secondly, the
enzyme exo-b-glucanase acts on the free ends of chain and
produces cellobiose. The third enzyme, b-glucosidase,
hydrolyses cellobiose and thereby produces glucose which
is the resultant compound of saccharification (Amaeze
et al. 2015).
An important factor to be considered in cellulase pro-
duction is thermostability i.e., at higher temperatures, the
saccharification process takes place at a faster rate. But at
the same time, the stability of an enzyme has to be main-
tained for the complete saccharification process. Though
the enzymes are prepared using thermophilic microorgan-
isms, these enzymes need not be heat stable (Nigam 2013).
Thermal activation and stability of cellulases can be
achieved by prior heat treatment. Such pre-treatment may
increase the efficiency of cellulolytic enzymes (Nigam
2013).
The major component of plant cell wall polysaccharide is
hemicellulose, and xylan is the major fraction of it. Though
there are many physical, chemical and biochemical meth-
ods to produce xylooligosaccharides, the utilisation of
microorganisms or their enzymes act as a significant
method since they produce lesser undesirable by-products,
fewer monosaccharides, and they do not require any special
equipment. Xylanase hydrolyses xylan to simpler sugar
residues like xylooligosaccharides, xylose, and xylobiose,
which are widely used in industries for quality improve-
ment such as food and beverage industries, feedstock
improvement, quality improvement of lignocellulosic
residues, and texture improvement of bakery products
(Goulart et al. 2005). Xylanase can be produced by bacteria
like Bacillus pumilus SV-85S (Nagar et al. 2012) and fun-
gus-like Trichoderma viride (Fortkamp and Knob 2014).
Xylan is the complex heteropolysaccharide composed of
the main chain of 1,4-b-D-xylose monomers that are par-
tially acetylated and substituted in different degrees by
various side chains, mainly single a-D-glucoronosyl, and
a-L-arabinosyl units. Since xylan has a complex structure,
several hydrolases are required for the complete degrada-
tion of xylan. The main enzyme involved in the degrada-
tion of xylan is endo-b-(1,4) xylanases.

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Pectinase
Pectinases are the group of enzymes that degrade pectic
substances which are responsible for maintaining the
structural integrity of plant tissues. Pectin is the jelly-like
matrix found in the primary cell wall and middle lamella of
fruits and vegetables (Sengar et al. 2020). Pectinase con-
verts polygalacturonic acid to monogalacturonic acid by
acting on the glycosidic bond of the long carbon chain
(polygalacturonase, pectin lyase, and pectate lyase). Mon-
iliella SB9, Penicillium spp., and Aspergillus spp. are
among the microbial strains that produce pectinases.
Okafor et al. (2010) conducted a study on fruits and veg-
etable wastes using Aspergillus niger and Penicillium
chrysogenum as the potential microbial strains for pecti-
nase production. Results indicated higher pectinase yield
(220.3 IU/mg) from pineapple peels using strain P.
chrysogenum. These are widely used in the fermentation of
coffee and tea, fruit juice industries, extraction of oil and
treatment of pectic wastes water produced during fruit juice
processing.
Bromelain
Bromelain is an enzyme belonging to the proteolytic group
of enzymes that can be extracted from pineapples. As a
result of its biological origin and the fact that it has no
known side effects on the human body, it has gained
popularity as a therapeutic and pharmacological product
(Maurer 2001). Bromelain is present in different portions
of pineapple (stem, leaves, fruit, and crown) however, the
major quantities are found in stem and fruit portion of the
plant. Due to the large amount of waste produced by
pineapples, which is almost 45–55% of the fruit, it has the
potential to be further exploited as a bromelain source. The
peels and core of the pineapples, which constitute almost
40–50% of these wastes, have been specifically targeted as
potential bromelain sources (Banerjee et al. 2018). Table 3,
shows the pineapple part from which the enzyme was
extracted and the technique used in doing so.
Due to the fact that bromelain has the highest signifi-
cance among all the enzymes found in pineapple wastes,
this review illustrates the bromelain extraction process.
