Cheat Sheet
Usual types of questions Tips
Algebraic  Almost always adding or subtracting
Fractions fractions.
 Simplifying top heavy fraction using
algebraic division.
 Simplifying fractions by first
factorising numerator and
denominator, where possible.
Functions  Specifying range or domain of
function.
 Finding inverse of function.
 Finding specific output of function,
e.g. or
 Finding specific output using graph
only (without explicit definition of
function)
 Finding composite function.
 Sketching original function and
inverse function on same axis (i.e.
reflection in ) √ is
 Be able to find or for
example, when the function
known.
 “If find all values of
for which ” , NOT
What can go ugly
 Factorise everything in each fraction first. e.g. If denominators  Blindly multiplying the two denominators when
and , common denominator will be there might be a common factor, e.g.
and should become
 Otherwise, just a case of practice! rather than
 If adding/subtracting a constant, turn into a fraction. .
 Classic sign errors when subtracting a fraction.
 Suppose we were asked to turn into a mixed number. By
algebraic division we find the quotient is and the remainder Note use of brackets around ensures -2
becomes +2.
2. Remember we can express the result as where
is the quotient, the remainder and the divisor, just as
where 5 was the quotient and 1 the remainder.
Thus
 In general, to simplify ‘fractions within fractions’, multiply top and
bottom of the outer fraction by the denominator of the inner
fraction, e.g.:
 You should know and understand why  Having a lack of care in domains/ranges with the
 I avoid getting domain and range mixed strictness/nonstrictness of the bound. For
i.e. Domain first (possible inputs) followed by Range , range is not .
(possible outputs) Similarly range for quadratics are non-strict
 Learn the domains and ranges of each of the ‘common functions’ because min/max point is included.
( ,√ , , …)  Putting the range of a function in terms of
instead of say the correct . Similarly for the
 Domains can be restricted for 2 main reasons:
range of an inverse, if the domain of the original
o The denominator of a fraction can’t be 0, so domain of
function was say , then the range of the
is . Use symbol.
inverse is (i.e. even though the
o You can’t square root a negative number, so range of inequality is effectively the same, we’re
. Similarly you can’t log 0 or negative referring to the output of now so need to
numbers so domain use rather than )
is  Range can be restricted for 3 main reasons:  When finding , accidentally doing first
o The domain was restricted. e.g. If and domain is and then .
set to , then range is .  If , then you should recognise that
, which would
o Asymptotes. For reciprocals a division can never yield 0 suggest you don’t quite fully understand how
 (unless numerator is 0), thus range of is functions work.
. Use sketch! For exponential functions, output is
positive:
o Min/max value of a quadratic (or any polynomial whose
highest power is even).

Range of is
 For composite functions, if given say , write as ( ) then
substitute with its definition so you have
. You’re less likely to go wrong.
 Remember that domain is specified in terms of and the range in
terms of (or or otherwise).
 Remember that the domain and range is swapped for the inverse
function.
 If the domain is unrestricted, you should know to write ,
where the means “is a member of” and is “the set of real
number”. Similarly an unrestricted range is .
 If asked “Why does the function not have an inverse”, answer with
“It is a many-to-one function.”
 “If find all values of for which ”. If
, this only occurs when the input is equal to the
output, i.e. . Thus solve .
Exponential  Be able to draw the graphs of  The log function exists to provide an inverse of the exponential  The worst algebraic error you can make is going
and Log Functions and . function, e.g. if we use then we could obtain original from say to: .
 Sketch more complicated value using . Applying to both sides doesn’t apply it
exponential graphs,  C2 laws of logs you are expected to know and use in C3/C4: individually to each thing in a sum. It’s
e.g. equivalent to the misconception that
 Solve equations involving and ( ) √ . To ‘undo’ a , you have to
(see right). isolate a single on one side of the equation
 Solve equations which are quadratic with nothing being added or subtracted from it
 Combine ’s first in the same way as you would in C2.
in terms of (see right). (as per the example on the left)
e.g. becomes which in turn becomes
 Find the ‘long term’ value of an  Misremembering C2 laws of logs.
exponential graph.  Thinking particularly in applied questions
 For equations of the following form, just ‘ln’ both sides first and use
(e.g. population growth).
laws of logs to split up the LHS:

Numerical  Rearranging an equation into the
methods form , i.e. where
appears on both sides of the
equation, but appears in isolation
on one side.
