TOPIC 1

MEASUREMENT

OUTLINE:

Units of measurement
Conversion of units
Uncertainty in measurement (errors)
Precision and accuracy
Significant figures
 Measurement
• Measurement is the process of observing and
recording the observations that are collected.

• It is an act of assigning numbers to objects or

events.

• Some of the measurements and calculations in

chemistry involve quantities such as pressure,
volume, mass and energy.

• Every quantity includes both a number and a unit.

 Units are extremely important in the study of science.
Without them, a number is just a number without any
meaning.

For Example
If the mass of a sample is 20 grams, it means that the
mass is 20 times the mass of 1 gram. Although 20 grams
has the dimension of mass, 20 is a pure dimensionless
number, being the ratio of two masses, that of the
sample and that of the reference, 1 gram.
International System of Units
• The international system of units (usually known as SI units,
from the French word Système
( International d’Unités )
consists of several base units from which all other units (such
as those of volume or energy) are derived.

• Because the base units are sometimes too large or too small
for use, SI prefixes are used to produce smaller or bigger units.

• the milligram (0.001 g, and symbolized mg) is used if small

masses are being recorded.

• The cubic metre (written m3) is too large for most purposes in
chemistry, and the cubic decimetre, dm3 (or litre) is commonly
used
1mi.e
3 = 1000 dm3 = 1 000 000 cm3
Basic Unit

SI base unit
Base quantity Name Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current Ampere A

Thermodynamic Kelvin K
temperature

Amount of Mole mol

substance
Luminous intensity Candela cd
Derived Unit

Derived quantity Name Symbol

area square meter m2
volume cubic meter m3
speed, velocity meter per second m/s
acceleration meter per second squared m/s2
wave number reciprocal meter m-1
mass density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
specific volume cubic meter per kilogram m3/kg
current density ampere per square meter A/m2
magnetic field strength ampere per meter A/m
amount-of-substance
mole per cubic meter mol/m3
concentration
luminance candela per square meter cd/m2
kilogram per kilogram,
mass fraction which may be represented kg/kg = 1
 SI Unit Prefixes
Name Symbol Multiplying factor
giga- G 109
mega- M 106
kilo- k 103
deci- d 10-1
centi- c 10-2
milli- m 10-3
micro- μ 10-6
nano- n 10-9
-12
 Stating a Measurement

In every measurement, a number isfollowed by a unit.

Observe the following examples of measurements:

Number and Unit

35 m
0.25 L
225 lb
3.4 hr

8
 The Metric System (SI)

The metric system or SI (international system) is

• a decimal system based on 10.

• used in most of the world.
• used everywhere by scientists.

• Note: some non SI units are employed in scientific

work

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 Units in the Metric System

In the metric and SI systems, one unit is used for each

type of measurement:
Measurement Metric SI
Length meter (m) meter (m)
Volume liter (L) cubic meter (m3)
Mass gram (g) kilogram (kg)
Time second (s) second (s)
Temperature Celsius (C) Kelvin (K)

10
 Length Measurement

Length
• is measured using a
meter stick.
• uses the unit of meter
(m) in both the metric
and SI systems.

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Publishing as Benjamin Cummings

11
 Inches and Centimeters

The unit of an inch is

equal to exactly 2.54
centimeters in the
metric (SI) system.

1 in. = 2.54 cm

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Publishing as Benjamin Cummings

12
 Volume Measurement

Volume
• is the space occupied by a
substance.
• uses the unit liter (L) in
metric system.
• 1 L = 1.057 qt
• uses the unit m3(cubic
meter) in the SI system.
• is measured using a
graduated cylinder.
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13
 Mass Measurement

The mass of an object

• is the quantity of material it

contains.
• is measured on a balance.
• uses the unit gram (g) in the
metric system.
• uses the unit kilogram (kg) in
the SI system.
Copyright © 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Publishing as Benjamin Cummings

14
 Temperature Measurement

The temperature of a substance

• indicates how hot or cold it is.
• is measured on the Celsius
(C) scale in the metric
system.
• the SI system uses the Kelvin
(K) scale.
oF= (1.8 oC ) +32
K= oC + 273
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15
 Time Measurement

Time measurement
• uses the unit second(s)
in both the metric and SI
systems.
• is based on an atomic
clock that uses a
frequency emitted by
cesium atoms.