Bromelain is an intracellular enzyme or protein, and cell
disruption is necessary to release the enzymes in a soluble
form. The reverse micellar technique is popular and has
been used for extraction of bromelain in various studies
over the years. It is a liquid–liquid extraction technique
which is used to convert dilute solutions into useful bio-
molecules. Aqueous pineapple wastes were used for
bromelain extraction through reverse micellar extraction
(RME) technique (Hebbar et al. 2008). In the other study,
ultrafiltration coupled RME was used to extract bromelain
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from pineapple cores (Hebbar et al. 2012). The results
illustrates that the extraction becomes more efficient with
the use of ultrafiltration along with RME. Extracts of
pineapple waste have also been used to ease the extraction
of bromelain from that very part.
The utilisation of these extracted enzymes could create a
significant impact in the processing of food industries.
Bromelain is believed to be the most useful and the most
studied enzyme with the capability of acting as a meat
tenderizer. This could be mainly due to its ability to break
down collagen in meat. Apart from this, bromelain has
been reported to have a number of medical benefits (anti-
rombotic and fibrinolytic effects) including other common
therapeutic effects on the human body which are, reverse
inhibition of platelet aggregation, bronchitis, surgical
traumas as well as enhancing drug absorption (Maurer
2001). Besides all these benefits mentioned above, its
application in the medicinal field as an anti-cancer agent is
conspicuous.
Moreover, the simple partitioning extraction techniques
used can cause it to lose its purity and subsequent activity
reduction. Hence, purification techniques like RME and the
two-phase extraction systems are becoming popular, as
they help in extracting the enzymes without much of a loss
in purity and as a result, they offer similar effect as its pure
form.
On the other hand, pectinases obtained from pineapple
processing residues using P. chrysogenum were used to
ferment coffee. It helps to remove the mucilaginous coat
from coffee beans. The mucilage is a layer which surrounds
the coffee beans, and it constitutes about 17% weight of
whole cherries (Garg et al. 2016). During fermentation, this
mucilaginous layer gets degraded and converted to sugars,
contributing to the quality of the coffee bean. Such pectin
layer can be removed using pectinase with reduced
demucilisation time, which was evident with a reduction in
pH value and increased sugar release (Murthy and Naidu
2011).
Organic acids
Though citric acid is found in various acidic fruit juices,
pineapple contains 182 mg/100 g of citric acid. About 70%
of citric acid is used in the food industry, and 30% have
other industrial application. Currently, extraction of citric
acid by biological techniques based on the use of micro-
fungi is widely used. Citric acid is generally produced by
submerged fermentation (SMF). Recent research has been
made the solid-state fermentation (SSF) process an alter-
native with highlighted advantages such as higher pro-
duction yield, low water requirement and lower operating
costs. Microorganisms that produce citric acid are
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Table 3 Extraction of bromelain from different parts of pineapple and the techniques used
Part of Target Extraction Technique Used Activity recovery and purification References
Pineapple compound

Core Bromelain Reverse Micellar Extraction ? Ultrafiltration Activity recovery (98.5%), ultrafiltration Hebbar
increased the purification up to 8.9-fold et al.
(2012)
Core Bromelain Reverse Micellar Extraction Activity recovery of 78.90% and 3.96-fold Chaurasiya
purification and
Hebbar
(2013)
Slat precipitation (ammonium sulfate) Activity recovery of 86.26%and 3.07-fold
purification (50% saturation level)
Acetone precipitation Activity recovery (45.11%) and 5.56-fold
purification (60% saturation level)
Peel Bromelain Two-phase partitioning system Activity recovery (113.54%) and purification Ketnawa
2.23-fold et al.
(2010)
Peel Bromelain C12-8-C12•2Br (Octame thylene-a,x-bis Activity recovery (163%) and purification 3.3- Wan et al.