 Using a recurrence to get successive
approximations.
 Justifying why a value is correct to a
given number of decimal places.
 Justifying why a root lies in a given
range. Similarly, justifying why a
turning point lies in a given range
(see right).
 Some questions are ‘quadratics in disguise’:
Since , this suggest we multiply everything by , which
gives us: . Rearranging:
Then we could make the substitution and factorise, or just
factorise immediately to get
Thus , thus
 If you’d managed to factorise an expression to say ,
remember that can’t be 0 (as the range of exponential functions
is )
 Suppose the population is given by where
is the number of years. What is the initial population? What is the
long-term population?
If
As , will tends towards 0. Thus
 To draw the graph of
, either do as a graph
transform from (i.e. shift up
5000, ensuring you get -intercept
correct), or consider initial value and
long term value as above. Ensure you
draw asymptote!
 When asked to show that you can rearrange an equation to the  Using radians instead of degrees, or vice versa,
form , use the structure of the target equation to yield for recurrences involving trig functions. If your
clues about how to rearrange (since there are multiple ways of values don’t gradually converge (i.e. approach)
isolating , some which will lead to dead ends) to a particular value when you spam the = key,
 Exploit the ANS key on your calculator to get successive something probably went wrong.
approximations. Put your value into the value then immediately  Reaching a dead end when trying to rearrange
press =. Then write an expression in terms of ANS and spam your = the equation to give a certain form.
key.
 Remember the golden words “change of sign” when justifying why
a root is in a range.
 If asked to justify why a max/min point is in the range, note that
the gradient goes from positive to negative (or vice versa) and thus
there is a change of sign.
 “Show that the solution to ” lies in the range .”
Rewrite as , so that we can then evaluate
and and show there’s a change in sign.
Transforming  Using an existing function  The way to remember | | vs | | is remember that changes  Forgetting to add key coordinates to your
graphs of to sketch | | and/or inside the function brackets affects the values and changes diagrams, e.g. intercepts with the axis, turning
functions | | outside affect the values. Thus in | | , any negative is points, etc.
 As at GCSE/C1, be able to sketch a made positive before being inputted into the function. Thus we  Not checking your solutions are valid when
variety of functions by considering copy and reflect the graph from the right side of the -axis (and solving equations of the form | | or
the transformation involved, e.g. discard anything that was on the left). similar.
( )  For curved graphs, at the point of reflection, the line should be  If considering | | in solving an equation, it
sharp (i.e. a sudden change in direction) not smooth. would be a mistake to consider and
 Solve equations of the form
| |  For questions such as say “Solve | | ” then for any . You actually want and .
expression involving a |..|, have a separate equation where it is i.e. Negate the whole expression, don’t just
positive or negative. i.e. make each negative term positive!
 Note that the specification explicitly
excludes multiple transformations
to the input of a function, i.e. you
will NOT see However you MUST check both solutions satisfy the original
equation:
| |
| ( ) |
Thus both solutions in this case are valid.
Questions mainly in two flavours:  To remember which way the tan and sec go in ,  Forgetting solutions in solve questions.
Trigonometry  Solve questions. I remember the queen coming back from holiday, saying “one is  Forgetting the when say dealing with
 Prove questions. tanned”. Then slap a ‘co’ on the front of the tan and sec to get the (and thus losing solutions).