Copyright © 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Publishing as Benjamin Cummings

16
 Learning Check

For each of the following, indicate whether the unit

describes 1) length 2) mass or 3) volume.

____ A. A bag of tomatoes is 4.6 kg.

____ B. A person is 2.0 m tall.

____ C. A medication contains 0.50 g aspirin.

____ D. A bottle contains 1.5 L of water.

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 Solution

For each of the following, indicate whether the unit

describes 1) length 2) mass or 3) volume.

2 A. A bag of tomatoes is 4.6 kg.

1 B. A person is 2.0 m tall.

2 C. A medication contains 0.50 g aspirin.

3 D. A bottle contains 1.5 L of water.

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 Learning Check
Identify the measurement that has an SI unit.
A. John’s height is
1) 1.5 yd. 2) 6 ft . 3) 2.1 m.
B. The race was won in
1) 19.6 s. 2) 14.2 min. 3) 3.5 hr.

C. The mass of a lemon is

1) 12 oz. 2) 0.145 kg. 3) 0.6 lb.

D. The temperature is
1) 85C. 2) 255 K. 3) 45F.

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 Solution
A. John’s height is
3) 2.1 m.
B. The race was won in
1) 19.6 s.

C. The mass of a lemon is

2) 0.145 kg.

D. The temperature is
2) 255 K.

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 Scientific Notation

Scientific notation

• is used to write very large

or very small numbers.

• for the width of a human

hair of 0.000 008 m is
written 8 x 10-6 m.

• of a large number such as

4 500 000 s is written 4.5
x 106 s. Copyright © 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Publishing as Benjamin Cummings

21
 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

To avoid ambiguity especially when determining

the numbers of significant figures of integers, it
is most appropriate to express measurement in
scientific notation form.

M x 10n

M is the coefficient 1≥ M<10

10 is the base
n is the exponent or power of 10
Some Powers of Ten

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Comparing Numbers in Standard
and Scientific Notation
Here are some numbers written in standard format
and in scientific notation.

Number in Number in
Standard Format Scientific Notation
Diameter of the Earth
12 800 000 m 1.28 x 107 m
Mass of a human
68 kg 6.8 x 101 kg
Length of a pox virus
0.000 03 cm 3 x 10-5 cm

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 Learning Check

Select the correct scientific notation for each.

A. 0.000 008
1) 8 x 106 2) 8 x 10-6 3) 0.8 x 10-5

B. 72 000
1) 7.2 x 104 2) 72 x 103 3) 7.2 x 10-4

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 Solution

Select the correct scientific notation for each.

A. 0.000 008
2) 8 x 10-6

B. 72 000
1) 7.2 x 104

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 Learning Check

Write each as a standard number.

A. 2.0 x 10-2
1) 200 2) 0.0020 3) 0.020

B. 1.8 x 105
1) 180 000 2) 0.000 018 3) 18 000

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 Solution

Write each as a standard number.

A. 2.0 x 10-2
3) 0.020

B. 1.8 x 105
1) 180 000

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 CONVERSION OF UNITS
Conversion of one unit into another unit is done
by multiplication or division. This can be done in
a multi-step process.
Factor-Label Method :

Example: Convert 5km to m:

NEW UNIT
5km x 1,000m = 5,000 m
km
OLD UNIT

Convert 7,000m to km
7,000m x 1 km = 7 km
1,000m
 CONVERSION OF UNITS

TEST YOURSELF

1.Convert 2.29 milliseconds to nanoseconds

2.Convert 96.4 microliters to liters and leave your answer

to 2 significant figures
 CONVERSION OF UNITS CONT’D….

EXERCISE

1.Using metric prefix what is the name given to unit that

equals a. 10-9 g b. 10-6 m c. 10-3 s d. 10-12 g

2.Arrange the following measurements in increasing order

1mg, 1 ng, 1pg, 1µg

3.Express the following measurement using a prefix to

replace the power of ten a. 6.4 × 10-9 g b. 2.6 × 109 g c.
7.2 × 103 g d. 9.0 × 10-6 g

4.Use exponential notation to express 3.76 mg in grams.