(dimethyldodecylammonium bromide)) Reverse fold (2016)
Micellar Extraction
DTAB (dodecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide) Activity recovery (95%) and purification 1.7-
Reverse Micellar Extraction fold
Crown Bromelain Size reduction and filtration ? purified using High Activity recovery:powdered bromelain (529.77 Nadzirah
Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) CDU/mg), purified bromelain (501.08 CDU/ et al.
cation exchange resin column ? de-saltation mg), desalted bromelain (485.78 CDU/mg) and (2012)
(diafiltrator) ? freeze drying pineapple crown extract (426.49 CDU/mg)
Core, Bromelain Reverse micellar system of Core: activity recovery (106%) and purification Hebbar
Peel, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) 5.2-fold at pH 4.2. Peel: activity recovery et al.
Crown (78%) and purification 2.1-fold at pH 10.5. (2008)
and Crown: activity recovery (54%) and
stem purification 1.7-fold at pH 11.0: activity
recovery (80%) and purification 3.5-fold at pH
11.0
By- Bromelain Ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE) and Proteolytic activity: UAE (196.46 ± 3.29 U/ Mala et al.
products and microwave assisted extraction (MAE) mL) and MAE (154.08 ± 1.49 U/mL) (2021)
bioactive
peptides

Aspergillus niger, Mucor pirifromis, Penicillium jan-
thinellum, Penicillium restrictum, Trichoderma viride,
Ustulina vulgaris and various species of the genera
Botrytis, Ascochyta, Absidia, Talaromyces, Acremonium
and Eupenicillium (Mengal and Mompon 2011) (Table 2).
In pineapple wastes, the concentration of citric acid pro-
duced by A. niger was 54.2% in the presence of 4%
methanol (Kumar et al. 2003). The other researchers used
dried pineapple waste as the sole substrate for citric acid
production and reported that SSF using Yarrowia lipolytica
produced 202.35 g/kg citric acid (Tran and Mitchell 1995).
The other work was done on wet pineapple waste using A.
foetidus ACM3996, which produced a higher amount
(161 g/kg) of citric acid than other potential wastes such as
apple pomace, rice and wheat bran (Tran and Mitchell
1995).
Malic acid is a C4-dicarboxylic acid and can be used as
a food additive and synthesise fine chemicals. It could be
produced by various techniques such as extraction from
plants, enzymatic conversion, and chemical synthesis (Yun
et al. 2008). Extraction from fruit or plant is a traditional
production method, but this method showed lesser practical
use because of its small production capacity. It can be
chemically synthesised by the hydration of either maleic or
fumaric acid. By using the enzyme fumarase, fumaric acid
can be converted to malic acid. However, these processes
require complex reaction or expensive enzyme, which
make them more difficult to use. To reduce these con-
straints, Yun et al. (2008) suggested renewable feedstock
with Aspergillus species and Schizophyllum commune for
malic acid production.
The most abundant hydroxycinnamic acid found in plant
cell walls is ferulic acid (Upadhyay et al. 2010) (Fig. 2). It

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Fig. 2 Organic acids present in
pineapple processing wastes
has enormous applications in the medical field, and some
of them are arena antioxidant activity, cholesterol-lowering
activity, prevention against thrombosis & atherosclerosis,
anti-cancer activity, antimicrobial & anti-inflammatory
activity. Lun et al. (2014) used autoclaved and non-auto-
claved pineapple wastes to produce ferulic acid, which
yielded about 3.65 mg/g and 0.64 mg/g, respectively. It
concludes the effect of pretreatment conditions, which
could increase the yield of ferulic acid.
Commercially produced succinic acids are convention-
ally derived from petroleum source and their production
involves a chemical process. Pineapple processing waste
creates an alternative source for such organic acid pro-
duction through fermentation processes (Jusoh et al. 2014).