Either type may involve use of double second identity.  Dividing both sides of a equation by say ,
angle/angle sum formulae, or identities  For proof questions, if you have a mixture of say and , it’s rather than moving everything to one side and
or generally easiest to put everything in terms of first using double factorising (as you again would lose solutions).
angle formulae. E.g.:  Getting to a dead end in proof questions (as per
advice, combine any fractions into a single one,
Be able to express in  Similarly for proof questions, when you have a mix of sin, cos, tan, and write everything in terms of sin and cos if
the form or sec and the like, whenever you’re stuck, just write EVERYTHING in completely stuck).
terms of sin and cos.  I’ve seen some students try to skip steps with
 In proof questions, when you have fractions being questions, and end up making
added/subtracted, combine into a single fraction. Things usually errors particularly in working out . Ensure you
end up cancelling. show the expansion of or
, compare coefficients, and divide
and the correct way to get .

Differentiation  Use of one or more of product rule,
quotient rule, chain rule.
 Differentiating , , ,
.
 
( )
 Be able to simplify a more
complicated expression via
factorisation (see tips).
 As with AS questions, when you have a combination of say
and , then change the squared term using the identity, so that
you end up with a quadratic equation in terms of one trig function.
 As per AS, if you’re given a range for your solutions, then rewrite
the range as appropriate. E.g. If and you had
, then . This ensures you don’t lose solutions.
 To solve , we’d usually reciprocate both sides so that
becomes , but we can’t do !
We can see this would happen at asymptotes for tan, thus
 Don’t use the quotient rule if the numerator is a constant – it’s  Substituting into the quotient rule wrong. E.g.
simpler to re-express as a product: Doing instead of the correct
,
Doing something horrid like this:
 To remember the signage of differentiating and integrating and
 Or even worse:
 In general, forgetting to use the chain rule. If
there’s some nested linear expression, make
 For nested functions, differentiate the whole funtion, and then, the sure you always multiply by the coefficient of :
functions within. Take care that you have differentiated correctly
and multiplied correctly, especially when fractions or negative
numbers are involved.  Getting the signs wrong when differentiating (or
integrate) and , particularly when the
chain rule is involved.
 If is expressed in terms of and you need to find , then
e.g. Incorrectly differentiating to
sometimes it is not convenient to make the subject first: instead rather than due to
find and then take the reciprocal to get . chain rule.
 When differentiating a trig function to some power, write first  Note that is equal to , NOT
putting the power outside a bracket, so that it’s clearer you should !
be using chain rule:  If using the product rule with more complex
expressions (e.g. with considerable use of chain
rule, particularly when there are lots of
 You will often have to simplify a differentiated expression. negatives floating about), you are advised to
Remember that when factorising things with indices, factor out the work out and separately first rather than
smallest power, and factor out any fraction using the lowest write all in one go.
common multiple:

( )

 If the “tangent is parallel to the -axis”, then its gradient is infinite:

this would only happen because of a division by 0 in the original
equation. e.g. If , then the ‘tangent’ is effectively the
asymptote, which has equation .
 Usual types of questions Tips What can go ugly
Partial  Be able to split a fraction whose  When for dealing with top heavy fractions, you need to do  Forgetting the extra term when the
Fractions denominator is a product of algebraic long division. Remember to fill in any blanks e.g. 0x denominator’s factors are squared.
linear expressions, e.g.
2𝑥+3
Take extra care when subtracting, look out for minus minus.  Being sloppy at algebraic long division!
𝑥(𝑥+1) 𝑥 2 +2 𝑥 2 +2
e.g. 𝑥(𝑥+1) = 𝑥 2 +𝑥. Using long division we get a quotient of 1  Be careful with substitution of negative
 Be able to split a fraction where
values.
one (or more) of the factors in and a remainder of −𝑥 + 2, thus:
 You may have to spot that you need to
the denominator are squared, 𝑥2 + 2 −𝑥 + 2
2𝑥+3 =1+ factorise the denominator first before
e.g. 2 (𝑥+1) 2
𝑥 +𝑥 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)
𝑥
−𝑥+2
expressing as partial fractions.
