REVIEWER: GENERAL HISTOLOGY &
EMBRYOLOGY
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
OF THE
HUMAN BODY
CHEMICAL LEVEL
Atom: tiny building block Of
matter; smallest possible unit
Atom + Atom = Molecules
Molecu les + Molecules
Organelles
CELLULAR LEVEL
Cell: basic unit of life
Cell + Cell: Tissue
TISSUE LEVEL
Made u p Of cells
Is a group Of similar cells that work
together to perform a specific
function
ORGAN LEVEL
Made up Of tissues
Organ is an anatomical distinct
structure Of the body composed Of
two or more tissue types. Each
perform one or more specific
physiological function Examples:
Liver (largest organ) internal Skin
(Largest organ) external
SYSTEM LEVEL
Made up of organs
Organ System is a group Of organs
that work together to perform major
function or meet physiological
needs of the body
ORGANISMAL LEVEL
Highest level Of organization
HISTOLOGY
Study of the tissue of the body
Greek word "histo" means tissue/web, and
"logy" which means study/knowledge
4 TYPES OF TISSUE:
1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
For covering/protection;
Can be seen Outside & inside Of the body
= Also exists internally, linings Of the stomach
2. MUSCLE TISSUE For
movement or locomotion
Example:
Smooth Muscle Tissue: small intestine and
linings Of stomach
Skeletal Muscle Tissue: attach to the bone
Cardiac Muscle Tissue: heart
3. NERVOUS TISSUE
Carry important information to the brain
Responsible for generating nerve impu Ises
4.CONNECTIVE TISSUE 2 types:
Connective Tissue Proper
Loose Connective Tissue: there are space
between fibers
Dense Connective Tissue: fibers are closely
pack
Dense Regular — fibers are
arranged in definite pattern
Dense Irregular — fibers are not
arranged in pattern
Special Types
Cartilage, Bone, Blood &
HematopoietiC Tissue General History
and Embryology
Histology
 is the study of the tissues of the body
study of micro anatomy of cells and tissues
Greek "HISTO": tissue or web Logy:
study of, or knowledge of involves all
aspects of tissue biology focus on how
cells' structure and arrangement optimize
functions specific to each organ 2
Interacting Components Of Tissues
(tissues: made up of cells)
Cells and Extracellular Matrix
The other one is used in order to work or function well
Consists of Molecules: Collagen Fi
brils and Basement Membranes
Functions:
c To furnish mechanical support for cells c To
transport nutrients to cells c Carry away
metabolites and secretory products
Micrograph: used to study of tissue
Microscope: equipment to use micrograph
Preparation of Tissues for Study (in a microscope)
1. Obtaining of the specimen (scalpel) o Get or extract
a certain tissue using a scalpel
2. Fixation (formalin) o Purposely to avoid tissue
digestion by enzymes present within the cells
(autolysis) or by bacteria Autolysis: self-
destruction o To preserve the structure and molecular
composition, pieces or organs should be promptly
and adequately treated before, or as soon as possible
after, removal from the animal's body.
Chemical Fixation - tissues are usually immersed in
solutions of stabilizing or cross-linking agents called
fixatives
o One of the best fixatives for routine light
microscopy is formalin, a buffered solution of
37% formaldehyde
Why is fixation needed after obtaining the specimen?
o to avoid autolysis o auto means self, lysis
means destruction
breakdown, or self-destruction
Fixative in fixation: formalin
Formalin: to use this in preservation
The specimen is placed in a cassette that goes into an
automated processor for tissue fixation
Fixation and Embedding - main steps
Dehydration is done before embedding Or infi ltration
Of because wax is hydrophobic. The formalin used
during preservation will be removed because melted
paraffin wax is not immiscible with water.
3. Dehydration (ethanol)
• Removal of water or liquid
• Remove the formalin using a certain kind of
alcohol (ethanol)
• Must be in increasing grades 60%, to
100% to avoid autolysis
4. Clearing (xylene)
Alcohol must be removed because it is
still water and is immiscible with
melted paraffin wax.
Xylene o specific clearing solution
both visible with the alcohol and
paraffin wax 5. Infiltration
6. Embedding & Sectioning
• Embedding materials:
Paraffin: used routinely for light microscopy
plastic resins: used for both light and electron
microscopy
Tissue is hardened (through embedding) for easy
sectioning.
• Sectioning:
• Sectioning is needed to attain thin section of
this material because most of the tissues in the
human body is thick, and in a microscope, light
needs to pass through it. o Microtome o an
instrument for cutting extremely thin sections Of
material for examination under a microscope
7. Staining
To put color/dye on tissues
Why do we need to put color? Because most Of
the tissues in the human body are colorless
Anionic
Tissue components with a net negative charge
stain more readily with basic dyes and are termed
basophilic.
Basophilic: negative tissues will be colored with
positive dyes, because they stain more with
positive dyes. Opposite attracts.
 Cationic Size:
Such as proteins (positively charge molecules) Light microscopes are smaller and lighter, so are
with many ionized amino groups, have affinity for easier to move and set-up.
acidic dyes and are termed acidophilic. Cost / Availability:
Acidophilic: colored with negative/acidic dyes Light microscopes are less expensive than
Examples basic dyes electron microscopes.
Radiation Type:
Toluidine blue
Light microscopes use light.
Alcian blue Electron microscopes use beams of electrons
Methylene blue. Hematoxylin behaves like a basic Control of image formation: o Light microscope
dye, that is, it stains the basophilic tissue uses glass lenses, o Electrons microscopes uses
components. The main tissue compo nents that beams of electrons that can be focused using
ionize and react with basic dyes do so because of electromagnets lenses due to negative charge on
acids in their composition electrons.
Examples of acid dyes Resolution:
Electron microscopes have much higher resolution
orange G, eosin,
than light microscopes
acid fuchsin: stain the acidophilic components of
Magnification:
tissues.
Electron microscopes have much higher
Most used basic and acidic dyes: Hematoxylin and magnification than light microscopes Color
Eosin Images:
Light microscopes form images including the
Hematoxylin: purple range Of wavelengths provided by the light
Eosin: pink source.
Light Microscope and Electron Microscope Electron microscopes produce greyscale
(sometimes called "'black and white") i mages.
light microscopes and electron microscopes use preparation Of specimens:
radiation to form larger and more detailed images Generally, involves harsher processes for viewing
of objects than the can produce via electron microscope than preparation of slides
unaided. for viewing using a light microscope.
An electron microscope is a microscope that uses Paraffin wax for light microscope o Resin for
beams of electrons instead of rays ofvisible light electron microscope Image Formation:
and is made more complicated by the fact that Light microscope images can be viewed directly. o
there are different types of electron microscopes. Electron microscopes require use of a fluorescent
screen, photographic plate, or electronic display.
Usage Limitations:
Living specimens cannot be viewed using
electron microscopes because electron
The two main types of electron microscope:
microscopes require there to be a vacuum in the
(TEM) higher tube.
resolution, more magnification compared to SEM
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM).
Similarities: LRP