 CONVERSION OF UNITS CONT’D….
EXERCISE

Convert

1.1000m to dm

2.180 mL to L

3.0.796 g to ng

4.1.65 GL (Giga Litre) to ML (Mega Litre)

5.2.29 ms to ns
6.17. 3 cm to Km

7.Convert 55.00 km/h to m/s

 UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT
Two kinds of numbers are encountered in scientific work;

Exact Numbers- those whose values are known exactly,

they have defined values. They are known with complete
certainty. Most exact numbers are integers: exactly 12
inches are in a foot, Exact numbers are often found as
conversion factors or as counts of objects.

Non-exact / Inexact Numbers – those whose values has

some uncertainty. Numbers obtained by measurement are
always inexact because uncertainty always exist in
measured quantities.
That is why measured quantities are usually expressed to
show the degree of uncertainty using ± sign
 UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT

EXERCISE

Which of the following is an inexact quantity

a.Numbers of people in your chemistry class
b.The mass of a penny
c.The number of grams in a kilogram
 UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT
The uncertainty in measurements are called “errors in
measurements”.

Error is defined as the real value at the output of a

measurement (many times untrue, wrong, false) minus ideal
value (true, good, right). It can be expressed as:

Error= experimental value – accepted value

% Error= |experimental –accepted| x100

accepted value
 TYPES OF ERRORS
• Systematic Error or determinate Error:
• This error is reproducible
• can be discovered and corrected
• often caused by faulty instrument or measuring
technique. Examples are
• Instrumental errors- caused by using instrument not
properly calibrated. Can be corrected by proper instrument
maintenance

• Method errors- introduced to measurement through use of

wrong analytical procedures. Can be corrected with proper
method development, using CRMs, blank determination

• Personal errors- caused by human imperfections. E.g color

blindness leading to inaccurate end point determination etc.
Can be minimized with proper training and experience,
running replicate determinations
 TYPES OF ERRORS
Random Error: caused by uncontrollable
variables which cannot be defined or
eliminated. E.g fluctuations in conditions
(temp., voltage, pressure, etc.)
 TYPES OF ERRORS
i. Systematic error: This produces values that are either all
higher or all lower than the actual or true value.
Such errors are common and may be due to a faulty or
un-calibrated measuring device.

ii. Random error: this produces some values that are higher
or lower than the true values. Random errors depend on
the external factors that often times may not be
controllable.

 Precise measurements have low random error.

 Accurate measurements have low systematic error and
generally low random error.
 ACCURACY AND PRECISION
• This terms are often used in discussing the
uncertainties of measured values

• Accuracy: indicates the closeness of the

measurement to its true value or
accepted value. It is expressed by the
error.
• Precision: describes the reproducibility of
measurements. That is: the closeness of
results that have been obtained in exactly
the same way.
Precision and Accuracy
 Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured value to
a standard or known value.
For example, if a weight measurement is 3.2 kg for a
given substance, but the actual or known weight is 10 kg,
then the measurement is not accurate.

 Precision refers to the closeness of two or more

measurements to each other.
For example: If the above measurement is made thrice to
give 3.2, 3.1 and 3.2, then the measurement is precise.
 ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Low accuracy, low precision High accuracy, low precision

Low accuracy, high precision High accuracy, high precision

ACCURACY AND PRECISION
EXERCISE

Who is more accurate when measuring a book that has a

true length of 17.0cm?
Susan:
17.0cm, 16.0cm, 18.0cm, 15.0cm

Amy:
15.5cm, 15.0cm, 15.2cm, 15.3cm

Who is more precise when measuring the same 17.0cm

book?

Susan:
17.0cm, 16.0cm, 18.0cm, 15.0cm

Amy:
15.5cm, 15.0cm, 15.2cm, 15.3cm
 ACCURACY AND PRECISION
TEST YOURSELF
15 students were grouped into 3 groups, to measure the
mass of an object. Below was their data:
Group 1- 15.99g; 16.00g; 15.98g; 15.97g; 16.00g.
Group 2- 20.00g; 23.50g; 22.90g; 28.20g; 21.00g.
Group 3- 13.01g; 13.05g; 13.00g; 13.20g; 13.15g.