 Deal with top-heavy fractions Then split the
𝑥(𝑥+1)
into partial fractions as normal.  Not realising the fraction is top heavy and
where the highest power in the  Don’t forget that when you have a squared factor in the therefore trying to incorrectly do:
numerator is greater or equal denominator, you need two fractions in your partial fraction 2𝑥 2 𝐴 𝐵
to the highest power in the = +
sum: 𝑥(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 + 1
𝑥 2 +2 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
denominator, e.g ≡ + 2+
𝑥(𝑥+1) 2
𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥+1
 When you have three unknowns it’s generally easiest to use
substitution to get two of them (e.g. the 𝐴 and the 𝐵) then
compare the coefficients of 𝑥 2 to get the 𝐶. For the above
example:
2 ≡ 𝐴𝑥(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶𝑥 2
We can see immediately, without needing to write out the
expansion, that 0 = 𝐴 + 𝐶, by comparing 𝑥 2 terms.
Parametric 𝑑𝑦 (
𝑑𝑦
)  Note: You will NOT be asked to sketch parametric equations.  Hitting a dead end converting parametric
 Know that = 𝑑𝑡
Equations 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
( )  To convert parametric equations involving trig functions to equations to Cartesian. See tips on left.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
(This makes sense as we have just divided Cartesian ones, the strategy is usually to make sin 𝑥 and  Forgetting to multiply by 𝑑𝑡 when
numerator and denominator by 𝑑𝑡) cos 𝑥 the subject before using the identity sin2 𝑥 + cos2 𝑥 ≡ integrating parametric equations.
 Be able to integrate parametric 1. Often squaring one of the parametric equations helps so
equations. Remember that the 𝑑𝑥 in ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 can be
that we have sin2 𝑥 and/or cos 2 𝑥: 𝑑𝑥
 Be able to convert parametric 𝑥 = √3 sin 2𝑡 𝑦 = 4 cos 2 𝑡
replaced with 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡, which is easy to
equations into a single Cartesian 𝑥 = 2√3 sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡 remember, as the 𝑑𝑡’s cancel if we think of
one. 𝑥 2 = 12 sin2 𝑡 cos 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑑𝑡 just as quantities.
𝑥 2 = 12(1 − cos 2 𝑡) cos 2 𝑡
𝑦 2 𝑦
𝑥 2 = 12 (1 − ( ) )
4 4
Binomial  Expanding out an expression of  (1 + 𝑘𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛(𝑘𝑥) +
𝑛(𝑛−1)
(𝑘𝑥)2 Many things!
Expansion the form (1 + 𝑘𝑥)𝑛 , where 𝑛 is 2!
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)  Lack of brackets when squaring/cubing
negative or fractional. + (𝑘𝑥)3 + ⋯ things, e.g. you need (2𝑥)3 = 8𝑥 3 not 2𝑥 3
3!
 Expanding out an expression of  Your expression may be a binomial expansion in disguise, e.g.  With say (3 + 4𝑥)−1, forgetting to raise the
the form (𝑎 + 𝑘𝑥)𝑛 , where 𝑎 1 3 3 you factor out to the power of -1.
1 1 1 − ×−
needs to be factorised out first. (1 −
= − 2𝑥) = 1 + (− )
2 (−2𝑥) + 2 2 (−2𝑥)2 + ⋯  Forgetting to put the factorial in the
√1 − 2𝑥 2 2!
 Finding the product of two denominators of the Binomial coefficients
 When the first term is not 1, you have to factorise this □ □
Binomial expansions, e.g. (a common error is instead of )
number out, raised to the power outside the brackets. e.g. 3 3!
√1 + 𝑥 1 1 1  Being careless in using your calculator when
→ (1 + 𝑥)2 (1 − 𝑥)−2 1 1 5 2
√1 − 𝑥 (4 + 5𝑥)2 = 42 (1 + 𝑥) simplifying coefficients.