Form larger and more detailed images of small

objects than can be formed by the human eye.
Used in study and research in biology and medical
sciences.
Specimens must be carefully prepared using
techniques appropriate for both the equipment and
the sample. Differences:
 6- Trimming: microtome
7- Staining (Hematoxviin, purple and Eosin, pink)
a) Basophilic: negatively charged
b) Acidophilic: positively charged

SUMMARY :
Light Microscopes Electron Microscopes

Simple to use Users require technical

skills
Can view both live and Views only dead specimens
dead specimens

Poor surface view Good surface view and

internal details

uses light rays to illuminate Uses a beam Of electrons to

specimens (Rt) view specimens

Lenses are made of glass Lenses are made

(Cif) of electromagnets

Low resolving power, High resolving power of up

usually below 0.30 to o.cml

Low magnification Of up to High magnification Of up

to

Images are views by the Images are viewed on a

eyes through the eyepiece photographic plate or zinc
sulphate fluorescent screen

Not used under a vacuum Operates under a high

vacuum

Cheap to buy and has low Very expensive to buy and

maintenance cost maintain

Preparation of Tissues

Fixation: formalin
2- Dehydration: ethanol
3- Clearing: xylene
4- Infiltration
5. Embedding
REVIEWER: GENERAL HISTOLOGY AND
EMBRYOLOGY
THE CELL
Basic unit of life
Have various forms, shapes, sizes and function
Function depends on their location
Eukaryotic Cell — has a nucleus
Prokaryotic Cell — doesnt have a true nucleus
PARTS AND FUNCTION
1. CELL MEMBRANE
Forms the outer covering (linings, protect
the internal substances inside the cell)
Semi-permeable (regulates what comes
in and comes out to the cell) Lipid bi-
layer
Made up of phospholipid (hydrophobic &
hydrophilic)
Heads/G10bular Heads (hydrophilic) OUTSIDE
HEADS — interacting to the water molecules outside
the environment; INSIDE HEADS — interacting to the
internal substances of the cell
Tails
STRAIGHT TAIL - saturated, doesn't have a double
bonds: SLIGHTLY BENT TAIL — unsaturated fatty
acids, that has 2 or more double bonds
2. CYTOPLASM
Fluid/gel-like matrix
Where cellular organelles are suspended
Place for cell expansion and cell growth
Maintains the pressure of the cell It is
mainly made up Of water (70% Or more by
volume) where a host Of inorganic ions
and organic molecules and other substances
needed by the cell are dissolved
Inorganic Ions — sodium, potassium; produce by
nature
Organic Molecules — protein, carbohydrates, lipids
and nucleic acids, produce by livlng organism; must
contain carbon, but not all molecules with a in it carbon
are considered organic
Monosaccharide — building block of carbohyd
rates
Amino Acids — building block Of proteins
Nucleotides — monomer Of nucleic acids
in
Cytoplasm
Organelles — little organs (mitochondria,
ribosome, endoplasmic reticulum, etc.)
11. Inclusion - fat droplets (lipid droplets),
glycogen (granules), zymogen granules,
pigment granules, crysta s, lipochrome
pigments (lipochrome granules; lipofuschin
pigments; lipofuschin granules) and dust
particles
Exocytosis — substances that comes out to the cell
Endocytosis — substances comes toward the cell
111. Fibrillar Elements
•z Supporting structure or
framework/cytoskeletons microfilaments,
intermediate filaments, and microtubules
3. NUCLEUS
DNA replication and RNA synthesis
Contains DNA and RNA
Surrounded by nuclear membrane
RNA pass through these pores
Proteins needed by nucleus also enter
these pores Control center
NUCLEOLUS- bcation for ribosome
formation
4. RIBOSOME
Site for protein synthesis
Found in large number in all cells
Suspended in the cytoplasm
Attached to the ER
5. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Transport system of the cell 2
TYPES:
ROUGH ER - with ribosome; sites for
protein synthesis
SMOOTH ER - has the liPidS and
hormones
Bound to the ribosomes and appears
rough while the smooth ER do not have
ribosome
 6. GOLGI BODY
Packing center Of the cell
molecules from rough endoplasmic
reticulum Flattened stacks of
membrane-bound
7. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Transport system of the cell
2 TYPES.
ROUGH ER — with ribosome;
sites for protein synthesis v' SMOOTH ER
- has the liPidS and hormones Bound to
the ribosomB and appears rough while the
smooth ER do not have ribosome
Proteins- do what the nucleus dictated
REVIEWER: GENERAL HISTOLOGY
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• Is a sheet of cells covering a body surface
• Group Of cells that lines a body cavity
TWO FORMS:
• Covering and lining epithelium
Forms the outer layer o lines the digestive
and respiratory system covers the wall of
organs
• Glandular Epithelium
• Surrounds glands within the body
CHARACTERISTICS OF EPITHELIAL
TISSUE
• PAFS o Protection: interface tissue
Absorption: digestive system
Filtration: lungs and kidneys Secretion
and excretion: kidney excreting waste
products
Special Characteristics of Epithelia-Cell
Junctions
8. LYSOSOMES
Digestive system Of the cell/suicide bag
Of the cell
Helps in breakdown Of waste molecules
Helps in detoxification of cell
Acts as the garbage collector in the cell
Has a hydrolase enzymes
9. MITOCHONDRIA main energy source of the
cell also known as power house of the
cell Main function: energy through
respiratory respiration
Consist Of inner and Outer mermbrane
Rod shaped
Has its Own hereditary material
• Exhibits polarity
Apical
Superior: boarder of the
epithelial tissue o e.g microvilli, cilia,
flagella o Lateral Sides gap junctions,
desmosome, zonula occludens, zonula
adherence
Basal interior hemidesmosomes
"Apical, Lateral and Basal are the
modification Of epithelial tissue for them
to discharge their specific function"
"Composed of closely packed cells" —
each cells are very near to each other.
• Avascular (nutrients from capillaries) but
innervated
by connective tissue — cells are
attached to a basement membrane Basement
membrane o Basal Lamina and Reticular
Lamina comprises the basement membrane
basal lamina is composed Of proteins like
glycoproteins etc.
 • Ability to regenerate (as long as they TERMS REFERRING TO THE LAYERS
have the nutrients) (Covering and
Lining Epithelium)
EMBRYONIC ORIGIN OF EPITHELIAL Simple one layer
TISSUE Stratified more than one layer
Pseudostratified = false layered (appears to be
1. ECTODERM epidermis of the skin and its more than one layer, but only one); ciliated
with cilia
appendages epithelium of the cornea of the
eye
2. ENDODERM o the epithelium that lines the
digestive tract 3. MESODERM the
epithelium that lines the heart, blood and
lymphatic vessels, and the serous cavities
together with epithelial tissue present in the
urinary system (kidneys and their ducts except
for the urinary bladder), and o in the male and
female reproductive organ
TERMS REFERRING TO THE CELLS SHAPES
Squamous = flat ("squama" meaning fish scale) Cuboidal =
cube-like (height approximates the width)
Columnar = rectangular (column) "rectangle in a vertical
position"
Transitional = ability to change shape

•atfedsquamous
SIMPLE St'"uidal
SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM Lung alveoli o Parietal layer of
the bowman's capsule in the kidney (parietal = outer)
SPECIALIZED FORM OF SIMPLE SQUAMOUS
EPITHELIUM
• ENDOTHELIUM - luminal surface of the heart, blocxi and lymphatic vessels
• MESOTHELIUM — serous cavities Of the body
1. COVERING EPITHELIUM (pericardium — heart, peritoneum — abdomen,
Types according to numner cr 'overs & types according to
pleura — lungs) shapes
A. SIMPLE
Simple squamous — one layer that is flat
Simple cuboidal — one layer that is cube-
like
Simple columnar — one layer that is
column in shape B. STRATIFIED
Stratfed squamous — two or more layers
that is flat
 Stratified cuboidal — two or more
layers that is cube-like
Pseudostratified columnar
Transitional epithelium has the ability to
change
 EPITHELIUM
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL
- Segments of the ducts of major
salivary glands (has 3 major glands; parotid
(largest), sub maxillary, and sub mandibular
glands) and the pancreas (found on part of
digestive system)
- collecting tubules of the kidney
- Follicles of the thyroid gland
- Surface of the ovary
- can also find in collecting
tubules of the polygons of the thyroid
glands, and surface of the ovary

STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

Epidermis (skin)
Digestive tract from the oral cavity to the
esophagus
Vagina and the part of urethra
Superficial surface of the conjunctiva of the
cornea

SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

Stomach o
Intestines
Large ducts of some exocrine glands e.g. sweat
and salivary glands
Ciliated simple columnar epithelium — uterus,
oviducts as well as the pulmonary bronchi
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR
EPITHELIUM Found in the membranous and
spongy parts of the male urethra
A variant of this epithelium referred to as ciliated
pseudostratified columnar epithelium or
respiratory epithelium.
Larger passage way of the respiratory system like
the trachea and the main bronchi
 EPITHELIUM
Of the eye

STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL
Larger ducts of some glands (major salivary
glands)

(a) (b
)
11. GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM o The glandular
epithelium that is present in the body is organized to
STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM Large form the functional component of organs called
ducts of some exocrine glands (sweat and salivary glands that produce substances ( secretions ) that are
glands) needed by the

Exocrine glands whose units are located some distance

from the epithelial surface transport their secretions to
the epithelial surface through tubular passageways
called ducts.
Endocrine glands — on the other hand, are ductless.

Exocrine glands deliver their secretions onto covering

Or lining epithelium
Endocrine glands deliver their secretions into blood Or
lymph = —hormones

A hormone is a chemical substance (steroid, peptide, or

TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM amine ) that is carried by blood to organs or tissues that
Urinary passage (renal calyces, renal pelvis and have cells ( target cells ) that contain appropriate
ureter) Urinary bladder receptors for it. It acts as a chemical messenger that
enables an endocrine gland to exert its influence on its
target cells and organs.

SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

 EPITHELIUM
- Lung alveoli, - Ciliated simple columnar epithelium: uterus,
- parietal layer Of bowman's capsule in the oviducts and pulmonary bronchi
kidney
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM - membranous and spongy parts Of the male
- Major glands: parotid, sub maxillary and sub urethra - Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
mandibular - tubules of the kidney or respiratory epithelium
- follicles of thyroid gland
- Surface of the ovary STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
- Epidermis (skin)
SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
- Stomach and intestines STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
- Larger ducts of some glands (major salivary
glands)
STRATIFIED COLUMNAR
- Large ducts of some exocrine glands
TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
- Urinary passage and bladder
REVIEWER: GENERAL HISTOLOGY
Muscle Tissue
A basic tissue type with epithelia, connective
tissue, and nervous tissue, is composed Of
cells that optimized the universal cell propertv
Of contractility.
Generate the forces necessary for the muscle
contraction, which drives movement within
organ systems Of blood, and Of the body as a
whole.
Cells, actin microfilaments and
associated proteins
Is the basic that is responsible for
IQCQmQtjQn of the individual, movement of
the various parts of the body, and of numerous
substances within the body
PROPERTIES OF THE MUSCLE TISSUE CE3
Contractility — ability to shorten, contract and
generate
2. Extensibility — ability to stretch without
damaging the tissue
3. Elastic — ability to return to its original
shape or form after the stretch
4. Excitability — ability to respond
Muscle Cells (elongated cells) are often referred
to as muscle fibers instead of muscle cells — that
are individually envelop«i by basal lamina.
Parts of muscle fibers
Cell Membrane — sarcolemma
. Cytoplasm — sarcoplasm
2. Endoplasmic reticulum — sarcoplasmic
reticulum
3. Mitochondria — sarcosomes
3 TYPES OF MUCLE CELLS (fibers) A.
SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE is so called
because it comprises most Of the named
muscles Of the body that originate from, and
insert into the skeletal system (bong and
cartilages) contains bundle Of very long,
multinucleated cells with Crossstriations that
vary in length (10 to 35cn1) and diameter (10
to 100 um)
their contraction is quick, forceful
under voluntary control
ORGANIZATION OF SKELETAL
MUSCLE
The numerous muscle fibers that comprise
muscle fascides are individually wrapped and
supported, external to their basal lamina, by a delicate
connective tissue layer called endomysium where the
extracellular fibers are mainly reticular fibers.
Each Of the fascicles that comprise a muscle is,
in tum, encas«i by a connective tissue (perimysium)
where nerve fibers and blood vessels course.
A collection Of numerous muscle fibers that
are arranged in groups are called bundles or fascicles. It
is enveloped by a tough dense irregular connective
tissue called epimysium that keeps the fascides
together.
NOTE: endomysium, perimysium, and epimysium are
all connective tissue.
EPIMYSIUM surrounds the entire collection
Of fasacles making up an individual muscle
PERIMYSIUM - a slightly thicker layer of
connective tissue consisting mainly of type I and
Ill collagen and surrounds a group Of fibers. This
fiber group is referred to as fascicle or bundle
ENDOMYSIUM — it is made up Of delicate
layer of reticular fibers and permits only small
diameter nerve fitrrs and capillaries, thus acting
as a site of metabolic exchange.
Level 1: Skeletal muscle
Surrounded by epimysium that contains muscle
fascicles
Level 2: Muscle fascicles
Surrounded by perimysium that contains
muscle fibers
Level 3: Muscle fibers
Surrounded by endomysium that contains
myofibrils
Level 4: myofibrils
Surrounded by sarcoplasmic reticulum that
contains / consists of sarcomeres (z line to z
line)
 SARCOMERE
A myofibril is actually made up of
small contractile units called
sarcomeres.
Sarcomere refers to the region that
spans two Z-lines and is about 1.5
to 2um mg in a resting muscle.
A myofibril contains numerous (up to
10,000) sarcomeres that are laid end
to end.
A sarcomere, as shown by high
resolution electron microscopy, a
collection of the thread like structures
called filaments (myofilaments) that
number 1000 to 2000.
Sarcomere