Establishing a green technology by reducing the use of
toxic chemicals and targeting the bio-based production of
organic acids is need of the hour (Nghiem et al. 2017). The
popular application of succinic acid in food and beverage
industry includes acidity regulation and flavouring agent
(sourness). It is also used to produce pharmaceutical
intermediates and other non-food application includes use
in detergents, cement additives, toners, soldering flux,
cosmetics and pigments (Nghiem et al. 2017). Fermenta-
tion of pineapple liquid waste using Escherichia coli AFP
184 has reported to yield 6.2 g/L of succinic acid, which
was nearly similar to the yield obtained from fermentation
of glucose (6.5 g/L) as carbon source (Jusoh et al. 2014).
Pineapple liquid waste possess high amount of sugars
(100 g/L) and other micro nutrients which plays important
role in cell cultivation and fermentation process. The other
common microorganisms used for succinic acid production
are Anaerobiospirillum succiniciproducens and Acti-
nobacillus succinogenes.
Lactic acid is amongst the important organic acids and
has been labelled ‘‘generally recognized as safe (GRAS)’’
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by US Food and Drug Administration. They largely find
food applications at industrial level for attaining functions
such as preservation, pH regulation and flavouring agents
(Jantasee et al. 2017). Lactic acids are conventionally
synthesized using chemical and fermentation methods;
however, microbial fermentation methods are more popular
and contributes to 90% of global production. It founds to be
more promising method as it uses bio-waste, low energy
requirements and no toxic residue production with high
product purity ([ 95%). Zain et al. (2021) reported pro-
duction of lactic acid from solid pineapple waste using
Rhizopus oryzae NRRL 395. Production yield was found to
be 103.69 mg/g after 3 days incubation period under
optimized conditions (Table 2). Moreover, pineapple liquid
waste has also proved to be a potential substrate for lactic
acid production. Abdullah and Winaningsih (2020) studied
the effect of various parameters (pH, temperature, inocu-
lation size, nitrogen source and initial sugar concentration)
on fermentation yield using Lactobacillus delbrueckii and
the maximum attained was 54.97 g/L.
These extracted organic acids have the potential to
remove toxic metals like mercury, lead, cadmium, copper,
nickel and zinc. Senthilkumaar et al. (2000) reported
increase in adsorbent capacity of fruit residues at lower pH
with the addition of phosphate groups. On removing heavy
metals (Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni, and Zn) from contaminated sewage
sludge, citric acid obtained from fermented pineapple
wastes with A. niger were used (Del Mundo Dacera and
Babel 2008). On the other hand, pineapple plant stem has
been used to eliminate Pb(II) ions from aqueous solutions
(Ting et al. 2019). To improve the adsorption efficiency of
Pb(II), they have modified pineapple plant stem with oxalic
acid (OA), and the study showed 30.47 mg/g of Pb(II) ions
were adsorbed.
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Phenolic compounds and antioxidants
Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites that are
ubiquitous in the plant kingdom. These exist in various
forms, each having unique structures and various physio-
logical effects on the human body. They possess numerous
phytochemical activities that may boost the human
immunity system as well as provide beneficial cardiovas-
cular effects. The reason behind the growing prominence of
phenolic compounds is their ability to scavenge free radi-
cals, which may cause numerous diseases in humans.
Pineapple waste can be used as a potential source for
medicinal benefits through extracting nutraceutical com-
pounds (Teai et al. 2001).
Classification of phenolic compounds
Flavouring agents
Pineapple consists of both volatile compounds that are
perceived by human olfactory systems and non-volatile
compounds (sugars and acids) recognised by the tongue
(Montero-Calderón et al 2010a, b). Volatile aromatic
compounds in pineapple are esters, lactones, acids,
hydrocarbons, sulfur-containing compounds and carbonyl
compounds (Wei et al. 2011). Its contribution to flavour
depends on the cultivar, processing conditions, ethylene
control, chemical treatments, maturity and pre-harvest
factors such as light, temperature, carbon supply, and
water. The major volatile contributor in the pineapple
residues are esters (35%), and the characteristic volatile
compounds include methyl hexanoate, ethyl hexanoate,
ethyl decanoate, methyl octanoate, decanal, nonanal, a-
terpineol and methyl 3-(methylthio) propanoate (Barretto
et al. 2013). It indicates the potential of pineapple pro-
cessing wastes to extract and utilise the natural essence
compounds.