4  Be ridiculously careful with signs!
1 5
= 2 [1 + ( 𝑥) + ⋯ ]  Accidentally forgetting the minus in the
2 4 1
Ensure the outer brackets are maintained till the very end, power when expanding say (𝑥+1)2
when you expand them out.
 When finding the product of two expansions, then if you
needed up to the 𝑥 2 term, then you only need to find up to
the 𝑥 2 term in each of the two expansions. Only consider
things in the expansion which are up to 𝑥 2 . e.g.
1 + 𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 1 1
√ = = (1 + 𝑥)2 (1 − 𝑥)−2
1 − 𝑥 √1 − 𝑥
1 1 1
(1 + 𝑥)2 ≈ 1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2
2 8
−
1 1 3
(1 − 𝑥) 2 ≈ 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2
2 8
1 1 1 1 1 3
(1 + 𝑥)2 (1 − 𝑥)−2 ≈ (1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) (1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )
2 8 2 8
1 3 1 1 1
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥2
2 8 2 4 8
1
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2
2
  Appreciate that 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥  Example of implicit differentiation (which involves collecting  A classic is to accidentally treat 𝑥 or 𝑦 as
Differentiation represents ‘exponential growth’ 𝑑𝑦 constants rather than variables, when
the terms on one side and factorising it out):
𝑑𝑥
when 𝑎 > 1, and ‘exponential 𝑑𝑦 differentiating implicitly. Note that
decay’ when 0 < 𝑎 < 1 (and “Given that 𝑥𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , find .” 𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑥 (𝑎𝑥) = 𝑎 if 𝑎 is a constant, but (𝑥𝑦) =
Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥: 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
from C3, know the graphs for 𝑑𝑦
each). 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 by the product rule, and not just 𝑦.
𝑥 (2𝑦 ) + 𝑦2 + 2 = 2𝑥

𝑑
Know that 𝑑𝑥 (𝑎 𝑥 ) = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥  When differentiating implicitly, you might
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑
(2𝑥𝑦 + 2) = 2𝑥 − 𝑦 2 forget to put the 𝑑𝑥, e.g. 𝑑𝑥 (𝑦 2 ) = 2𝑦
𝑑𝑥
 Be able to differentiate 𝑑𝑦 2𝑥 − 𝑦 2 rather than the correct 2𝑦
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2𝑥𝑦 + 2
implicitly, e.g. 𝑑𝑥 (𝑦 2 ) = 2𝑦 𝑑𝑥  Exponential functions do not behave like
They particularly love use of the product rule!
and subsequently be able to polynomials when differentiated. e.g.
𝑑𝑦
 A ‘differential equation’ is an equation involving both some 𝑑 𝑑
make 𝑑𝑥 the subject. variables and derivatives involving those variables, e.g. a mix (𝑥 3 ) = 3𝑥 2 , but (3𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 ln 3, and
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 Be able to set up differential 𝑑𝑦
of 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑑𝑥. ‘Solving’ this equation means to obtain an absolutely not 𝑥 ⋅ 3𝑥−1 !
equations, e.g. understand that  Many students often get their equation
equation only involving the variables, and not the derivatives.
“the temperature falls at a rate wrong when connecting rates of change,
 Whenever you see the word ‘rate’, think /𝑑𝑡.
proportional to its current often say dividing instead of multiplying, or
 “A circle’s radius increases at a rate of 2cm/s. Find the rate of
temperature” could be vice versa. If you use the ‘fill in the
increase of its area when the radius is 10cm.”
𝑑𝑇
represented as 𝑑𝑡 = −𝑘𝑇 diagonals’ tip on the left this will unlikely be
First note the variables involved: 𝐴, 𝑟 and because we’re
a problem.