Proteins in muscle filaments
TYPES OF SKELETAL
Thick rilarneNs
FIBERS RWI
Thin
1. Red Muscle Fibers
band
I A band
• MUSCLE FILAMENTS (myofilaments)
I band
The filaments (myofilaments) comprise a
sarcomere are well arranged parallel to
the long axis of the myofibril and are of
two types: thick and thin.
The thick filaments occupy the middle zone
of a sarcomere; they span the region of the
A-band.
They are 10 to 15 nm in diameter and
o 1.5 to 1.6 um in length.
They are kept aligned by the attachments
Of their midpoints at the M•line (e.g.
myosin)
The thin filaments occupy the
zones Of a
sarcomere. T they are more numerous,
but are only half the size of thick myofilaments
(5 to 6nm in diameter
1.0 um in length
They are attached to each side of the
Zlines. (e.g. Tropomyosin, and actin)
Actin, tropomyosin, troponin: thin filaments
Myosin: thick filament
MUSCLE
Are smaller and have a richer blood
supply than white muscle fibers.
Furthermore. Their sarcoplasm has
more mitochondria, glycogen granules
and myoglobin.
It also called "slow twitch" muscle
fibers because they contract at a slower
rate than white fiber. Breakdown ATP
slowly, the contraction speed is slow
Lack of oxygen and high concentration
of myoglobin (protein carrier of oxygen
in tissues)
 Red muscle tissue have a high
amount of myoglobin vfiich is why
it appears
Used in marathons, muscles that will
not fatigue quickly
The diameters of fibers is thin, the
thickness is low that is why the force
produce by this muscle is also low Low
force in a long distance which is why the
muscles don't fatigue quickly
2. White muscle fibers
Are called "fast twitch" muscle fibers
because they contract faster rate than
the red muscle fibers.
Their contraction is more forceful than red
muscle fibers, but the fatigue faster.
3. Intermediate Muscle Fibers Have
and physiological
characteristics that are in between red and
white muscle fibers.
B. CARDIAC MUSCLE
It occurs only in the heart.
Like skeletal muscles, cardiac
muscle is striated, and its
contractions are forceful, but unlike
most skeletal muscles, it is not
under conscious control
Also has a cross-striation and is composed
of often branched cells bound
to one another at structures called
intercalated discs that are unique to
cardiac muscle.
Contractions are involuntary, vigorous, and
rhythmic
Intercalated discs — junctional complexes found at the
interface between adjacent cardiac muscle cells.
3 junctional specializations within the discs
FMG
Fasciae adherents — serves as anchoring
sites for actin filaments
Maculae adherents — (desmosomes) bind the
cardiac cells together
Gap junctions — provide ionic continuity
betwæn adjacent cells.
ORGANIZATION OF CARDIAC MUSCLES
Cardiac muscle tissue consists of cardiac muscle
fibers are bound toqether bv connective tissue,
where numerous capillaries and fine nerve fibers
are embedded to form bundles of fascicles.
The muscle fibers and fascicles in cardiac
muscle are organized much like those in
skeletal muscle.
Each fascicle is surrounded by connective tissue
ORrimysium), which keep the muscle fibers
together.
The muscle fibers on the Other hand are
individually enveloped, external to their basal
lamina by thin endomysium, which is also
made up Of connective tissue elements.
Purkinje fibers in certain areas Of the heart these are
modified cardiac muscle cells that are non-contractile
but are specialized to initiate and conduct the electrical
impulse that controls cardiac contraction
C. SMOOTH MUSCLE
Smooth muscle (tissue) is the muscle that
comprises the muscular component of the wall
and parenchyma of most visceral organs that is
why it is otherwise known as visceral muscle;
but its distribution is not limited to visceral
organs. it is also present in other areas of the
body such as the walls of blood vessels and skin.
STOVE: Skin, tracts, organs that are hollow,
vessels, eyes
The contractions Of smooth muscle are slow
and not as forceful as those of striated muscle.
Smooth muscle cells are fusiform cells (spindle
or football shaped) that are broad at the middle
and tapering at both ends they vary greatly in
 length at depending on the Organ where they are
located, they may be as short as 20um such as
those that are in the walls Of the small blood
vessels, Or they can be as long as 500um such as
those in the pregnant uterus. the diameter is
between 2 to 10 um, they contain a single oval
nucleus that is located in the thick part of the
cell.