Esters
Esters are synthesised by reacting carboxylic acids and
alcohol in a condensation reaction. Some of the major
esters responsible for pineapple flavour include methyl-2-
methyl butanoate, ethyl-2-methyl butanoate, ethyl acetate,
ethyl hexanoate, ethyl butanoate, ethyl-2-methyl propano-
ate, methyl hexanoate, methyl butanoate (Zheng et al.
2012) (Fig. 3).
Other ethyl butyrate names are butyric ether and ethyl
butanoate, which is an aromatic ester with the chemical
formula (CH3CH2CH2COOCH2CH3). It is produced
through a condensation reaction between ethanol and
butyric acid and imparts a high resemblance to orange juice
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J Food Sci Technol (November 2022) 59(11):4152–4164
or pineapple flavour in alcoholic beverages with an odour
threshold of 0.015 ppm. The ester compound in pineapple
contributes 44.9% of its aroma (Teai et al. 2001). When the
odour activity value (OAV) for a compound is greater than
1, that particular compound will play a critical role in
overall fruit flavour. In pineapple pulp, ethyl-2-methyl
butanoate has the highest OAV (1693.33), followed by
ethyl-3-methylthiopropanoate and ethyl butanoate (Wei
et al. 2011).
Lactones
Lactones are cyclic esters formed by successive b-oxida-
tion of saturated and unsaturated hydroxyl acids or their
lipid precursors. This b-oxidation process results in a
hydroxylated carbon at C4 or C5 position. Whereas c and d
lactones are formed through internal esterification of C4 (c)
or C5 (d) hydroxyl group with the carboxylic group (Welsh
et al. 1989). It contributes pleasant coconut flavour in some
pineapple varieties. Lactones that contributes coconut-like
aroma are c-octalactone, d-octalactone, and c-nonalactone
(Chen and Martı́n-belloso 2010).
One of the most important flavour compounds among
lactone is 2,5-dimethyl 4-hydroxy 3(2H) furanone. It is
commonly called furaneol, DHMF, pineapple furanone
(Chen and Martı́n-belloso 2010). The alternative sources of
furaneol are strawberry, raspberry, mango, and other fruits,
and its content is directly proportional to the ripeness index
and imparts caramel-like sweet and fruity aroma.
Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons include simple aliphatic molecules, terpenes,
and benzene rings. The two hydrocarbons: 1-(E, Z)-3,5-
undecatriene and 1-(E, Z, Z)-3,5,8-undecatetraene are
present in fresh-cut pineapple. 1-(E, Z)-3,5-undecatriene
gives an oily, waxy and peppery aroma; however, 1-(E, Z,
Z)-3,5,8-undecatetraene has a powerful, diffusive and
green characteristic odour (Montero-Calderón et al.
2010a). The other common sources are apple, peaches,
celery, and parsley.
Other flavour compounds
Carbonyl compounds include aldehydes and ketones,
among which nonanal (3.91 lg/kg) and decanal (3.20 lg/
kg) are the aldehydes present in pineapple core (Wei et al.
2011). Sulfur-containing compounds are also found in
pineapple, however, their concentration is lower than their
odour threshold (Montero-Calderón et al. 2010a).
Extraction of such volatile compounds from pineapple
processing waste could create a better approach towards
their utilisation. Pineapple leaves and peel are rich in
J Food Sci Technol (November 2022) 59(11):4152–4164
Fig. 3 Major volatile
compounds in pineapple wastes
esters, ketones, acids, alcohol, aldehydes, and other com-
pounds (Barretto et al. 2013). Despite having several
methods for extracting essential oils, the extraction tech-
niques for extracting essential oils from pineapple peels are
very few. The extraction techniques used here are hydro-
distillation (HD), hydro-distillation with enzyme assisted
pretreatment (HDEA) and supercritical fluid extraction
(SFE). Among these methods, SFE produced essential oil
with a yield of 0.17% (w/w) and solid wax of about 0.64%
(w/w)) (Mohamad et al. 2019). The GC–MS analysis of
essential oil extracted through SFE has 41 compounds
representing 97.33% of essential oil. Among these com-
pounds, propanoic acid ethyl ester was present in a higher
proportion (40.25%) and is the most common compound
found in other essential oils (Mohamad et al. 2019). The
analysis showed that extraction through HD and HDEA
yielded hydrosol of about 70.65% (w/w) and 80.65% (w/
w), respectively.