 Connect different derivatives 𝑑𝐴
talking about rates, 𝑡. We need to find . Since derivatives
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
involving rates, e.g. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 × 𝑑𝑥 behave pretty much like normal fractions, first write the
following product with the 𝑑𝐴 and 𝑑𝑡 copied into the
diagonals:
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 □
= ×
𝑑𝑡 □ 𝑑𝑡
Then fill the remaining diagonals with the remaining variable,
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑟: = ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟
One value, in this case 𝑑𝑡 = 2, is always given. The other we
need to form some formula, in this case 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 (and often
using simple geometry to find an area or volume), and
differentiate:
𝑑𝐴
= 2𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝐴
Thus when 𝑟 = 10, 𝑑𝑟 = 2 × 𝜋 × 10 = 20𝜋
𝑑𝐴
Thus: 𝑑𝑡 = 20𝜋 × 2 = 40𝜋
Integration  Integrate a large variety of  One often forgotten integration is exponential functions such Where to start!
expressions. See the ‘integration as 2𝑥 . Differentiating has effect of multiplying by 𝑙𝑛 of the  One big problem is just not knowing what
cheat sheet’ overleaf. But by base, and thus integrating divides by it. i.e. method to use to integrate a particular
category: 𝑑 𝑥 1 𝑥 expression. The cheat sheet overleaf should
(2 ) = ln 2 ⋅ 2𝑥 ∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 +𝐶
o Integrating trig 𝑑𝑥 ln 2 help, as should lots of practice of a variety
functions, including  Know the two double angle formulae for 𝑐𝑜𝑠 like the back of of expressions!
reciprocal functions and your hand, for use when integrating sin2 𝑥 or cos 2 𝑥  Similarly getting stuck on integration by
squared functions  In general, know your integrals of all the ‘trig squares’, i.e. substitution, because you can’t get the
sin2 𝑥, cos2 𝑥 , sec 2 2𝑥, sin2 𝑥 , cos2 𝑥 , tan2 𝑥 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥, sec 2 𝑥 , cot 2 𝑥 whole original expression only in terms of
etc.  For integration by ‘reverse chain rule’, always ‘consider’ the new variable (𝑡 or otherwise).
o Integrating by ‘reverse some sensible expression to differentiate, then adjust for the  Perhaps the all-time biggest mistake is
chain rule’ (also known factor difference. e.g. forgetting to consider the effects of chain
as ‘integration by ∫(4 − 3𝑥)5 𝑑𝑥 rule. e.g. Accidentally doing
inspection’).
Then your working might be: ∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 2𝑥
o Integrating by a given
substitution. “Consider 𝑦 = (4 − 3𝑥)6 . Then  Sign errors when integrating/differentiating
𝑑𝑦
o Integration by parts. = 6(4 − 3𝑥)5 × (−3) = −18(4 − 3𝑥)5 trig functions. Other than sin and cos, be
𝑑𝑥
o Integrating by use of 1 careful about cot/cosec:
partial fractions. ∴ ∫(4 − 3𝑥)5 𝑑𝑥 = − (4 − 3𝑥)6 + 𝐶 𝑑
18 (cot 𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
o Integrating top heavy  For integration by substitution, the official specification says 𝑑𝑥
fractions by algebraic “Except in the simplest of cases, the substitution will be thus ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 + 𝐶
division. given.”  A common one: Forgetting about the chain
 Remember that starting with the substitution, say 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + rule when integrating expressions of the
1, it helps to make 𝑥 the subject, except in some cases where form (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥)𝑐 , see ∫(4 − 3𝑥)5 𝑑𝑥
there’s a trigonometric substitution, e.g. if 𝑢 = sin 𝑥 + 1, but example.
sin 𝑥 appears in the expression to integrate, then we might
 Be able to differentiate make sin 𝑥 the subject instead.  Remember that constants differentiate to
parametric equations: Differentiate and make 𝑑𝑥 the subject also, then ensure 𝑑
nothing, i.e. (𝜋 2 ) = 0 not 2𝜋!
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
original expression is only in terms of new variable.
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑡  Similarly ln 𝑐 is a constant. 𝑥 ln 2 would
𝑑𝑡  Don’t feel as if you need to memorise a separate formula for
differentiate to ln 2.