VISCERAL SMOOTH MUSCLES — can be

found on intestines, uterus and ureters
• abundant gap junction and poor nerve supply.
MULTIUNIT SMOOTH MUSCLES - found on rich
innervation, iris of the eye.
• Adrenergic and cholinergic nerves ending that act
antagonistically stimulating or depressing its
activity

Synthesize collagen, elastin, and proteoglycan

REVIEWER: GENERAL HISTOLOGY
NERVOUS TISSUE - Present in all the organs
of the body, made up of cells
CELLS OF NERVOUS TISSUE
• 1. neurons
• 2. supporting cells, neuroglial cells
A. NEURONS functional units of nervous
tissue, main player they are highly specialized
cells that exhibit irritability (ability to react to s
and conductivity perform all the
functions of nervous tissue Van' in size and
shape.
Size 5-150 micrometers (um)
Large neurons can be seen by the
naked eye, around 150 micrometers
in diameter
Small neurons are 5 micrometers in
diameter, spider web
Shape SSPF
Stellate / star shaped
Pyramidal
Fusiform or spindle shaped (smooth
muscle)
parts Of a Neuron
A. Perikaryon or soma o cell body o
neuroplasm cytoplasm o has a cell
membrane or called neurolemma o
Nissl bodies
B. 1 or more processes — axon and
dendrite
Dendrite number of it
determines the shape
Parts of a Neuron with Functions
Perikaryon consists of a nucleus that is
surrounded by basophilic cytoplasm
(neuroplasm) and enclosed by cell
membrane (neurolemma) has cytoplasmic
organelles , a cytoskeleton and inclusions
But the most distinctive of these
organelles are the Nissl bodies
(chromophilic substances, tigroid
bodies). Consists of well-developed
rough endoplasmic reticulum, a
synthesizing protein
PROCESSES OF A NEURON
I. a for away conducts impulses away
from the cell
- Slender
- Sciatic nerve — longest nerve in the
human body
- In each neuron, there is only one axon
2. Dendrite
- carries impulses toward the cell body
Generic neuron
- Large cell body (aka soma or perikaryon)
Large, euchromatic nucleus (and usually a
prominent nucleolus) Extensive
cytoplasmic extensions:
- Dendrite(s): single or multiple extensions
specialized for receiving input, receives o
Axon: single, large extension specialized
for conveying output (in humans, can be up
to 1.5m in length)
 1) Sensory neurons — when they receive
stimuli and transmit impulse toward the CNS
(afferent neurons, small axon, pseudounipolar)
initial 2) Motor neurons when they transmit
impulse from the CNS to effector cells
(efferent neurons, long axon, multipolar)
reactiort 3) Interneurons — when they convey
impulse from one neuron to another
(association neurons, brain and spinal cord)
process

NOTE: Additional Information

Nerve on Spine: CTLSC 7 12 S S 4
Cervical (7)
Thoracic (12)
Lumbar (5)
Sacral (5)
Coccygeal (4) ANATOMIC DIVISION OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Classification of Neurons MF • Central NeNOus System (CNS) The
- Morphologically large mass of nervous tissue inside the
Unipolar — when only 1 process, an axon is dorsal body cavities (i.e., cranial cavity
present, seen on early embryonic life 2) and vertebral canal). All other nervous
Bipolar — when a single dendrite and an axon tissue in the body belongs to the PNS.
arise at opposite poles Of the cell body, seen Integrates the stimuli and
on olfactory (nose) formulates appropriate responses
3) Pseudounipolar — when a single that are then relayed to the effector
process, morphologically an axon, leaves the cells, tissues, and organs by the
body, but soon bifurcates, PNS.
4) Multipolar when numerous dendrites are • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
present Receives and relays all nerve impulses
originating from stimuli from both
within or external to the body to the
CNS.
sensory (receives) and motor
neurons (relays)

• A synapse is the point of contact

between a neuron and another cell. It is
the site of transmission of a nerve
impulse, whether excitatory or
Classification Of Neurons inhibitory.
• TO communicate With each other2
types
 • 1) electrical
• 2) chemical
Electrical synapse
• They exist between some neurons in the
brain stem, retina, and cerebral cortex.
• They consist of gap junctions that are
similar to those found in between
epithelial cells.
• They enable neighboring neurons to
communicate with each other by
allowing the cells to exchange
molecules and small ions.
Chemical synapse
• In a chemical synapse, the nerve
impulse is transmitted from one neuron
to another cell by means of chemical
substance called rotransmitters.
B. NEUROGLIAL CELLS supporting cells:
protect and aid neurons in performing their
functions, and play a role in neural nutrition
10 times more than neurons but smaller
Smaller, and have fewer and shorter
processes than astrocytes Have
scanty (small) cytoplasm and their
nucleus, usually ovoid or spherical
Located mainly in the
white matter of the
CNS
3. MICROGLIA
Smaller than astrocytes and
oligodendrocytes Distributed throughout
CNS Their nuclei are small and
elongated while their cytoplasm is
scanty and contains many ly>osomes
4. EPENDYMAL CELLS
Cuboidal cells that possess short
cilia and microvilli Comprise the
simple cuboidal epithelium that
lines the cavities of the CNS
They form a secretory epithelial lining of
the choroid plexuses that secretes CSF,
Cerebrospinal Fluid

In the CNS ( 4 types ) AOME

1. ASTROCYTES
The largest and most numerous, star
shaped and has numerous
branching processes.
2 TYPES
• Protoplasmic Astrocytes o Have many branching
processes and are found mainly within the gray
matter Of the brain and the spinal cord. (found in the

central area) o They abundant cytoplasm, and their

nucleus is bigger than the other neuroglial cells.