If the true mass value of the object is 16.00g.

Which of the group has both precise and accurate

measurement?
What is the level of precision and accuracy of group 2
measurements?
Significant Figures
What is a “significant figure”?
• The number of significant figures in a result is simply the
number of figures that are known with some degree of
reliability.

• Exact numbers can be considered to have an infinite

number of significant figures.

• The numerical value of every observed measurement is an

approximation, because measurements are usually not
exact.

• The accuracy of a measurement is always limited by the

reliability of the measuring instrument.
 Significant Figures cont’d…..
For Example
A recorded length of 15.7 cm to the nearest 0.1
cm means that the actual length could range
from 15.65 and 15.74 cm. If the same
measurement was made to the nearest 0.01 cm,
it will recorded as 15.70 cm. While 15.7 has 3 sf.
15.70 has 4 sf.
Significant Figures (cont.)
• Measurement are often recorded to show the degree of
uncertainty in the measurement using the “±” sign.

• Thus the measured 15.7 cm could be written as 15.7 ±

0.1

• The recorded digits (both certain and uncertain) are

called significant figures.

• The greater the number of significant figures in a

measurement, the greater is the certainty.
Significant Figures (cont.)
Determining Which Digits are Significant
i. Ensure the measured digit has a decimal point.

ii. Starting from the left, move to the right until the first
non zero digit is reached.

iii. This digit and every digit to its right is significant.

iv. Zeroes that end a number and lie either after or before
the decimal point are significant.
Thus, 1.030, and 5.300 x 103 have 4 sf.
Significant Figures (cont.)
Rules for deciding the number of significant figures in a
measured quantity:

(1) All nonzero digits are significant:

1.234 g has 4 significant figures,
1.2 g has 2 significant figures.

(2) Zeroes between nonzero digits are

significant:
1002 kg has 4 significant figures,
3.07 mL has 3 significant figures.
 Significant Figures (cont.)
Rules for deciding the number of significant figures in a
measured quantity:

(3) Zeroes to the left of the first nonzero digits are

not significant; such zeroes merely indicate the
position of the decimal point:
0.001 o C has only 1 significant figure,
0.012 g has 2 significant figures.

(4) Zeroes to the right of a decimal point in a

number are significant:
0.023 mL has 2 significant figures (because zeros
here are to the left, so not significant)
0.200 g has 3 significant figures.
Significant Figures (cont.)
Rules for deciding the number of significant figures in a
measured quantity:

(5) When a number ends in zeroes that are not to

the right of a decimal point, the zeroes are not
necessarily significant:
190 miles may be 2 or 3 significant figures, 50,600
calories may be 3, 4, or 5 significant figures.

The potential ambiguity in the last rule can be

avoided by the use of standard exponential, or ”
scientific notation”.
Significant Figures (Rule 5 cont.)

For example, depending on whether 3, 4, or 5

significant figures is correct, we could write
50,6000 calories as:
5.06 × 104 calories (3 significant figures)
5.060 × 104 calories (4 significant figures), or
5.0600 × 104 calories (5 significant figures).

It is important to note under rule 5 that for

questions in which the exponetial notation are not
stated. The digits known with highest level of
certainty are the significant figures. So, 50,6000
has 3 s.f since it was not expressed using
scientific notation.
• Rules for Significant Figures (RECAP):
– All nonzero digits are significant.
i.e. 111 1286
111 3 SF 1286 4 SF
– Zeros between significant figures are significant.
i.e. 1001 20,006
1001 4 SF 20,006 5 SF

– Zeros preceding the first nonzero digit are not significant.

i.e. 0.0002 0.00206
0.0002 1 SF 0.00206 3 SF

– Zeros to the right of the decimal after a nonzero digit are

significant.
i.e. 0.00300 9.00 9.10 90.0
0.00300 3 SF 9.00 3 SF 9.10 3 SF 90.0 3 SF

– Zeros at the end of a nondecimal number may or may not be

significant. (Use scientific notation to indicate significant figures.)
could be 1, 2, or 3 SF 3 SF
i.e. 900 900.
Sample Questions
i. For each of the following quantities, underline the zeros
that are significant figures and determine the number of
significant figures in each quantities:

a. 0.0030 L b. 0.1044 g c. 53069 mL d. 0.00004715 m

e. 57,600 s f. 0.0000007160 cm3
Significant Figures and Calculations
 When doing arithmetic operations as common in most
calculations in chemistry, the urge to round off must be
avoided.