 Calculate volumes of revolution 𝑑𝑥
parametric volumes of revolution, since 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 clearly by
𝑑𝑡  If 𝑢2 = 𝑥 + 1 is the substitution, you’re
both for normal and parametric
the fact that the 𝑑𝑡’s cancel. doing unnecessary work if you then square
equations:
 You have to change the limits whenever you do either of: (a) root. Differentiating implicitly:
𝑉 = 𝜋∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 parametric integration or (b) integration by substitution, 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥 2𝑢 =1
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑦2 𝑑𝑡 because you’re integrating in terms of a new variable. 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
 Solve differential equations.  When the limits are changed, remember that ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =
𝑏 This is much much tidier!
𝑑𝑦
e.g. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 − ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥), useful when the limits are the wrong way round.  Forgetting to change your limits for either
 Trapezium Rule as per C2, but  You can tidy things up sometimes using − ∫ −𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = parametric integration or integration by
now with C3/C4 expressions to + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, since the -1 can be factored out the integral. substitution!
integrate. You will frequently be  For integration by parts, if you ever have to IBP twice, write But note that in integration by substitution,
asked to compare the actual the second integral as a separate result first before once you’ve changed back to the original
error and the estimated area substituting it in after. This is to avoid sign errors and keep variable (probably 𝑥), you should use the
using the rule, and the things tidy. e.g. Workings might be: original limits.
percentage error. ∫ 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥  Don’t try and use integration by parts if you
𝑑𝑣 can use ‘integration by inspection’.
𝑢 = 𝑥2 = cos 𝑥 2
e.g. For ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 , then integration by parts
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 would lead to a dead end.
= 2𝑥 𝑣 = sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥  For differential equations, ensure the
2 2
∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − ∫ 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑□
variable at the top of the 𝑑□ matches what
“For ∫ 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥:” you’ve moved to the LHS. e.g. If
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑡
𝑢 = 2𝑥 = sin 𝑥 = 𝑟2𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑢
= 2 𝑣 = − cos 𝑥 then it’s the 𝑡 you want on the LHS.
𝑑𝑥
∫ 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −2𝑥 cos 𝑥 − ∫ −2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −2𝑥 cos 𝑥 + ∫ 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= −2𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 2 sin 𝑥
∴ ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 − (−2𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 2 sin 𝑥)
2

= 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 + 2𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥 + 𝐶

 Note the nice double negative tidying up trick towards the
end.
𝑑𝑦
 If you’re solving 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦, then you need the 𝑦 (or
𝑑𝑦
whatever variable appears at the top of ) on the LHS. This
𝑑𝑥
is always achieved by a division or multiplication, which may
require factorisation first:
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑦(𝑥 + 1) = 𝑥+1
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥 ln|𝑦| = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑦 2
1 2 1 2
𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 +𝑥+𝐶 = 𝐴𝑒 2𝑥 +𝑥
 Note in the above example, we let some new constant 𝐴 =
𝑒 𝐶 to help tidy things up. If we had ln 𝑥 + 𝐶 on the right-
hand-side, we’d make 𝐶 = ln 𝐴 so that ln 𝑥 + ln 𝐴 = ln(𝐴𝑥).
Similarly if we had ln 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝐶, and hence 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝐶 =
𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝐶 , we could make 𝐴 = 𝑒 𝐶 .
 In differential equations, ensure you separate the RHS into
the form 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑦) first so that you are able to divide by
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1
𝑔(𝑦), e.g. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 → 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥(1 + 𝑦) → 1+𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 In differential equations, if you’re given initial conditions
(note, often 𝑡 = 0 is often implied for the initial condition),
then it’s generally easier to plug them in to work out your
constant of integration.
 Integration Cheat Sheet
𝒇(𝒙) How to deal with it ∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 (+constant) FormBk? 𝒇(𝒙) How to deal with it ∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 (+constant) FormBk?