• Fibrous Astrocytes o Located chiefly in the white

matter. (found in the surroundings) o They have
longer, more slender processes than protoplasmic
astrocytes.

2. OLIGODENDROCYTES
 serves as venue for the exchange Of gases and
substances between the other basic tissue and
blood

forms the stroma or supporting framework of

various organs
Provides the cells that are needed to defend the
body against invading organisms and other
harmful substances.

2 TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES

A. Connective Tissue Proper
B. Special types of Connective Tissue — cartilage,
form neurolemmal and myelin sheaths Of bone, and hematopoietic tissue
peripheral nerves
COMPOSITION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
(Extracellular Matrix and Cells)
small, flattened cells that surround the cell
bodies they are the counterparts in the PNS Of
astrocytes 1. Extracellular Matrix/Substance o Consist
of ground substance and a variety of fibers
fat cell ground substance
Central Nervous System melanocyte

an
amorphous (no shape), homogenous, transparent,
REVIEWER: GENERAL HISTOLOGY and hydrated gel (because of proteoglycans)
consist mainly Of water that is stabilized by
CONNECTIVE TISSUE (7) proteoglycans, mineral salts, and glycoproteins.
Characterized by an abundance of extracellular (PMG)
material and a relative paucity of cell

Little amount of cells compare to epithelial,

muscle and nervous tissue
Proteoglycans
main structural constituents of ground substance
found all over the body and envelopes muscles responsible for of ground
substance o Macromolecule that consist of a
binds body parts together while allowing "core protein" to which disaccharides, in the form
some degree of movement of these parts in of (GAG's), are attached
relation to their immediate anatomical covalently in a radiating pattern. The GAG's
neighbors render ground substance acidic.
5 •rtPES OF GAG's (HKCDH)
1. Hyaluronic Acid o Can be found on the synovial
fluid (looks like the egg white consistency)
found on the joints that acts for reduction of
friction
Acts as an excellent lubricator Or lubricant
Can also be found on the loose connective
tissue
2. Keratan sulfate — has 2 types
Keratan sulfate I - usually found in the cornea
of the eye, which is responsible for the
transparency of cornea.
Keratan sulfate Il — found on the cartilage,
aggregated to chondroitin sulfate and it
maintains the shape of the cartilage
3. Chondroitin sulfate
The most abundant GAG in the human a
Chondro means "cartilage"
Can be found in the cartilage, tendons, and
ligaments,
Maintains the structure of cartilage, bone
and tendon.
Tendon — attachment from muscle to bone
Ligament — attachrnent from bone to bone
4. Dermatan sulfate
Found skin, blocxi vessels, heart
Responsible for maintaining the structure
of skin
5. Heparon sulfate
Found on Bowman's capsule (kidney)
Branched and its branches anastomose (keep
on branching) o In H & E preparations, they
remain and usually appears as refractile
pinkishyellow line
When stained with orcein, it appears blue to
black When abundant, it is yellow colored to
fresh tissue o Have lesser tensile strength than
collagen fibers but contrast to the collagen
fiber, they are super supple o protein elastin —
responsible for the elasticity of elastic fibers
Stretch twice their original length
Not as widely as distributed end numerous as
collagen fibers but they are abundant_in
structures that are subjected to frequent
Tend to branch and anastomose
Not distinguishable from ordinary collagen fibers in
H & E preparations
Stains black when impregnated with silver salts
referred to as argyrophilic fibers (affinity for
silver)
Relatively sparse in most connective tissue, but they
are the main extracellular fibers in the stroma of
the bone marrow, some visceral organs such as the
liver, and the &mphoid organs such as lymph
nodes and spleen. (BLLnS)
They also comprise the Fibrillar component of the
lamina fibroreticularis of the basement membrane
of epithelial and other tissue.

1. Collagen Fibers (collagenous fibers)

Made up Of collagen (most abundant protein
in the bcxiy) Main extracellular fibers
Usualy collect into bundles that appear pink
in H & E preparations.
Special stains (Masson's trichome
technique) — color collagen fibers blue
Colorless but when present in abundant
amounts, they impart a white color to fresh
tissu
e
0 2 to 10 microrneters in diameter, thick
compared to other fibers o Have a tensile
strength that is greater than steel. They are
slightly flexible but inelastic.
2. Elastic Fibers
1 micrometer in diameter
 Stains

Very fine (0.5 micrometerin diameter)

Cells in Connective Tissue o Not bound to each
other but scattered individually in extracellular
substance

o Cells that permanently stay in connective

tissues
Fibroblast and fibrocytes, adipose cells,
reticular cells, adipose cells, mast cells, and
resident macrophages.