Moreover, a higher amount of polyphenolic compounds
are present in pineapple wastes, and various extraction
techniques have been employed. Solvent–water extraction
systems are the most common when it comes to the
extraction of polyphenolic compounds. Three different
types of systems were used, out of which acetone (50%)
and ethanol (70%) were found to be the most efficient
(Alothman et al. 2009). Pineapple residues (pulp, seeds and
peel) were treated with n-hexane followed by methanol,
which was another effective system for the extraction of
polyphenolic compounds (Cabral et al. 2009). The
methanolic extraction yield and total phenolic content of
the pineapple residues were found to be 30.2% and 9.1 mg
Gallic acid equivalent/g, respectively. Apart from these
4161
residues, pineapple shell powder was also a rich source of
polyphenols containing high amounts of Myricetin (59% of
the polyphenols identified) and salicylic, tannic, trans-cin-
namic, and p-coumaric acids. This fibre-rich powder was
found to have high antioxidant activity because of the
presence of these compounds (Larrauri et al. 1997). Novel
processes like mixing pineapple wastes with soy flour using
the microorganism Rhizopus oligosporus also showed
positive responses regarding the relation of b-glucosidase
found in the extracts and the total phenolic content. These
results show that b-glucosidase is involved in releasing
polyphenols from its glycosides in the residues (Correia
et al. 2004).
Phenolic compounds have lowered the risk of cancer
and other chronic diseases like obesity, diabetes, and car-
diovascular diseases (Aguilera et al. 2016). Pineapple
cannery waste (core and peel) has been used to produce
vanillin and vanillic acid (Lun et al. 2014). Pineapple peel
contains ferulic acid, which is a precursor for vanillic acid.
Vanillin (4 hydroxy 3 methoxy benzaldehyde) is one of the
most common ferulic acid derivatives and has a market
value of USD 6–20 per kg (Banerjee et al. 2018). It is
widely used as a flavouring agent in sweets, confectionery,
and baked products. Recently, the demand for natural
resources has triggered research in natural vanillin pro-
duction from natural sources. Lun et al. (2014) used
pineapple cannery wastes as the potential substrate for the
microbial production of vanillin by Aspergillus niger and
Pycnoporuscinnabarinus. The study illustrates 5 g of
pineapple cannery waste has produced 141 mg/L of
vanillin.
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4162
Other by-product utilisation techniques
Biopolymers
Pardo et al. (2014) analysed that high cellulose content in
pineapple peels (40.5%) and crown leaves (43.5%) makes
it suitable for cellulose derivatives which have potential
applications in the polymer industry. Cellulose from
pineapple peels is converted into carboxymethyl cellulose
and used to prepare green packaging material (Chumee and
Khemmakama 2014). Research on the reinforcement of
pineapple leaf fibre with polymer composites such as soy-
based bioplastic has been carried out to improve their
mechanical strength (Liu, Misra, Askeland, Drzal, &
Mohanty, 2005). Limited application of soy protein-based
bioplastic is due to their low strength and high moisture
absorption. The mechanical properties of 30% pineapple
leaf fibre reinforced bioplastics were improved when
compared with soy-based bio-thermoplastic. When 30%
pineapple leaf fibre is reinforced with soy-based plastic, its
tensile strength increased from 10 to 30 MPa, flexural
strength increased from 10 to 42 MPa and impact strength
increased from 35 J/m to 45 J/m (Banerjee et al. 2018).