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 Standard result − cos 𝑥 No 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙 For any product of sin and cos 1 No
− cos 4𝑥
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 Standard result sin 𝑥 No with same coefficient of 𝑥, use 8
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 In formula booklet, but use ln|sec 𝑥| Yes double angle.
sin 𝑥 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 which is of the form sin 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 ≡ sin 4𝑥
2
cos 𝑥
𝑘𝑓 ′(𝑥) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 Of form 𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑒 sin 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) 𝒙 Use algebraic division. 𝑥 − ln|𝑥 + 1|
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙 For both sin2 𝑥 and cos 2 𝑥 use 1 1 No 𝑥 1
𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 𝒙+𝟏 ≡1−
identities for cos 2𝑥 2 4 𝑥+1 𝑥+1
cos 2𝑥 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝑥 𝟏 Use partial fractions. ln|𝑥| − ln|𝑥 + 1|
1 1 𝒙(𝒙 + 𝟏)
sin2 𝑥 = − cos 2𝑥
2 2 𝟒𝒙 Reverse chain rule. Of form 2 ln|𝑥 2 + 1|
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙 cos 2𝑥 = 2 cos 2 𝑥 − 1 1 1 No 𝟐
𝒙 +𝟏 𝑘𝑓 ′(𝑥)
1 1 𝑥 + sin 2𝑥 ∫
2 4 𝑓(𝑥)
cos 2 𝑥 = + cos 2𝑥 𝒙 Power around denominator so 1
2 2 − (𝑥 2 + 1)−1
𝑘𝑓′ (𝑥)
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝒙 1 + tan2 𝑥 ≡ sec 2 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − 𝑥 No (𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐
𝟐
NOT of form ∫ . Rewrite as 2
𝑓(𝑥)
tan2 𝑥 ≡ sec 2 𝑥 − 1 product.
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 Would use substitution 𝑢 = −ln|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + cot 𝑥| Yes 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)−2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + cot 𝑥, but too hard Reverse chain rule (i.e. “Consider
for exam. 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 1)−1 " and differentiate.
𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 Would use substitution 𝑢 = ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| Yes 𝟖𝒙𝟐 Fraction top heavy so do algebraic 1
2𝑥 + ln|1 − 2𝑥|
sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥, but too hard for division first. Then split into 2
𝟒𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏 1
algebraic fractions as − ln |2𝑥 + 1|
exam.
cos 𝑥 4𝑥 2 − 1 = (2𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 1) 2
𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒙 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 which is of the form ln|𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥| Yes 𝟐𝒙+𝟏 1 2𝑥+1
sin 𝑥 𝒆 For any function where ‘inner 𝑒
𝑓 ′(𝑥)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝟏 function’ is linear expression, 2
𝑓(𝑥) 1
𝟏 − 𝟑𝒙 divide by coefficient of 𝑥 − ln|1 − 3𝑥|
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙 By observation. − cot 𝑥 No! 3
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙 By observation. tan 𝑥 Yes (but 𝒙√𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 Use sensible substitution. 𝑢 = 1 3
(2𝑥 + 1)2 (3𝑥 − 1)
memorise) 2𝑥 + 1 or even better, 𝑢2 = 15
𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟐 𝒙 1 + cot 2 𝑥 ≡ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − cot 𝑥 − 𝑥 No 2𝑥 + 1.
𝒆𝒙 Standard result 𝑒𝑥 No 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟓 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 Reverse chain rule. 1 6
sin 𝑥
𝒂𝒙 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 → ln 𝑦 = 𝑥 ln 𝑎 1 No 6
𝑎𝑥 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙 Use identities in C3 formula 1 Sort of
Then differentiate implicitly. ln(𝑎) − cos 5𝑥
𝟏 Standard result ln 𝑥 No booklet, 10
1
sin 3𝑥 cos 2𝑥 = (sin 5𝑥 + cos 3𝑥) 1
𝒙 2 + sin 3𝑥
𝐥𝐧 𝒙 𝑑𝑣
Use IBP, where 𝑢 = ln 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥 = 1 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 No Note: has never come up in an exam. 6