Cells that are transient in connective tissue o

Inflammatory macrophages, plasma cells and
leukocytes (WBC's)
 A large, fiat-cell with a pole, and oval-shaped nucleus
They synthesize the proteins, glycoproteins, and
glycosaminoglycan that are present in the ground
substance of connective tissue
Are involved in the secretion of extracellular matrix
so they can actively synthesize.
Are fibroblast that are idle or resting; inactive o
Small cell, nucleus is compact and dark
NOTE: fibroo,'tes and fibroblast differ in morphology
(structure and shape), activeness and biological
function in the body.
(fat cells, adipocytg) synthesized to
store lipids, mainly triglycerides, in its cytoplasm
Present in variable numbers in all connective
tissues.
A young adipose cell contains only few small fat
droplets in its cytoplasm, but as the cell matures,
it accumulates more lipids, and the fat droplets
increases in size and number.
Specialized fibroblasts that synthesize the
precursors Of type Ill collagen that make up
reticular fibers
Few in most connective tissues, but are abundant in
hematopoietic tlssue, lymphoid organs and the liver
In H & E preparations, they are noted to have a large
and lightly stained nucleus and long cytoplasmic
processes that embrace reticular fibers
Sparse in most connective tissues, but abundant in
the lamina proprja of the gastr.quntåt!nal.-tract
and respirator-v tract
Underneath the skin, and along the course of small
blood vessels
Large, ovoid cells (15-20 micrometers) with
centrally bated spherical nuclei and numerous
cytoplasmic granules
Cannot be distinguish in H & E preparations, but
when stained with toluidine blue, their
cytoplasmic granules turn dark purple
They contain chemical mediators Of inflammation
notably heparin, and anticoagulant; histamine,
which dilates and makes blood capillaries more
permeable and which stimulates the smooth
muscle cells especially of the bronchioles in the
respiratory tract; and some proteases.
Involved in inflammation and immediate-type
hypersensitivity reaction — anaphylactic shock o
Wound healing and defense against pathogens
Macrophages
Widely distributed all over the body They are
phagxytes that differentiate from monocy•tes (a type
of white cell) Play a major role in the body's non-
immune or inflammatory response (non-immune
defense system)
Helps the body's immune response by serving as
antigen presenting cells (APC's) that process and
introduce antigens to lymphocytes. Macrophages
that is located in the lungs is called
"Pulmonary Macrophages"
Kupffer cells on the liver
Histeocytes in tissue
Numerous in the connective tissues that are
readily accessible to foreign proteins and bacteria,
such as the lamina proprie of the digestive tract
Differentiate from WBC's called 8 lymphocytes
They play a major role in the body's immune response
because they produce immunoglobulin An antibody
is a substance that is elaborated by plasma cells in
response to the presence Of an antigen
A plasma cell is a terminally differentiated cell
is incapable of cell division or of reverting
back to a B lymphocyte. It has a lifespan of 10 to
20 days.
Present in the variable numbers in practically all
connective tissues. There are several types of
leukocytes, which in post-natal life are all
exclusively produced in the bone marrow.
Exceptions however, are the Ivmphocvtes. which
are produced not only in the bone marrow but also
the various Ivmphoid orqans.
Although present in circulating blood, leukocytes
perform their function in connective tissues. They
reach the capillaries by amoeboid movement.
They typically gather in inflamed and infected
areas Of the body.
Classification of Connective Tissue Proper
1. Loose Connective Tissue Cells are greater than
fibers more abundant in the body than dense
connective tissue
Comprises the hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue) that
underlies skin, the tunica adventitia of the vessels,
and the lamina propria and submucosa of the digestive,
respiratory and urogenital tract Characterized by high
vascularity and an abundance of extracellular substance
where the fibers are arranged haphazardly. It is also
more cellular than dense connective tissue
Can be group into 2 categories
1. Ordinary Loose CT refers to where the
predominant extracellular fiber is the fibroblast
2. Modified Loose CT a l_Cr that is different in
cellular or Fibrillar composition from ordinary
LCT

Types of modified loose connective tissue A. Adipose

tissue fat or adipose cell largest æWgy storage
site of the body acts as a thermal insulator o Loose CT and Dense CT
serves as shock absorber B. Reticular tissue Loose (fibers < cells ) and dense (cells < fibers)
reticular fiber serves as stroma Or supporting
framework Of hemopoietic tissue, liver and
lymphoid organs C. Elastic tissue o Elastic fibers
Form bundles that are arranged parallel to
each other
Typified by the ligamentum fiava of the
vertebral column and suspensory ligament of the
penis D. Mucous tissue
Abundance of amorphous and jellylike
ground substance in which are embedded a
scarce number of collagen, and elastic and
reticular fibers Common in embryo
(Wharton's Jelly)

2. Dense Connective Tissue

Closely packed collagen fibers
Has few cell, fibers are greater than cells
Scanty intercellular substance

A. Dense Regular CT
Arrangement of fibers is in definite pattern
B. Dense Irregular CT
Fibers run in various direction