 The following must be observed in such cases:

i. For multiplication and division, the answer should contain the
same number of sf as in the measurement with the lowest sf.
e.g What is the volume of a graphite composite with 9.2 cm
length, 6.83 cm width and 0.3744 cm thickness?
V (cm3) = 9.2 cm x 6.83 cm x 0.3744 cm = 24 cm3
ii. For addition and subtraction, the answer will have the same no.
of decimal places as the measurement with the least no. of
decimal places
e.g What is the final volume of a mixture containing 38.5 mL
water and 23.28 mL protein solution
V (cm3) = 38.5 mL + 23.28 mL = 61.8 mL
Rules for Rounding Off
i. If the digit removed is more than 5, the preceding
number is increased by 1. Thus 5.379 rounds off to
5.38

ii. If the digit removed is less than 5, the preceding number

remains unchanged. Thus 0.2413 becomes 0.241.

iii. If the digit remove is 5, the preceding number is

increased by 1 if it is odd and remains unchanged if it
is even. Thus 17.75 rounds up to 17.8 while 17.65
become 17.6.

iv. Always carry one or two additional sf through multistep

calculation and round up.
3.38 – 3.012 = 0.368 = 0.37 Subtraction; therefore, least decimal place
dictates sign figures – hundredths place.

Addition; therefore, least decimal place dictates

2.4 x10-3 + 3.56 x 10-1 = sign figures but notice the different powers of ten.
Must change both to the same power or write the
0.0024 number out to easily determine the least decimal
+0.356 place.

0.3584 = 3.58 x 10-1 Multiplication/division; therefore, least

number of sign figures dictates sign
figures. In this case the number 5.8
dictates it to be 2 sign figures.
2.568 x 5.8 = 14.9 = 3.56 = 3.6 Note: the guard digit used in problem

4.186 4.186 This problem involves using both rules. We must

follow order of operations and do the subtraction
in the parentheses first (least decimal place),
followed by the multiplication (least number),
4.18 – 58.16 x (3.38 – 3.01) = and finally the first subtraction (least decimal
place).
4.18 – 58.16 x (0.37) = 4.18 – 21.5 = -17.3 = -17
This problem also involves using both
rules. We must do the addition in
6.3 + 7.2 = 13.5 = 25.69 = 25.7 numerator first (least decimal place),
followed by division (least number).
0.5256 0.5256 59
EXERCISE ON SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Identify the number of significant figures:
1) 3.0800
2) 0.00418
3) 7.09 x 10¯5
4) 91,600
5) 0.003005
6) 3.200 x 109
7) 250
8) 780,000,000
9) 0.0101
10) 0.00800
EXERCISE ON SIGNIFICANT FIGURES CONT’D

Identify the number of significant figures:

11) 3.461728 + 14.91 + 0.980001 + 5.2631

12) 23.1 + 4.77 + 125.39 + 3.581

13) 22.101 - 0.9307

14) 0.04216 - 0.0004134

15) 564,321 - 264,321

 EXERCISE ON SIGNIFICANT FIGURES CONT’D

Identify the number of significant figures:

16) (3.4617 x 107) ÷ (5.61 x 10¯4)

17) [(9.714 x 105) (2.1482 x 10¯9)] ÷ [(4.1212)

(3.7792 x 10¯5)].

18) (4.7620 x 10¯15) ÷ [(3.8529 x 1012) (2.813 x 10¯7)

(9.50)]

19) [(561.0) (34,908) (23.0)] ÷ [(21.888) (75.2)

(120.00)]