The improved mechanical properties of the composites in
the presence of the compatibilizer could be due to the
interactions between hydroxyl group in the pineapple
leaves and epoxy group in polyester amide grafted glycidyl
methacrylate (PEA-g-GMA). Pineapple peel bioplastic
application includes green packaging of dehydrated mate-
rials (Chumee and Khemmakama 2014).
Bioethanol
The utilisation of pineapple wastes for generating bioe-
thanol has emerged as an important valorisation strategy
since the last decade. The major advantage in production of
alcohol from pineapple cannery wastes are, nominal cost
for ethanol production and eliminating the problem of
pineapple waste disposal. Additionally, continuous ethanol
production from the pressed juice of pineapple cannery
waste, respiration deficient strain Saccharomyces cere-
visiae has been used (Nigam 1999). At a dilution rate of
0.05 h-1, the theoretical value of ethanol production was
about 92.5% (Upadhyay et al. 2010).
The simple sugars thus obtained from the saccharifica-
tion process are fermented by yeast-like Saccharomyces
cerevisiae and Zymomonasmobilis (Ban-Koffi and Han
1990). Yeast produces the enzyme invertase and zymase,
which helps in converting reducing sugars to crude ethanol
and CO2. However, the yield of ethanol from lignocellu-
losic material is limited by two factors, which influence the
specific rate of yeast growth and ethanol production,
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J Food Sci Technol (November 2022) 59(11):4152–4164
saccharification process (lignocellulosic materials are hard
to digest, which in turn affects the yield) and the essential
parameters (oxygen, temperature, pH, immobilisation of
enzymes and organic acids). Additionally, the major lim-
iting factors are the generation of microbial inhibitors
during pretreatment and the limited availability of fer-
mentable sugars. The inhibitors are classified as organic
acids, furan derivatives, and phenolic compounds that
inhibit the growth of fermenting microorganisms and,
hence, reduce ethanol yield.
Xylitol
Xylitol is a sugar alcohol, and it is used as a low-calorie
sweetener in the food and beverage industry (Dasgupta
et al. 2016). Since xylitol is non-fermentable, it can restore
alkaline/acid balance in the mouth. Some of the clinical
trials have indicated that xylitol products help to prevent
tooth decay (Banerjee et al. 2018), and these are effective
in reducing dental caries. Xylitol is also advised as a sugar
substitute for diabetics. The prevailing health conscious-
ness regarding naturally derived low-calorie sweeteners has
contributed to the rising demand of xylitol. Pineapple peels
have 25 to 35% (dry basis) of xylan and could be the
possible substrate for xylitol production, which has a
market value of USD 4–5 per kg (Banerjee et al. 2018).
Commercial production of xylitol suffers from several
drawbacks in terms of huge energy requirements, spe-
cialised equipment, extensive purification steps, recovery
of xylitol, deactivation and recycling of the metal catalyst.
Production of xylitol from food wastes would be the cost-
effective and attractive alternative for industrial chemical
methods.
Conclusion
This review highlights the nutritional, biological and eco-
nomical importance of industrial wastes generated during
pineapple processing. The growing demand of naturally
derived bioactives, organic acids and inimitable volatile
compounds create an opportunity for the processors in
domestic and international markets. It also enlightens the
health benefits of pineapple derived DF that could be used
as food additive to improve the food texture and consis-
tency. Pineapple waste could be an economical substrate
for microbial enzyme production (cellulase, xylanase,
pectinase and bromelain). Moreover, esters are defined as
major volatile compound present in pineapple wastes
including lactones, hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones,
alcohols. This review also describes the extraction tech-
niques to recover these bioactive components from
pineapple waste. There is need of extensive research on
J Food Sci Technol (November 2022) 59(11):4152–4164
application of novel techniques to obtain higher recovery
rates of bioactives. Research focused on extraction,
purification and valorisation of target compounds from
pineapple wastes could open huge market of food, phar-
maceutical and chemical industries.
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